How to write a lab report

A lab report consists of an abstract, introduction, methods, results, discussion and references section. The
following sections describe the content of each section and includes samples to help you develop your reports.

I. Abstract

The abstract is a short summary of the main ideas found in the lab report. It should include

1) the purpose of the study or the question being addressed by the study,

2) the procedures used in the study,

3) the major results of the study, and

4) any conclusions drawn by the author(s).

The abstract should generally be between 100 and 200 words in length.

SAMPLE I

Over the past few decades, land-use and climate change have led to substantial range contractions and species
extinctions. <Purpose of Study. Even more dramatic changes to global land cover are projected for this century.
This study used the Millennium Ecosystem Assessment scenarios to evaluate the exposure of all 8,750 land bird
species to projected land-cover changes due to climate and land-use change.<Procedures used in study. For this
first baseline assessment, the authors assumed stationary geographic ranges that may overestimate actual losses
in geographic range. Even under environmentally benign scenarios, at least 400 species are projected to suffer
>50% range reductions by the year 2050 (over 900 by the year 2100). Although expected climate change effects at
high latitudes are significant, species most at risk are predominately narrow-ranged and endemic to the tropics,
where projected range contractions are driven by anthropogenic land conversions.<Results of Study. Most of
these species are currently not recognized as imperiled. The causes, magnitudes, and geographic patterns of
potential range loss vary across socioeconomic scenarios, but all scenarios (even the most environmentally benign
ones) result in large declines of many species. Whereas climate change will severely affect biodiversity, in near
future, land-use change in tropical countries may lead to yet greater species loss. A vastly expanded reserve
network in the tropics, coupled with more ambitious goals to reduce climate change, will be needed to minimize
global extinctions. <Conclusion that authors have drawn.

SAMPLE II

Accurate identification of fishes is essential for understanding their biology and to ensure food safety

for consumers. DNA barcoding is an important tool because it can verify identification of both whole

and processed fishes that have had key morphological characters removed (e.g., flets, fish meal);

however, DNA reference libraries are incomplete, and public repositories for sequence data contain

incorrectly identified sequences. During a nine-year sampling program in the Philippines, a global

biodiversity hotspot for marine fishes, we developed a verified reference library of cytochrome c oxidase

subunit I (COI) sequences for 2,525 specimens representing 984 species. Specimens were primarily

purchased from markets, with additional diversity collected using rotenone or fishing gear. Species

identifications were verified based on taxonomic, phenotypic, and genotypic data, and sequences

are associated with voucher specimens, live-color photographs, and genetic samples cataloged at

Smithsonian Institution, National Museum of Natural History. The Biodiversity of Philippine Marine

Fishes dataset is released herein to increase knowledge of species diversity and distributions and to

facilitate accurate identification of market fishes.

Table 1. Graphic organizer for an abstract

Summary of the purpose/background

1-2 sentences

Summary of the procedure used

1-2 sentences

Summary of results
1-2 sentences

Summary of future directions and impact

1-2 sentences
 II. Introduction

The purpose of the introduction section lays out the following for the report:

1. General context of the work

2. Narrower research area and statement of its importance
3. Identification of a gap or other need for research
4. Specific research question meeting the identified need
5. Summary of approach to answer the research question
6. State hypothesis, purpose, and predictions

In this section, we will explain how the introduction is organized by topic. The most important function of the
introduction is to provide context.

1. The first task of the introduction is defining the research territory. Start off with a very broad
introduction to the topic including laying out the context and importance of this topic. For instance, let's
say you are writing a lab report about an experiment where you tested the effect of environmental
conditions on enzymes. You should start the introduction by talking about what enzymes are and how
they work and why working enzymes are important to the function of organisms. Let’s brainstorm some
other important topics reviewed in the lab: Hydrolysis of Starch by Amylase.
2. Next, narrow down the introduction to talk more specifically about the topic you are investigating, and
why the study you are doing is so important. In the enzyme example, you should now talk specifically
about what THIS enzyme does, where it is found, how it works, and why science is concerned about
THIS enzyme. This section often points out the gaps in our knowledge on this topic to justify the
importance of our work. This is where you might incorporate the research of other scientists and what
their work reveals about this topic.
3. Finally, state the purpose of the study, summarize the experimental approach, state the hypothesis you
tested in your study, and/or the question(s) you were trying to answer. Include relevant predictions and
drive home the overall significance of the experiment.

