C C For Beginners Crash Course Master C

Programming Fast And Easy Today Computer

Programming Programming For Beginners Book 2 Raj
Ali Prx Publishings download
https://ebookbell.com/product/c-c-for-beginners-crash-course-
master-c-programming-fast-and-easy-today-computer-programming-
programming-for-beginners-book-2-raj-ali-prx-publishings-36338794

Explore and download more ebooks at ebookbell.com

Here are some recommended products that we believe you will be
interested in. You can click the link to download.

C For Beginners Crash Course Master C Programming Fast And Easy Today
1st Edition Raj Ali

https://ebookbell.com/product/c-for-beginners-crash-course-master-c-
programming-fast-and-easy-today-1st-edition-raj-ali-6769226

C Programming For Beginners The Complete Crash Course To Mastering C

On Your Own 1st Megane Noel

https://ebookbell.com/product/c-programming-for-beginners-the-
complete-crash-course-to-mastering-c-on-your-own-1st-megane-
noel-47525570

Learn C For Beginners By Ahmad Ibrahim 1st Edition Ahmad Ibrahim

https://ebookbell.com/product/learn-c-for-beginners-by-ahmad-
ibrahim-1st-edition-ahmad-ibrahim-38180618

Python C For Beginners Black Dog Media

https://ebookbell.com/product/python-c-for-beginners-black-dog-
media-33573218
Modern C For Absolute Beginners A Friendly Introduction To The C
Programming Language And C11 To C23 Standards 2nd Edition 2nd Edition
Slobodan Dmitrovi

https://ebookbell.com/product/modern-c-for-absolute-beginners-a-
friendly-introduction-to-the-c-programming-language-
and-c11-to-c23-standards-2nd-edition-2nd-edition-slobodan-
dmitrovi-48278302

Modern C For Absolute Beginners A Friendly Introduction To C

Programming Language And C11 To C20 Standards 1st Edition Slobodan
Dmitrovi

https://ebookbell.com/product/modern-c-for-absolute-beginners-a-
friendly-introduction-to-c-programming-language-
and-c11-to-c20-standards-1st-edition-slobodan-dmitrovi-50195194

Modern C For Absolute Beginners A Friendly Introduction To C

Programming Language And C11 To C20 Standards 1st Edition Slobodan
Dmitrovi

https://ebookbell.com/product/modern-c-for-absolute-beginners-a-
friendly-introduction-to-c-programming-language-
and-c11-to-c20-standards-1st-edition-slobodan-dmitrovi-11279558

C For Beginners The Tactical Guidebook Learn Csharp By Coding Jonas

Fagerberg

https://ebookbell.com/product/c-for-beginners-the-tactical-guidebook-
learn-csharp-by-coding-jonas-fagerberg-11124210

C For Beginners Masters Asthana A Asthana R G S

https://ebookbell.com/product/c-for-beginners-masters-asthana-a-
asthana-r-g-s-1407664
 C#
FOR BEGINNERS
CRASH COURSE

Master C# Programming
Fast and Easy Today

By

RAJ ALI
© Copyright 2014 - All rights reserved.
In no way is it legal to reproduce, duplicate, or transmit any part of this document in
either electronic means or in printed format. Recording of this publication is strictly
prohibited and any storage of this document is not allowed unless with written
permission from the publisher. All rights reserved.

The information provided herein is stated to be truthful and consistent, in that any
liability, in terms of inattention or otherwise, by any usage or abuse of any policies,
processes, or directions contained within is the solitary and utter responsibility of the
recipient reader. Under no circumstances will any legal responsibility or blame be
held against the publisher for any reparation, damages, or monetary loss due to the
information herein, either directly or indirectly.
Respective authors own all copyrights not held by the publisher.

Legal Notice:
This book is copyright protected. This is only for personal use. You cannot amend,
distribute, sell, use, quote or paraphrase any part or the content within this book
without the consent of the author or copyright owner. Legal action will be pursued if
this is breached.

Disclaimer Notice:
Please note the information contained within this document is for educational and
entertainment purposes only. Every attempt has been made to provide accurate, up to
date and reliable complete information. No warranties of any kind are expressed or
implied. Readers acknowledge that the author is not engaging in the rendering of
legal, financial, medical or professional advice.

By reading this document, the reader agrees that under no circumstances are we
responsible for any losses, direct or indirect, which are incurred as a result of the use
of information contained within this document, including, but not limited to, —errors,
omissions, or inaccuracies.
Table of Contents
Chapter 1 Introduction to C#
1.1 Overview of C#
1.2 Programming features of C#
1.3 C# Environment
Components of .NET framework
Chapter 2 Program Structure in C#
2.1 Introduction to C# Program structure
Namespace declaration
Class
Class Methods
Comments
2.2 User Interface elements
Start Page
Standard Toolbar
Solution Explorer
Output window
Error List
Class View Window
Code Editor
2.3 Compiling and executing C# program
Chapter 3 Syntax, Data Types, and conversion
3.1 Different keywords in C#
1) Keywords for class, method, field and property
2) Keywords for type conversions
3) Keywords useful for program flow control
4) Keywords used for built in types and enumerations
5) Keywords used for exception handling
 6) Keywords used as literals, method passing parameters
7) Keywords useful in function pointers, object allocation,
unmanaged code
3.2 Data Types in C#
3.3 Type conversion in C#
Implicit type conversion
Explicit type conversion
Chapter 4 Variables and Constants
4.1 Exploring variables in C#
4.2 Constants and literals in C#
Chapter 5 Operators in C#
5.1 Introduction to operators
5.2 Arithmetic operators
5.3 Relational operators
5.4 Logical operators
5.5 Bitwise operators
5.6 Assignment operators
5.7 Miscellaneous operators
Chapter 6 C# Decision making statements
6.1 If Statement
6.2 If else statement
6.3 Nested if statement
6.4 Switch statement
6.5 Nested switch statement
Chapter 7 Loops in C#
7.1 While loop
7.2 For loop
7.3 Do while loop
7.4 Break statement
7.5 Continue statement
Chapter 8 Classes and Methods in C#
8.1 Class declaration
C# constructors
C# destructors
8.2 Defining methods
8.3 Calling methods
8.5 Recursive method call
8.4 Passing parameters to method
Chapter 9 Arrays in C#
9.1 Introduction to arrays
9.2 Arrays declaration
9.3 Initializing and adding values
9.4 Accessing array elements
9.5 Foreach loop
9.6 Different C# arrays
Chapter 10 Strings in C#
10.1 Creation of string
10.2 Properties and methods of string class
10.3 Examples demonstrating the string functionality
Chapter 11 Encapsulation and Polymorphism
11.1 Introduction to encapsulation
11.2 Access specifier in C#
11.3 Polymorphism
11.4 Static Polymorphism
11.5 Dynamic Polymorphism
Chapter 12 Inheritance and Interfaces
12.1 Introduction to Inheritance
12.2 Base and derived classes
12.3 Base class initialization
12.4 Interfaces in C#
 12.5 Multiple inheritance in C#
Chapter 13 Operator overloading and exception handling
13.1 Introduction to Operator Overloading
13.2 Different operators in overloading
13.3 Introduction to exception handling
13.4 Exception classes in C#
13.5 Exception handling
13.6 User defined exceptions
Chapter 14 Multithreading
14.1 Thread in C#
14.2 Life cycle of a thread
14.3 Main thread
14.4 Properties and methods of the Thread class
14.5 Creating and managing threads
14.6 Destroying threads
Reference links on C#
Conclusion
Chapter 1 Introduction to C#
1.1 Overview of C#
C# is an object oriented, type safe high level programming language. It has been
developed by Microsoft during the development of the .NET framework. C# was
developed for the Common Language Infrastructure (CLI), this infrastructure was
created to allow programs from various other high level languages to work together
without the need to rewrite those programs entirely. The CLI contains a various
executable programs referred simply as executables and are housed and ran in a
system called the runtime environment.

All the programs created in .Net framework execute in an environment that handles
the runtime requirements. The Common Language Runtime (CLR) provides the
virtual machine, which helps the programmers not to consider the CPU specifications.
The class library and CLR make the .NET framework.
1.2 Programming features of C#

It is simple, advanced, object oriented language

It contains data types and classes common for all the .NET languages
The Common Language Runtime (CLR) is similar to the Java Virtual Machine
(JVM)
C# provides support for encapsulation, inheritance, polymorphism, and
interfaces
Visual Studio provides support to VC++, Visual Basic, Vbscript, and Jscript
.NET consists of class library and common execution engine
Garbage collection, automatic memory management, interoperability are
inbuilt in C#
User can develop console, windows and web applications using C#
1.3 C# Environment
C# is a part of .NET framework. It is used for creating .NET applications. Using
.NET framework, user can design, deploy and develop the applications. Robust
applications can be easily built using the simple programming model.

Components of .NET framework

The .NET framework diagram containing several components is as shown:

The .NET framework consists of the following components:

Common Language Runtime

.NET framework base class library
Common Language Specification
User and Program interfaces

Common Language Runtime (CLR)

The core component of the .NET framework is the CLR. It is an environment where
the programs are executed. The code in CLR is translated into Intermediate Language
(IL). This IL code is then used across different platforms.

The IL code is converted into machine language by the Just in Time (JIT) compiler.
The complier checks for the type safety. This ensures objects are accessed in a
compatible way.
.NET framework class library

The class library works with any .NET languages like VB.NET, VC# and
VC++.NET. The library provides classes used in the code for performing different
programming tasks like data collection, string management, file access and
connecting to the database.

Common Language Specification

CLR contains set of common rules used by all the programming languages in .NET
framework. They are known Common Language Specification (CLS). CLS helps an
object to interact with objects or applications of other languages.

User and Program Interfaces

.NET framework provides three different types of user interfaces:-

Windows Forms: They are windows based applications.

Web Forms: They are used for creating web based applications.
Console Applications: They are useful for creating console based
applications which are executed by the command line.
Chapter 2 Program Structure in C#
2.1 Introduction to C# Program structure
C# Program consists of various parts. We shall explore all the components needed for
a C# program.

Consider the code demonstrating the C# program.

Example 1:

using System;
namespace welcome
public class WelcomeUser
{
static void Main( string[] args)
{
Console.WriteLine("WelcomeUser");
Console.Read();
}
}

The code consists of several parts. They are as mentioned below:

Namespace declaration
The namespace consists of collection of classes used in programming. The using
keyword is used for adding the System namespace. The System class consists of
classes and methods useful for the user.

In the above code, namespace welcome is added.

Class
The class consists of data and method definitions used by the program. The class can
have one or many methods. Every class must have a Main method, which is the first
method run in the code. In the above code, WelcomeUser class is declared.
Class Methods
Methods in a class specify the behavior of the statement. In the above code,
WriteLine method is used for writing the value in the console. It is defined in the
Console class inside the System namespace.

The Read method of the Console class is used for waiting till the user hits a key.
Thus prevents the screen from closing too quickly.

Comments
Comments are text useful for providing additional information about the code. The
compiler ignores any code that is placed inside a comment block. There are two types
of comments; one comment is used for single line entries and the other for multi line
entries.

For example:
Example 2:

using System;
namespace comment
/*It is a simple code
Used for writing value to the console
*/
class Demo
{
static void Main()
{
//It is added inside Main method
Console.WriteLine("Demonstration of code");
}
}
2.2 User Interface elements
There are various user interface elements present in the Visual Studio application that
can be used in a project. We shall explore the user interface elements in detail.

Start Page
The Start Page is the initial page that gets displayed when the user opens the
Microsoft Visual Studio application.

The Visual Studio IDE provides the start page as the default home page. Through the
start page user can specify the preferences, developer communication using the .NET
platform, exploring new .NET features.

In Visual Studio .NET, the Projects tab displays the recent projects and the latest
modification date. User can use any of the existing projects from the list. Click on the
New Project button when you need to work for a new project. Click on the Open
project button when user wants to open the existing project.

Standard Toolbar
The standard toolbar is used to provide the shortcut menu commands. There are
several buttons on the toolbar that help user to perform tasks related to opening,
closing, saving, editing, pasting on the file.

There are functions related to the tools present in the standard toolbar. They are as
listed below.
New Project: A new project can be created in the application. The button
is used.
Add New Item: A new item is added to the project. The button is used
Save: All the programs created in a particular solution are saved. The
 button is used
Save All: It saves all the unsaved items in an application. The button is
used

Cut: The selected objects are placed on the clipboard using this option. The
icon is used
Copy: The copy of the selected item is kept on the clipboard. The icon is
used
Paste: It is used to paste the contents in the document. The icon is used
Debugging: The compilation and execution of the project is done. The
icon is used.

Solution Explorer
In the solution explorer window, classes, project and solution name used in the
project gets displayed. Double click the file in the solution explorer for opening the
file.

The following figure shows the solution explorer window in application.

Output window
The messages for the status of the features of Visual Studio .NET IDE are provided
by the output window. The current status of the application is displayed when the
user compiles it. The number of errors present during compilation is displayed in the
window. The View -> Output Window option is used to open the window.

The following figure shows the output window in Visual Studio application.
Another Random Scribd Document
with Unrelated Content
 LUCY, SIR THOMAS (1532-1600), the English Warwickshire
squire who is traditionally associated with the youth of William
Shakespeare, was born on the 24th of April 1532, the son of William
Lucy, and was descended, according to Dugdale, from Thurstane de
Cherlecote, whose son Walter received the village of Charlecote from
Henry de Montfort about 1190. Walter is said to have married into
the Anglo-Norman family of Lucy, and his son adopted the mother’s
surname. Three of Sir Thomas Lucy’s ancestors had been sheriffs of
Warwickshire and Leicestershire, and on his father’s death in 1552
he inherited Sherborne and Hampton Lucy in addition to Charlecote,
which was rebuilt for him by John of Padua, known as John Thorpe,
about 1558. By his marriage with Joyce Acton he inherited Sutton
Park in Worcestershire, and became in 1586 high sheriff of the
county. He was knighted in 1565. He is said to have been under the
tutorship of John Foxe, who is supposed to have imbued his pupil
with the Puritan principles which he displayed as knight of the shire
for Warwick in the parliament of 1571 and as sheriff of the county,
but as Mrs Carmichael Stopes points out Foxe only left Oxford in
1545, and in 1547 went up to London, so that the connexion must
have been short. He often appeared at Stratford-on-Avon as justice
of the peace and as commissioner of musters for the county. As
justice of the peace he showed great zeal against the Catholics, and
took his share in the arrest of Edward Arden in 1583. In 1585 he
introduced into parliament a bill for the better preservation of game
and grain, and his reputation as a preserver of game gives some
colour to the Shakespearian tradition connected with his name.
Nicholas Rowe, writing in 1710, told a story that Lucy prosecuted
Shakespeare for deer-stealing from Charlecote Park in 1585, and
that Shakespeare aggravated the offence by writing a ballad on his
prosecutor. The trouble arising from this incident is said to have
driven Shakespeare from Stratford to London. The tale was
corroborated by Archdeacon Davies of Sapperton, Gloucestershire,
who died in 1708. The story is not necessarily falsified by the fact
that there was no deer park at Charlecote at the time, since there
was a warren, and the term warren legally covers a preserve for
other animals than hares or rabbits, roe-deer among others.
Shakespeare is generally supposed to have caricatured the local
magnate of Stratford in his portrait of Justice Shallow, who made his
first appearance in the second part of Henry IV., and a second in the
Merry Wives of Windsor. Robert Shallow is a justice of the peace in
the county of Gloucester and his ancestors have the dozen white
luces in their coats, the arms of the Lucys being three luces, while in
Dugdale’s Warwickshire (ed. 1656) there is drawn a coat-of-arms in
which these are repeated in each of the four quarters, making
twelve in all. There are many considerations which make it unlikely
that Shallow represents Lucy, the chief being the noteworthy
difference in their circumstances. Lucy died at Charlecote on the 7th
of July 1600. His grandson, Sir Thomas Lucy (1585-1640), was a
friend of Lord Herbert of Cherbury, and was eulogized by John
Davies of Hereford in 1610. The Charlecote estates eventually
passed to the Rev. John Hammond through his marriage with Alice
Lucy, and in 1789 he adopted the name of Lucy.
 For a detailed account of Sir Thomas Lucy, with his son and
grandson of the same name, see Mrs C. Carmichael Stopes,
Shakespeare’s Warwickshire Contemporaries (2nd ed., 1907). Cf.
also an article by Mrs Stopes in the Fortnightly Review (Feb.
1903), entitled “Sir Thomas Lucy not the Original of Justice
Shallow,” and J. O. Halliwell-Phillipps, Observations on the
Charlecote Traditions (Brighton, 1887).