For this introduction, a library of resources has been provided on Google Classroom. Use the provided project
library and PubMed, jstor to access articles and build your introduction.

Use the graphic organizers below to start your research and organize information into the appropriate
introduction sections (Table 2). Table 1 will be used as a way to determine what references you will use from
the library and what information is useful from each of these sources.

Table 1. Write a short description next to each resource to indicate how you plan to use resources.
Include a full MLA citation that you will put in your ‘References’ list in the lab report.

Title of reference Which section in the What type of MLA citation for the reference.
lab do you plan to information will you You can use the following cite
use this reference? include from this for help
reference to support
your lab report?

1.

2.

3.
 4.

An example is provided below:

Ten species in one Introduction - This study demonstrates

Hebert PDN, et al. Ten species
Paragraph 2 a real-life application of
DNA barcoding. In this in one: DNA barcoding reveals
study, the authors cryptic species in the
identified ten different neotropical skipper butterfly
species of the skipper Astraptes fulgerator. Proc Natl
butterfly, which used to be
Acad Sci USA 101: 14812-
considered as one
species. 14817
 Table 2. Graphic organizer to build your introduction

Introduction paragraph Content/Question to be Paraphrase information Which references will

addressed relevant to the section you use? List in text
of the lab report. citations here in MLA
format (use at least one
reference per
paragraph)

1st paragraph establishes

context (definitions of topics
broadly explored) and
includes citations to primary
literature.
What is the broader
importance of this study?

2nd paragraph goes into

more detail on the study
subjects and justifies the
overall experiment using
other scientific research as
support.
What do we know about this
specific experiment’s focus?
What do we not know?

3rd paragraph narrows the

scope of the experimental
question to the specific
purpose or hypothesis of this
experiment and describes
the experimental design (not
the methods, but the
reasoning behind using the
methods).
What is the
problem/question we are
addressing? How are we
doing this?

You are now ready to transfer this information to the final lab report document on Google Classroom!
III. Methods
This is a summary of your procedure. Be straightforward with the procedure – give enough information for an
individual to be able to replicate the experiment, but exclude extraneous information. Make sure you specify
the volumes and concentrations of any solutions used. Include any equipment used during your experiment.
Do not forget to include units, temperature, time, etc. You should also reference any websites used for further
analysis.

Sometimes, we may want to break up complex procedures into subsections. For example, in DNA Barcoding
we carry out several complex procedures: DNA isolation, PCR amplification, Gel Electrophoresis, and DNA
sequencing. Make subheadings (e.g., DNA Isolation) for detailed methods (italicized or underlined, left-
aligned), and be sure to include an opening statement of purpose for each procedure. Exclude extraneous
information that is assumed by the scientific community, such as labeling test tubes, clean-up procedures, or
using aseptic technique.

Other important parts of writing a methods section include:

● This section should be written in third person (no “We” or “I”). In third person, the objects of our
sentences become the subjects.
○ We added 2 mL of catalase. INCORRECT
○ 2 mL of catalase was added CORRECT!!!
● This section should be written in the passive, past tense.
○ Was added (passive past) - CORRECT!!!
○ We added (past) - INCORRECT
○ We add (present) - INCORRECT
● Avoid transitions such as “first”, “next”, or “last”.
● Do no reference any results
● Include a description of any calculations you performed
● Make sure to cite any manuals or websites you used to carry out your procedure

Figure 2. Sample methods section for an experiment on bacteria.

References: https://lewisuwritingcenter.files.wordpress.com/2014/02/biology-resource-final-draft-1.pdf
IV. Results
In this section of the lab report you will include any data tables, graphs, or other figures used to interpret your
results. A results section is a summary of your observations (the WHAT), but it excludes our interpretations
(the WHY). Typically, we present the table/figure first, then follow with a written description of the results.