LUDDITES, the name given to organized bands of English

rioters for the destruction of machinery, who made their first
appearance in Nottingham and the neighbouring districts towards
the end of 1811. The origin of the name is given in Pellew’s Life of
Lord Sidmouth (iii. 80). In 1779 there lived in a village in
Leicestershire a person of weak intellect, called Ned Ludd, who was
the butt of the boys of the village. On one occasion Ludd pursued
one of his tormentors into a house where were two of the frames
used in stocking manufacture, and, not being able to catch the boy,
vented his anger on the frames. Afterwards, whenever any frames
were broken, it became a common saying that Ludd had done it.
The riots arose out of the severe distress caused by the war with
France. The leader of the riotous bands took the name of “General
Ludd.” The riots were specially directed against machinery because
of the widespread prejudice that its use produced a scarcity in the
demand for labour. Apart from this prejudice, it was inevitable that
the economic and social revolution implied in the change from
manual labour to work by machinery should give rise to great
misery. The riots began with the destruction of stocking and lace
frames, and, continuing through the winter and the following spring,
spread into Yorkshire, Lancashire, Derbyshire and Leicestershire.
They were met by severe repressive legislation, introduced by Lord
Liverpool’s government, a notable feature in the opposition to which
was Lord Byron’s speech in the House of Lords. In 1816 the rioting
was resumed, caused by the depression which followed the peace of
1815 and aggravated by one of the worst of recorded harvests. In
that year, although the centre of the rioting was again in
Nottingham, it extended over almost the whole kingdom. The rioters
were also thoroughly organized. While part of the band destroyed
the machinery, sentinels were posted to give warning of the
approach of the military. Vigorous repressive measures, and,
especially, reviving prosperity, brought the movement to an end.

See G. Pellew, Life and Correspondence of H. Addington, 1st

Viscount Sidmouth (London, 1847); Spencer Walpole, History of
England, vol. i. (London, 1890); and the Annual Register for
1811, 1812 and 1816.

LÜDENSCHEID, a town in the Prussian province of

Westphalia, 19 m. by rail S.S.E. of Hagen. Pop. (1905) 28,921. It is
the seat of various hardware manufactures, among them metal-
plated and tin-plated goods, buckles, fancy nails and brooches, and
has iron-foundries and machine shops. From the counts of Altena
Lüdenscheid passed to the counts of the Mark, with which district it
was ceded to Brandenburg early in the 17th century.

LUDHIANA, a town and district of British India, in the

Jullundur division of the Punjab. The town is 8 m. from the present
left bank of the Sutlej, 228 m. by rail N.W. of Delhi. Pop. (1901)
48,649. It is an important centre of trade in grain, and has
manufactures of shawls, &c., by Kashmiri weavers, and of scarves,
turbans, furniture and carriages. There is an American Presbyterian
mission, which maintains a medical school for Christian women,
founded in 1894.

The District of Ludhiana lies south of the river Sutlej, and north of
the native states of Patiala, Jind, Nabha and Maler Kotla. Area 1455
sq. m. The district consists for the most part of a broad plain,
without hills or rivers, stretching northward from the native borders
to the ancient bed of the Sutlej. The soil is a rich clay, broken by
large patches of shifting sand. On the eastern edge, towards
Umballa, the clay is covered by a bed of rich mould, suitable for the
cultivation of cotton and sugar-cane. Towards the west the sand
occurs in union with the superficial clay, and forms a light friable soil,
on which cereals form the most profitable crop. Even here, however,
the earth is so retentive of moisture that good harvests are reaped
from fields which appear mere stretches of dry and sandy waste.
These southern uplands descend to the valley of the Sutlej by an
abrupt terrace, which marks the former bed of the river. The
principal stream has shifted to the opposite side of the valley, leaving
an alluvial strip, 10 m. in width, between its ancient and its modern
bed. The Sutlej itself is here only navigable for boats of small
burden. A branch of the Sirhind canal irrigates a large part of the
western area. The population in 1901 was 673,097. The principal
crops are wheat, millets, pulse, maize and sugar-cane. The district is
crossed by the main line of the North-Western railway from Delhi to
Lahore, with two branches.

During the Mussulman epoch, the history of the district is bound

up with that of the Rais of Raikot, a family of converted Rajputs,
who received the country as a fief under the Sayyid dynasty, about
1445. The town of Ludhiana was founded in 1480 by two of the Lodi
race (then ruling at Delhi), from whom it derives its name, and was
built in great part from the prehistoric bricks of Sunet. The Lodis
continued in possession until 1620, when it again fell into the hands
of the Rais of Raikot. Throughout the palmy days of the Mogul
empire the Raikot family held sway, but the Sikhs took advantage of
the troubled period which accompanied the Mogul decadence to
establish their supremacy south of the Sutlej. Several of their
chieftains made encroachments on the domains of the Rais, who
were only able to hold their own by the aid of George Thomas, the
famous adventurer of Hariana. In 1806 Ranjit Singh crossed the
Sutlej and reduced the obstinate Mahommedan family, and
distributed their territory amongst his co-religionists. Since the
British occupation of the Punjab, Ludhiana has grown in wealth and
population.

See Ludhiana District Gazetteer (Lahore, 1907).

LUDINGTON, a city and the county-seat of Mason county,

Michigan, U.S.A., on Lake Michigan, at the mouth of the Marquette
river, about 85 m. N.W. of Grand Rapids. Pop. (1900) 7166 (2259
foreign-born); (1904, state census) 7259; (1910) 9132. It is served
by the Père Marquette, and the Ludington and Northern railways,
and by steamboat lines to Chicago, Milwaukee and other lake ports.
To Manitowoc, Milwaukee, Kewanee and Two Rivers, Wisconsin, on
the W. shore of Lake Michigan, cars, especially those of the Père
Marquette railway, are ferried from here. Ludington was formerly
well known as a lumber centre, but this industry has greatly
declined. There are various manufactures, and the city has a large
grain trade. On the site of the city Père Marquette died and was
buried, but his body was removed within a year to Point St Ignace.
Ludington was settled about 1859, and was chartered as a city in
1873. It was originally named Père Marquette, but was renamed in
1871 in honour of James Ludington, a local lumberman.
 LUDLOW, EDMUND (c. 1617-1692), English
parliamentarian, son of Sir Henry Ludlow of Maiden Bradley,
Wiltshire, whose family had been established in that county since the
15th century, was born in 1617 or 1618. He went to Trinity College,
Oxford, and was admitted to the Inner Temple in 1638. When the
Great Rebellion broke out, he engaged as a volunteer in the life
guard of Lord Essex. His first essay in arms was at Worcester, his
next at Edgehill. He was made governor of Wardour Castle in 1643,
but had to surrender after a tenacious defence on the 18th of March
1644. On being exchanged soon afterwards, he engaged as major of
Sir A. Hesilrige’s regiment of horse. He was present at the second
battle of Newbury, October 1644, at the siege of Basing House in
November, and took part in an expedition to relieve Taunton in
December. In January his regiment was surprised by Sir M.
Langdale, Ludlow himself escaping with difficulty. In 1646 he was
elected M.P. for Wilts in the room of his father and attached himself
to the republican party. He opposed the negotiations with the king,
and was one of the chief promoters of Pride’s Purge in 1648. He was
one of the king’s judges, and signed the warrant for his execution. In
February he was elected a member of the council of state. In
January 1651 Ludlow was sent into Ireland as lieutenant-general of
horse, holding also a civil commission. Here he spared neither health
nor money in the public service. Ireton, the deputy of Ireland, died
on the 26th of November 1651; Ludlow then held the chief
command, and had practically completed the conquest of the island
when he resigned his authority to Fleetwood in October 1652.
Though disapproving Cromwell’s action in dissolving the Long
Parliament, he maintained his employment, but when Cromwell was
declared Protector he declined to acknowledge his authority. On
returning to England in October 1655 he was arrested, and on
refusing to submit to the government was allowed to retire to Essex.
After Oliver Cromwell’s death Ludlow was returned for Hindon in
Richard’s parliament of 1659, but opposed the continuance of the
protectorate. He sat in the restored Rump, and was a member of its
council of state and of the committee of safety after its second
expulsion, and a commissioner for the nomination of officers in the
army. In July he was sent to Ireland as commander-in-chief.
Returning in October 1659, he endeavoured to support the failing
republican cause by reconciling the army to the parliament. In
December he returned hastily to Ireland to suppress a movement in
favour of the Long Parliament, but on arrival found himself almost
without supporters. He came back to England in January 1660, and
was met by an impeachment presented against him to the restored
parliament. His influence and authority had now disappeared, and all
chance of regaining them vanished with Lambert’s failure. He took
his seat in the Convention parliament as member for Hindon, but his
election was annulled on the 18th of May. Ludlow was not excepted
from the Act of Indemnity, but was included among the fifty-two for
whom punishment less than capital was reserved. Accordingly, on
the proclamation of the king ordering the regicides to come in,
Ludlow emerged from his concealment, and on the 20th of June
surrendered to the Speaker; but finding that his life was not assured,
he succeeded in escaping to Dieppe, travelled to Geneva and
Lausanne, and thence to Vevey, then under the protection of the
canton of Bern. There he remained, and in spite of plots to
assassinate him he was unmolested by the government of that
canton, which had also extended its protection to other regicides. He
steadily refused during thirty years of exile to have anything to do
with the desperate enterprises of republican plotters. But in 1689 he
returned to England, hoping to be employed in Irish affairs. He was
however remembered only as a regicide, and an address from the
House of Commons was presented to William III. by Sir Edward
Seymour, requesting the king to issue a proclamation for his arrest.
Ludlow escaped again, and returned to Vevey, where he died in
1692. A monument raised to his memory by his widow is in the
church of St Martin. Over the door of the house in which he lived
was placed the inscription “Omne solum forti patria, quia Patris.”
Ludlow married Elizabeth, daughter of William Thomas, of Wenvoe,
Glamorganshire, but left no issue.

His Memoirs, extending to the year 1672, were published in

1698-1699 at Vevey and have been often reprinted; a new
edition, with notes and illustrative material and introductory
memoir, was issued by C. H. Firth in 1894. They are strongly
partisan, but the picture of the times is lifelike and realistic.
Ludlow also published “a letter from Sir Hardress Waller ... to
Lieutenant-General Ludlow with his answer” (1660), in defence
of his conduct in Ireland. See C. H. Firth’s article in Dict. Nat.
Biog.; Guizot’s Monk’s Contemporaries; A. Stein’s Briefe
Englischer Flüchtlinge in der Schweiz.
 LUDLOW, a market town and municipal borough in the Ludlow
parliamentary division of Shropshire, England, on the Hereford-
Shrewsbury joint line of the Great Western and London & North
Western railways, 162 m. W.N.W. from London. Pop. (1901) 4552. It
is beautifully situated at the junction of the rivers Teme and Corve,
upon and about a wooded eminence crowned by a massive ruined
castle. Parts of this castle date from the 11th century, but there are
many additions such as the late Norman circular chapel, the
Decorated state rooms, and details in Perpendicular and Tudor
styles. The parish church of St Lawrence is a cruciform Perpendicular
building, with a lofty central tower, and a noteworthy east window,
its 15th-century glass showing the martyrdom of St Lawrence. There
are many fine half-timbered houses of the 17th century, and one of
seven old town-gates remains. The grammar school, founded in the
reign of John, was incorporated by Edward I. The principal public
buildings are the guildhall, town-hall and market-house, and public
rooms, which include a museum of natural history. Tanning and
flour-milling are carried on. The town is governed by a mayor, 4
aldermen and 12 councillors. Area 416 acres.

The country neighbouring Ludlow is richly wooded and hilly, while

the scenery of the Teme is exquisite. Westward, Vinnal Hill reaches
1235 ft., eastward lies Titterstone Clee (1749 ft.). Richard’s Castle, 3
m. S. on the borders of Herefordshire, dates from the reign of
Edward the Confessor, but little more than its great artificial mound
remains. At Bromfield, 3 m. above Ludlow on the Teme, the church
and some remains of domestic buildings belonged to a Benedictine
monastery of the 12th century.

Ludlow is supposed to have existed under the name of Dinan in

the time of the Britons. Eyton in his history of Shropshire identifies it
with one of the “Ludes” mentioned in the Domesday Survey, which
was held by Roger de Lacy of Osbern FitzRichard and supposes that
Roger built the castle soon after 1086, while a chronicle of the
FitzWarren family attributes the castle to Roger earl of Shrewsbury.
The manor afterwards belonged to the Lacys, and in the beginning
of the 14th century passed by marriage to Roger de Mortimer and
through him to Edward IV. Ludlow was a borough by prescription in
the 13th century, but the burgesses owe most of their privileges to
their allegiance to the house of York. Richard, duke of York, in 1450
confirmed their government by 12 burgesses and 24 assistants, and
Edward IV. on his accession incorporated them under the title of
bailiffs and burgesses, granted them the town at a fee-farm of £24,
3s. 4d., a merchant gild and freedom from toll. Several confirmations
of this charter were granted; the last, dated 1665, continued in force
(with a short interval in the reign of James II.) until the Municipal
Corporations Act of 1835. By the charter of Edward IV. Ludlow
returned 2 members to parliament, but in 1867 the number was
reduced to one, and in 1885 the town was disfranchised. The market
rights are claimed by the corporation under the charters of Edward
IV. (1461) and Edward VI. (1552). The court of the Marches was
established at Ludlow in the reign of Henry VII., and continued to be
held here until it was abolished in the reign of William III. Ludlow
castle was granted by Edward IV. to his two sons, and by Henry VII.
to Prince Arthur, who died here in 1502. In 1634 Milton’s Comus was
performed in the castle under its original style of “A Masque
presented at Ludlow Castle,” before the earl of Bridgewater, Lord
President of Wales. The castle was garrisoned in 1642 by Prince
Rupert, who went there after the battle of Naseby, but in 1646 it
surrendered to Parliament and was afterwards dismantled.

See Victoria County History, Shropshire; Thomas Wright, The

History of Ludlow and its Neighbourhood (1826).

LUDLOW GROUP, or Ludlovian, in geology, the uppermost

subdivision of the Silurian rocks in Great Britain. This group contains
the following formations in descending order:—Tilestones, Downton
Castle sandstones (90 ft.), Ledbury shales (270 ft.), Upper Ludlow
rocks (140 ft.), Aymestry limestone (up to 40 ft.), Lower Ludlow
rocks (350 to 780 ft.). The Ludlow group is essentially shaly in
character, except towards the top, where the beds become more
sandy and pass gradually into the base of the Old Red Sandstone.
The Aymestry limestone, which is irregular in thickness, is
sometimes absent, and where the underlying Wenlock limestones
are absent the shales of the Ludlow group graduate downwards into
the Wenlock shales. The group is typically developed between
Ludlow and Aymestry, and it occurs also in the detached Silurian
areas between Dudley and the mouth of the Severn.
 The Lower Ludlow rocks are mainly grey, greenish and brown
mudstones and sandy and calcareous shales. They contain an
abundance of fossils. The series has been zoned by means of
the graptolites by E. M. R. Wood; the following in ascending
order, are the zonal forms: Monograptus vulgaris, M. Nilssoni, M.
scanicus, M. tumescens and M. leintwardinensis. Cyathaspis
ludensis, the earliest British vertebrate fossil, was found in these
rocks at Leintwardine in Shropshire, a noted fossil locality.
Trilobites are numerous (Phacops caudatus, Lichas anglicus,
Homolonotus delphinocephalus, Calymene Blumenbachii);
brachiopods (Leptaena rhomboidalis, Rhynchonella Wilsoni,
Atrypa reticularis), pelecypods (Cardiola interrupta, Ctenodonta
sulcata) and gasteropods and cephalopods (many species of
Orthoceras and also Gomphoceras, Trochoceras) are well
represented. Other fossils are Ceratiocaris, Pterygotus, Protaster,
Palaeocoma and Palaeodiscus.

The Upper Ludlow rocks are mainly soft mudstones and shales
with some harder sandy beds capable of being worked as
building-stones. These sandy beds are often found covered with
ripple-marks and annelid tracks; one of the uppermost sandy
layers is known as the “Fucoid bed” from the abundance of the
seaweed-like impressions it bears. At the top of this sub-group,
near Ludlow, a brown layer occurs, from a quarter of an inch to
4 in. in thickness, full of the fragmentary remains of fish
associated with those of Pterygotus and mollusca. This layer,
known as the “Ludlow Bone bed,” has been traced over a very
large area (see Bone Bed). The common fossils include plants
(Actinophyllum, Chondrites), ostracods, phyllocarids,
eurypterids, trilobites (less common than in the older groups),
numerous brachiopods (Lingula minima, Chonetes striatella),
gasteropods, pelecypods and cephalopods (Orthoceras
bullatum). Fish include Cephalaspis, Cyathaspis, Auchenaspis.
The Tilestones, Downton Castle Sandstone and Ledbury shales
are occasionally grouped together under the term Downtonian.
They are in reality passage beds between the Silurian and Old
Red Sandstone, and were originally placed in the latter system
by Sir R. I. Murchison. They are mostly grey, yellow or red
micaceous, shaly sandstones. Lingula cornea, Platyschisma
helicites and numerous phyllocarids and ostracods occur among
the fossils.

In Denbighshire and Merionethshire the upper portion of the

Denbighshire Grits belongs to this horizon: viz. those from below
upwards, the Nantglyn Flags, the Upper Grit beds, the
Monograptus leintwardinensis beds and the Dinas Bran beds. In
the Silurian area of the Lake district the Coldwell beds, forming
the upper part of the Coniston Flags, are the equivalents of the
Lower Ludlow; they are succeeded by the Coniston Grits (4000
ft.), the Bannisdale Slates (5200 ft.) and the Kirkby Moor Flags
(2000 ft.).

In the Silurian areas of southern Scotland, the Ludlow rocks

are represented in the Kirkcudbright Shore and Riccarton district
by the Raeberry Castle beds and Balmae Grits (500-750 ft.). In
the northern belt—Lanarkshire and the Pentland Hills—the lower
portion (or Ludlovian) consists of mudstones, flaggy shales and
greywackes; but the upper (or Downtonian) part is made up
principally of thick red and yellow sandstones and conglomerates
with green mudstones. The Ludlow rocks of Ireland include the
“Salrock beds” of County Galway and the “Croagmarhin beds” of
Dingle promontory.
 See Silurian, and, for recent papers, the Q. J. Geol. Soc.
(London) and Geological Literature (Geol. Soc., London) annual.

LUDOLF (or Leutholf), HIOB (1624-1704), German orientalist,

was born at Erfurt on the 15th of June 1624. After studying philology
at the Erfurt academy and at Leiden, he travelled in order to
increase his linguistic knowledge. While in Italy he became
acquainted with one Gregorius, an Abyssinian scholar, and acquired
from him an intimate knowledge of the Ethiopian language. In 1652
he entered the service of the duke of Saxe-Gotha, in which he
continued until 1678, when he retired to Frankfort-on-Main. In 1683
he visited England to promote a cherished scheme for establishing
trade with Abyssinia, but his efforts were unsuccessful, chiefly
through the bigotry of the authorities of the Abyssinian Church.
Returning to Frankfort in 1684, he gave himself wholly to literary
work, which he continued almost to his death on the 8th of April
1704. In 1690 he was appointed president of the collegium imperiale
historicum.

The works of Ludolf, who is said to have been acquainted with

twenty-five languages, include Sciagraphia historiae aethiopicae
(Jena, 1676); and the Historia aethiopica (Frankfort, 1681),
which has been translated into English, French and Dutch, and
which was supplemented by a Commentarius (1691) and by
Appendices (1693-1694). Among his other works are:
 Grammatica linguae amharicae (Frankfort, 1698); Lexicon
amharico-latinum (Frankfort, 1698); Lexicon aethiopico-latinum
(Frankfort, 1699); and Grammatica aethiopica (London, 1661,
and Frankfort, 1702). In his Grammatik der äthiopischen
Sprache (1857) August Dillmann throws doubt on the story of
Ludolf’s intimacy with Gregorius.

See C. Juncker, Commentarius de vita et scriptis Jobi Ludolfi

(Frankfort, 1710); L. Diestel, Geschichte des alten Testaments in
der christlichen Kirche (Jena, 1868); and J. Flemming, “Hiob
Ludolf,” in the Beiträge zur Assyriologie (Leipzig, 1890-1891).

LUDWIG, KARL FRIEDRICH WILHELM (1816-1895),

German physiologist, was born at Witzenhausen, near Cassel, on the
29th of December 1816. He studied medicine at Erlangen and
Marburg, taking his doctor’s degree at Marburg in 1839. He made
Marburg his home for the next ten years, studying and teaching
anatomy and physiology, first as prosector to F. L. Fick (1841), then
as privat-docent (1842), and finally as extraordinary professor
(1846). In 1849 he was chosen professor of anatomy and physiology
at Zürich, and six years afterwards he went to Vienna as professor in
the Josephinum (school for military surgeons). In 1865 he was
appointed to the newly created chair of physiology at Leipzig, and
continued there until his death on the 23rd of April 1895. Ludwig’s
name is prominent in the history of physiology, and he had a large
share in bringing about the change in the method of that science
which took place about the middle of the 19th century. With his
friends H. von Helmholtz, E. W. Brücke and E. Du Bois-Reymond,
whom he met for the first time in Berlin in 1847, he rejected the
assumption that the phenomena of living animals depend on special
biological laws and vital forces different from those which operate in
the domain of inorganic nature; and he sought to explain them by
reference to the same laws as are applicable in the case of physical
and chemical phenomena. This point of view was expressed in his
celebrated Text-book of Human Physiology (1852-1856), but it is as
evident in his earliest paper (1842) on the process of urinary
secretion as in all his subsequent work. Ludwig exercised enormous
influence on the progress of physiology, not only by the discoveries
he made, but also by the new methods and apparatus he introduced
to its service. Thus in regard to secretion, he showed that secretory
glands, such as the submaxillary, are more than mere filters, and
that their secretory action is attended by chemical and thermal
changes both in themselves and in the blood passing through them.
He demonstrated the existence of a new class of secretory nerves
that control this action, and by showing that if the nerves are
appropriately stimulated the salivary glands continue to secrete,
even though the animal be decapitated, he initiated the method of
experimenting with excised organs. He devised the kymograph as a
means of obtaining a written record of the variations in the pressure
of the blood in the blood-vessels; and this apparatus not only
conducted him to many important conclusions respecting the
mechanics of the circulation, but afforded the first instance of the
use of the graphic method in physiological inquiries. For the purpose
of his researches on the gases in the blood, he designed the
mercurial blood-pump which in various modifications has come into
extensive use, and by its aid he made many investigations on the
gases of the lymph, the gaseous interchanges in living muscle, the
significance of oxidized material in the blood, &c. There is indeed
scarcely any branch of physiology, except the physiology of the
senses, to which he did not make important contributions. He was
also a great power as a teacher and the founder of a school. Under
him the Physiological Institute at Leipzig became an organized
centre of physiological research, whence issued a steady stream of
original work; and though the papers containing the results usually
bore the name of his pupils only, every investigation was inspired by
him and carried out under his personal direction. Thus his pupils
gained a practical acquaintance with his methods and ways of
thought, and, coming from all parts of Europe, they returned to their
own countries to spread and extend his doctrines. Possessed himself
of extraordinary manipulative skill, he abhorred rough and clumsy
work, and he insisted that experiments on animals should be
planned and prepared with the utmost care, not only to avoid the
infliction of pain (which was also guarded against by the use of an
anaesthetic), but to ensure that the deductions drawn from them
should have their full scientific value.

LUDWIG, OTTO (1813-1865), German dramatist, novelist

and critic, was born at Eisfeld in Thuringia, on the 11th of February
1813. His father, who was syndic of Eisfeld, died when the boy was
twelve years old, and he was brought up amidst uncongenial
conditions. He had devoted his leisure to poetry and music, which
unfitted him for the mercantile career planned for him. The attention
of the duke of Meiningen was directed to one of his musical
compositions, an opera, Die Köhlerin, and Ludwig was enabled in
1839 to continue his musical studies under Mendelssohn in Leipzig.
But ill-health and constitutional shyness caused him to give up a
musical career, and he turned exclusively to literary studies, and
wrote several stories and dramas. Of the latter, Der Erbförster
(1850) attracted immediate attention as a masterly psychological
study. It was followed by Die Makkabäer (1852), in which the
realistic method of Der Erbförster was transferred to an historical
milieu, which allowed more brilliant colouring and a freer play of the
imagination. With these tragedies, to which may be added Die
Rechte des Herzens and Das Fräulein von Scuderi, the comedy Hans
Frey, and an unfinished tragedy on the subject of Agnes Bernauer,
Ludwig ranks immediately after Hebbel as Germany’s most notable
dramatic poet at the middle of the 19th century. Meanwhile he had
married and settled permanently in Dresden, where he turned his
attention to fiction. He published a series of admirable stories of
Thuringian life, characterized by the same attention to minute detail
and careful psychological analysis as his dramas. The best of these
are Die Heiteretei und ihr Widerspiel (1851), and Ludwig’s
masterpiece, the powerful novel, Zwischen Himmel und Erde (1855).
In his Shakespeare-Studien (not published until 1891) Ludwig
showed himself a discriminating critic, with a fine insight into the
hidden springs of the creative imagination. So great, however, was
his enthusiasm for Shakespeare, that he was led to depreciate
Schiller in a way which found little favour among his countrymen. He
died at Dresden on the 25th of February 1865.
 Ludwig’s Gesammelte Schriften were published by A. Stern
and E. Schmidt in 6 vols. (1891-1892); also by A. Bartels (6
vols., 1900). See A. Stern, Otto Ludwig, ein Dichterleben (1891;
2nd ed., 1906), and A. Sauer, Otto Ludwig (1893).

LUDWIGSBURG, a town in the kingdom of Württemberg, 9

m. to the N. of Stuttgart by rail and 1½ m. from the river Neckar.
Pop. (1905) 23,093. It was founded and laid out at the beginning of
the 18th century by the duke of Württemberg, Eberhard Louis, and
was enlarged and improved by Duke Charles Eugène. Constructed as
the adjunct of a palace the town bears the impress of its origin, with
its straight streets and spacious squares. It is now mainly important
as the chief military depot in Württemberg. The royal palace, one of
the finest in Germany, stands in a beautiful park and contains a
portrait gallery and the burial vault of the rulers of Württemberg.
The industries include the manufacture of organs and pianos, of
cotton, woollen and linen goods, of chemicals, iron and wire goods,
and brewing and brick-making. In the vicinity is the beautiful royal
residence of Monrepos, which is connected with the park of
Ludwigsburg by a fine avenue of lime trees. From 1758 to 1824 the
town was famous for the production of a special kind of porcelain.

See Belschner, Ludwigsburg in zwei Jahrhunderten

(Ludwigsburg, 1904).
 LUDWIGSHAFEN, a town of Germany, in the Bavarian
Palatinate, on the left bank of the Rhine, immediately opposite to
Mannheim, with which it is connected by a steam ferry and a railway
bridge. Pop. (1885) 21,042, (1900) 61,905, (1905) 72,168. It has an
increasing trade in iron, timber, coal and agricultural products, a
trade which is fostered by a harbour opened in 1897; and also large
factories for making aniline dyes and soda. Other industries are the
manufacture of cellulose, artificial manure, flour and malt; and there
are saw-mills, iron foundries and breweries in the town. The place,
which was founded in 1843 by Louis I., king of Bavaria, was only
made a town in 1859.

See J. Esselborn, Geschichte der Stadt Ludwigshafen

(Ludwigshafen, 1888).

LUDWIGSLUST, a town of Germany, in the grand-duchy of

Mecklenburg-Schwerin, 22 m. by rail S. by E. of Schwerin. Pop.
(1905) 6728. The castle was built by the duke of Mecklenburg-
Schwerin, Frederick II., in 1772-1776. There is also another ducal
residence, a fine park and a monument of the grand duke, Frederick
Francis I. (d. 1837). The town has a church constructed on the
model of a Greek temple. It has manufactures of chemicals and
other small industries. Ludwigslust was founded by the duke
Frederick, being named after this duke’s father, Christian Louis II. It
became a town in 1876.

LUG, a verb meaning to pull a heavy object, to drag, now mainly

used colloquially. It is probably Scandinavian in origin; the Swedish
lugg, forelock, lock of hair, gives lugga, to pull, tug; and “lug” in
some north-eastern English dialects is still chiefly used in the sense
of pulling a person’s hair. “Luggage,” passengers’ baggage, means by
origin that which has to be “lugged” about. The Scandinavian word
may be also the source of “lug,” in the sense of “ear,” in Scotland the
regular dialectical word, and in English commonly applied to the ear-
shaped handles of metal or earthenware pots, pitchers, &c. If so the
word means something that can be pulled or tugged. This is also
possibly the origin of the “lug” or “lug-sail,” a four-sided sail attached
to a yard which is hung obliquely to the mast, whence probably the
name “lugger” of a sailing-vessel with two or three masts and fore
and aft lug-sails. The word may, however, be connected with the
Dutch logger, a fishing-boat using drag-nets. “Lug” is also the name
of a marine worm, Arenicola marina, used as bait.

LUGANO (Ger. Lauis), the most populous and most thriving

town in the Swiss canton of Ticino or Tessin, situated (906 ft.) on the
northern shore of the lake of Lugano. Pop. (1900) 9394, almost all
Italian-speaking and Romanists. To the S. it is dominated by the
Monte Salvatore (3004 ft.) and on the S.E. (across the lake) by the
Monte Generoso (5591 ft.)—a magnificent view point. Both
mountains are accessible by railways. By rail Lugano is 124 m. from
Lucerne and 51½ m. from Milan. Situated on the main St Gotthard
railway line, Lugano is now easily reached, so that it is much
frequented by visitors (largely German) in spring and in autumn.
Though politically Swiss since 1512, Lugano is thoroughly Italian in
appearance and character. Of recent years many improvements have
been made in the town, which has two important suburbs—Paradiso
to the south and Cassarate to the east. The railway station (1109 ft.)
is above the town, and is connected with the fine quays by a
funicular railway. On the main quay is a statue of William Tell by the
sculptor Vincenzo Vela (1820-1891), a native of the town, while
other works by him are in the gardens of private villas in the
neighbourhood. The principal church, San Lorenzo, in part dates
back earlier than the 15th century, while its richly sculptured façade
bears the figures 1517. This church is now the cathedral church of
the bishop of Lugano, a see erected in 1888, with jurisdiction over
the Italian parts of Switzerland. The church of Santa Maria degli
Angioli, built about 1499, and till 1848 occupied by Franciscans,
contains several very fine frescoes (particularly a Crucifixion) painted
1529-1530 by Bernardino Luini. A gallery containing modern pictures
has been built on the site of the old palace of the bishops of Como.
During the struggle of 1848-1866 to expel the Austrians from
Lombardy, Lugano served as headquarters for Mazzini and his
followers. Books and tracts intended for distribution in Italy were
produced there and at Capolago (9 m. distant, at the S.E. end of the
lake), and the efforts of the Austrian police to prevent their
circulation were completely powerless.
(W. A. B. C.)

LUGANO, LAKE OF (also called Ceresio), one of the smaller

lakes in Lombardy, N. Italy, lying between Lago Maggiore (W.) and
the Lake of Como (E). It is of very irregular shape, the great
promontory of Monte Salvatore (3004 ft.) nearly cutting off the
western arm from the main lake. The whole lake has an area of 19½
sq. m., its greatest length is about 22 m., its greatest width 2 m.,
and its greatest depth 945 ft., while its surface is 899 ft. above sea-
level. Between Melide (S. of the town of Lugano) and Maroggia (on
the east shore) the lake is so shallow that a great stone dam has
been built across for the St Gotthard railway line and the carriage
road. The chief town is Lugano (at its northern end), which by the St
Gotthard line is 19 m. from Bellinzona and 9 m. from Capolago, the
station at the south-eastern extremity of the lake, which is but 8 m.
by rail from Como. At the south-western extremity a railway leads
S.W. from Porto Ceresio to Varese (9 m.). Porlezza, at the east end
of the lake, is 8 m. by rail from Menaggio on the Lake of Como,
while Ponte Tresa, at the west end of the lake, is about the same
distance by a steam tramway from Luino on Lago Maggiore. Of the
total area of the lake, about 7½ sq. m. are in the Swiss Canton of
Ticino (Tessin), formed in 1803 out of the conquests made by the
Swiss from the Milanese in 1512. The remainder of the area is in
Italy. The lake lies among the outer spurs of the Alps that divide the
Ticino (Tessin) basin from that of the Adda, where the calcareous
strata have been disturbed by the intrusion of porphyry and other
igneous rocks. It is not connected with any considerable valley, but
is fed by numerous torrents issuing from short glens in the
surrounding mountains, while it is drained by the Tresa, an
unimportant stream flowing into Lago Maggiore. The first steamer
was placed on the lake in 1856.
(W. A. B. C.)

LUGANSK (also Lugań and Luganskiy Zavōd), a town of southern

Russia, in the government of Ekaterinoslav. Pop. (1900) 34,175. It
has a technical railway school and a meteorological observatory,
stands on the small river Lugan, 10 m. from its confluence with the
northern Donets, in the Lugan mining district, 213 m. E. of the city
of Ekaterinoslav, and has prospered greatly since 1890. This district,
which comprises the coal-mines of Lisichansk and the anthracite
mines of Gorodishche, occupies about 110,000 acres on the banks of
the Donets river. Although it is mentioned in the 16th century, and
coal was discovered there at the time of Peter the Great, it was not
until 1795 that an Englishman, Gascoyne or Gaskoin, established its
first iron-works for supplying the Black Sea fleet and the southern
fortresses with guns and shot. This proved a failure, owing to the
great distance from the sea; but during the Crimean War the iron-
works of Lugan again produced shot, shell and gun-carriages. Since
1864 agricultural implements, steam-engines, and machinery for
beetroot sugar-works, distilleries, &c., have been the chief
manufactures. There is an active trade in cattle, tallow, wools, skins,
linseed, wine, corn and manufactured wares.

LUGARD, SIR FREDERICK JOHN DEALTRY

(1858- ), British soldier, African explorer and administrator, son
of the Rev. F. G. Lugard, was born on the 22nd of January 1858. He
entered the army in 1878, joining the Norfolk regiment. He served in
the Afghan War of 1879-80, in the Sudan campaign of 1884-85, and
in Burma in 1886-87. In May 1888, while on temporary half-pay, he
took command of an expedition organized by the British settlers in
Nyasaland against the Arab slave traders on Lake Nyasa, and was
severely wounded. He left Nyasaland in April 1889, and in the same
year was engaged by the Imperial British East Africa Company. In
their service he explored the Sabaki river and the neighbouring
region, and elaborated a scheme for the emancipation of the slaves
held by the Arabs in the Zanzibar mainland. In 1890 he was sent by
the company to Uganda, where he secured British predominance
and put an end to the civil disturbances, though not without severe
fighting, chiefly notable for an unprovoked attack by the “French” on
the “British” faction. While administering Uganda he journeyed round
Ruwenzori to Albert Edward Nyanza, mapping a large area of the
country. He also visited Albert Nyanza, and brought away some
thousands of Sudanese who had been left there by Emin Pasha and
H. M. Stanley. In 1892 Lugard returned to England, where he
successfully opposed the abandonment of Uganda by Great Britain, a
step then contemplated by the fourth Gladstone administration. In
1894 Lugard was despatched by the Royal Niger Company to Borgu,
where, distancing his French and German rivals in a country up to
then unvisited by any Europeans, he secured treaties with the kings
and chiefs acknowledging the sovereignty of the British company. In
1896-1897 he took charge of an expedition to Lake Ngami on behalf
of the British West Charterland Company. From Ngami he was
recalled by the British government and sent to West Africa, where he
was commissioned to raise a native force to protect British interests
in the hinterland of Lagos and Nigeria against French aggression. In
August 1897 he raised the West African Frontier Force, and
commanded it until the end of December 1899. The differences with
France were then composed, and, the Royal Niger Company having
surrendered its charter, Lugard was chosen as high commissioner of
Northern Nigeria. The part of Northern Nigeria under effective
control was small, and Lugard’s task in organizing this vast territory
was rendered more difficult by the refusal of the sultan of Sokoto
and many other Fula princes to fulfil their treaty obligations. In 1903
a successful campaign against the emir of Kano and the sultan of
Sokoto rendered the extension of British control over the whole
protectorate possible, and when in September 1906 he resigned his
commissionership, the whole country was being peacefully
administered under the supervision of British residents (see Nigeria).
In April 1907 he was appointed governor of Hong-Kong. Lugard was
created a C.B. in 1895 and a K.C.M.G. in 1901. He became a colonel
in 1905, and held the local rank of brigadier-general. He married in
1902 Flora Louise Shaw (daughter of Major-General George Shaw,
C.B., R.A.), who for some years had been a distinguished writer on
colonial subjects for The Times. Sir Frederick (then Captain) Lugard
published in 1893 The Rise of our East African Empire (partly
autobiographical), and was the author of various valuable reports on
Northern Nigeria issued by the Colonial Office. Throughout his
African administrations Lugard sought strenuously to secure the
amelioration of the condition of the native races, among other
means by the exclusion, wherever possible, of alcoholic liquors, and
by the suppression of slave raiding and slavery.

LUGO, a maritime province of north-western Spain, formed in

1833 of districts taken from the old province of Galicia, and bounded
N. by the Atlantic, E. by Oviedo and Leon, S. by Orense, and W. by
Pontevedra and Corunna. Pop. (1900) 465,386; area, 3814 sq. m.
The coast, which extends for about 40 m. from the estuary of
Rivadéo to Cape de Vares, is extremely rugged and inaccessible, and
few of the inlets, except those of Rivadéo and Vivero, admit large
vessels. The province, especially in the north and east, is
mountainous, being traversed by the Cantabrian chain and its
offshoots; the sierra which separates it from Leon attains in places a
height of 6000 ft. A large part of the area is drained by the Miño.
This river, formed by the meeting of many smaller streams in the
northern half of the province, follows a southerly direction until
joined by the Sil, which for a considerable distance forms the
southern boundary. Of the rivers flowing north into the Atlantic, the
most important are the Navia, which has its lower course through
Oviedo; the Eo, for some distance the boundary between the two
provinces; the Masma, the Oro and the Landrove.

Some of the valleys of Lugo are fertile, and yield not only corn but
fruit and wine. The principal agricultural wealth, however, is on the
Miño and Sil, where rye, maize, wheat, flax, hemp and a little silk
are produced. Agriculture is in a very backward condition, mainly
owing to the extreme division of land that prevails throughout
Galicia. The exportation of cattle to Great Britain, formerly a
flourishing trade, was ruined by American and Australian
competition. Iron is found at Caurel and Incio, arsenic at
Castroverde and Cervantes, argentiferous lead at Riotorto; but,
although small quantities of iron and arsenic are exported from
Rivadéo, frequent strikes and lack of transport greatly impeded the
development of mining in the earlier years of the 20th century.
There are also quarries of granite, marble and various kinds of slate
and building-stone. The only important manufacturing industries are
those connected with leather, preserves, coarse woollen and linen
stuffs, timber and osier work. About 250 coasting vessels are
registered at the ports, and about as many boats constitute the
fishing fleet, which brings in lampreys, soles, tunny and sardines,
the last two being salted and tinned for export. The means of
communication are insufficient, though there are over 100 m. of
first-class roads, and the railways from Madrid and northern Portugal
to Corunna run through the province.

Lugo the capital (pop. 1900, 26,959) and the important towns
of Chantada (15,003), Fonsagrada (17,302), Mondoñedo
(10,590), Monforte (12,912), Panton (12,988), Villalba (13,572)
and Vivero (12,843) are described in separate articles. The
province contained in 1900 twenty-six towns of more than 7000
inhabitants, the largest being Sarria (11,998) and Saviñao
(11,182). For a general description of the people and the history
of this region see Galicia.

LUGO, capital of the above Spanish province, is situated on the

left bank of the river Miño and on the railway from Corunna to
Madrid. Pop. (1900) 26,959. Lugo is an episcopal see, and was
formerly the capital of Galicia. Suburbs have grown up round the
original town, the form of which, nearly quadrangular, is defined by
a massive Roman wall 30 to 40 ft. high and 20 ft. thick, with
projecting semi-circular towers which numbered 85 as late as 1809,
when parts of the fortifications were destroyed by the French. The
wall now serves as a promenade. The Gothic cathedral, on the south
side of the town, dates from the 12th century, but was modernized
in the 18th, and possesses no special architectural merit. The
conventual church of Santo Domingo dates from the 14th century.
The principal industries are tanning, and the manufacture of linen
and woollen cloth. About 1 m. S., on the left bank of the Miño, are
the famous hot sulphur baths of Lugo.

Lugo (Lucus Augusti) was a flourishing city under Roman rule (c.
19 b.c.-a.d. 409) and was made by Augustus the seat of a conventus
juridicus (assize). Its sulphur baths were even then well known. It
was sacked by barbarian invaders in the 5th century, and suffered
greatly in the Moorish wars of the 8th century. The bishopric dates
from a very early period, and it is said to have acquired metropolitan
rank in the middle of the 6th century; it is now in the archiepiscopal
province of Santiago de Compostela.

LUGOS, the capital of the county of Krassó-Szörény, Hungary,

225 m. S.E. of Budapest by rail. Pop. (1900) 16,126. It is situated on
both banks of the river Temes, which divides the town in two
quarters, the Rumanian on the right and the German on the left
bank. It is the seat of a Greek-United (Rumanian) bishop. Lugos
carries on an active trade in wine, and has several important fairs,
while the surrounding country, which is mountainous and well-
wooded, produces large quantities of grapes and plums. Lugos was
once a strongly fortified place and of greater relative importance
than at present. It was the last seat of the Hungarian revolutionary
government (August 1849), and the last resort of Kossuth and
several other leaders of the national cause, previous to their escape
to Turkey.

LUGUDUNUM, or Lugdunum, an old Celtic place-name (fort or

hill of the god Lugos or Lug) used by the Romans for several towns
in ancient Gaul. The most important was the town at the confluence
of the Saône and Rhone now called Lyons (q.v.). This place had in
Roman times two elements. One was a Roman colonia (municipality
of Roman citizens, self-governing) situated on the hill near the
present Fourviéres (Forum vetus). The other, territorially distinct
from it for reasons of statecraft, was the Temple of Roma and
Augustus, to which the inhabitants of the 64 Gallic cantons in the
three Roman provinces of Aquitania, Lugudunensis and Belgica—the
so-called Tres Galliae—sent delegates every summer to hold games
and otherwise celebrate the worship of the emperor which was
supposed to knit the provincials to Rome. The two elements
together composed the most important town of western Europe in
Roman times. Lugudunum controlled the trade of its two rivers, and
that which passed from northern Gaul to the Mediterranean or vice
versa; it had a mint; it was the capital of all northern Gaul, despite
its position in the south, and its wealth was such that, when Rome
was burnt in Nero’s reign, its inhabitants subscribed largely to the
relief of the Eternal City.
(F. J. H.)

LUINI, BERNARDINO (?1465-?1540), the most celebrated

master of the Lombard school of painting founded upon the style of
Leonardo da Vinci, was born at Luino, a village on Lago Maggiore.
He wrote his name as “Bernardin Lovino,” but the spelling “Luini” is
now generally adopted. Few facts are known regarding his life, and
until a comparatively recent date many even of his works had, in the
lapse of years and laxity of attribution, got assigned to Leonardo da
Vinci. It appears that Luini studied painting at Vercelli under
Giovenone, or perhaps under Stephano Scotto. He reached Milan
either after the departure of Da Vinci in 1500, or shortly before that
event; it is thus uncertain whether or not the two artists had any
personal acquaintance, but Luini was at any rate in the painting-
school established in Milan by the great Florentine. In the later
works of Luini a certain influence from the style of Raphael is
superadded to that, far more prominent and fundamental, from the
style of Leonardo; but there is nothing to show that he ever visited
Rome. His two sons are the only pupils who have with confidence
been assigned to him; and even this can scarcely be true of the
younger, who was born in 1530, when Bernardino was well advanced
in years. Guadenzio Ferrari has also been termed his disciple. One of
the sons, Evangelista, has left little which can now be identified; the
other, Aurelio, was accomplished in perspective and landscape work.
There was likewise a brother of Bernardino, named Ambrogio, a
competent painter. Bernardino, who hardly ever left Lombardy, had
some merit as a poet, and is said to have composed a treatise on
painting. The precise date of his death is unknown; he may perhaps
have survived till about 1540. A serene, contented and happy mind,
naturally expressing itself in forms of grace and beauty, seems
stamped upon all the works of Luini. The same character is traceable
in his portrait, painted in an upper group in his fresco of “Christ
crowned with Thorns” in the Ambrosian library in Milan—a venerable
bearded personage. The only anecdote which has been preserved of
him tells a similar tale. It is said that for the single figures of saints
in the church at Saronno he received a sum equal to 22 francs per
day, along with wine, bread and lodging; and he was so well
satisfied with this remuneration that, in completing the commission,
he painted a Nativity for nothing.

A dignified suavity is the most marked characteristic of Luini’s

works. They are constantly beautiful, with a beauty which depends
at least as much upon the loving self-withdrawn expression as upon
the mere refinement and attractiveness of form. This quality of
expression appears in all Luini’s productions, whether secular or
sacred, and imbues the latter with a peculiarly religious grace—not
ecclesiastical unction, but the devoutness of the heart. His heads,
while extremely like those painted by Leonardo, have less subtlety
and involution and less variety of expression, but fully as much
amenity. He began indeed with a somewhat dry style, as in the
“Pietà” in the church of the Passione; but this soon developed into
the quality which distinguishes all his most renowned works;
although his execution, especially as regards modelling, was never
Welcome to our website – the perfect destination for book lovers and
knowledge seekers. We believe that every book holds a new world,
offering opportunities for learning, discovery, and personal growth.
That’s why we are dedicated to bringing you a diverse collection of
books, ranging from classic literature and specialized publications to
self-development guides and children's books.

More than just a book-buying platform, we strive to be a bridge

connecting you with timeless cultural and intellectual values. With an
elegant, user-friendly interface and a smart search system, you can
quickly find the books that best suit your interests. Additionally,
our special promotions and home delivery services help you save time
and fully enjoy the joy of reading.

Join us on a journey of knowledge exploration, passion nurturing, and

personal growth every day!

ebookbell.com