I. Tables / Figures

● Tables can be organized and separated by “raw” data and “processed” data.
○ Raw data are simply the observations or measurements we took during the experiment.
○ Processed data are calculated means, other descriptive statistics (e.g., standard deviation (SD)
or standard error (SE)), or other calculations you made from the raw data.
○ For smaller data sets, you can present both your raw and processed data. For much larger data
sets, it’s okay just to present the processed data.
● Table headings (column labels) should include units, if applicable.
● Tables and Figures should both include a descriptive title, also called a caption.
○ For tables, we place this above the table.
○ For figures, it’s typically below. See example in Figure 1.
○ Number tables and figures in the order they appear. Tables and Figures are numbered
separately from each other (Table 1, Figure 1 and so on…)
● For graphs, make sure to include an appropriate scale, axis labels with units, legend (if applicable), and
a title. Our title will be the figure caption below the graph moving forward!
●

Figure 1. A sample graph and table with the correct placement of the caption.
Results (the written portion!)
Underneath your tables/figures should be your written results. This should always begin with a
statement of rationale (how was the experiment performed, and why was this method chosen).

Write a paragraph or two to describe your data; explain what each figure means, and identify any
trends or comparisons. Be sure to continuously refer back to the figures/tables as you explain your
data (According to Table 2, … etc.). Notice how the actual tables/figures have specific, descriptive
titles, but when referred to in the text, they are denoted as “Table 1” or “Figure 1”. This is for
simplicity’s sake as your audience reads through your report. Do not make interpretations based on
the data collected – that is for the conclusion/discussion. Here is an example of a written results
section:

Some things to include in your results:

● Restatement of the purpose or aim of the lab
● Trends (as the IV increased, the DV increased) or lack thereof
● Comparisons (was one group higher or lower than the other)
● Quantitative evidence to support your observations. This means you should reference
numbers that justify which group had a higher or lower observation.
● Statistics (p values, correlation coefficients, if applicable)
● Describe variation in data or identify outliers
● Be sure that results address research question(s)

Some things to exclude from your results

● Explanations as to why things happened
● Discussion of errors that may have impacted your results
● Whether you reject or fail to reject your hypothesis

Tips for writing a results section.

1. Restate your research purpose and experimental approach.
2. Start with your main finding that addresses your research question.
V. Discussion
The Discussion section of a lab report reintroduces the experiment, draws conclusions about the hypothesis,
and proposes next steps after the experiment. It comes after the Results section. For our class, it will be
composed of three-four paragraphs.

The discussion section is where you interpret and evaluate your results. The structure of the discussion is as
follows:

1. Interpretation of your results in relation to your research questions.This includes likely explanations for
your results.
2. Analysis of unexpected results and possible errors or explanations leading to these findings
3. Discuss limitations that impact your conclusions
4. Relate the results to previous literature and broader implications of having answered research question
5. Suggest future directions of the research and for the field as a whole.

To break this down further…

Paragraph 1: Summarize and interpret key results

- Identify and describe any key trends or patterns you have observed. If these are numerical
trends, state the values. Avoid using unspecific words such as ‘higher, lower, increased,
decreased’, which can make the information vague. Include significance and quantify, when
possible.
- Make sure to evaluate (do you reject or fail to reject?) your hypothesis and state whether
differences were significant or not.
- Compare the experimental (observed) results with your expected results (predictions)
- Interpret what the results mean in relation to the aims, research question(s) or hypothesis and
provide biological explanations for your results.

Paragraph 2: Summarize key unexpected results

- Describe any results which were unexpected or didn’t match your predictions.
- Suggest explanations for unexpected results based on the biological concepts and procedures
of the experiment.
- Evaluate how any sources of error might impact on the interpretation of your results in relation
to the aims, research question(s) or hypothesis.

Paragraph 3 and 4: Evaluate your results

- Clarify how the limitations of the study might affect the accuracy and precision of the answers
to your aim, research question or hypothesis.
- Suggest how the experiment or analysis could have been improved. Suggest at least three
improvements that address both sampling errors (human errors) and limitations of
experimental design (emphasis on the design!).
- Explain how your results do or do not address your aim, research question or hypothesis, and
indicate future directions for the research.
- Explain the overall significance of your investigation. Make connections between the
investigation and the research done by other scientists by comparing your findings to their
work. Describe how their findings or research supports or refutes your investigation. Also
discuss if it extends our understanding of our results. You should connect to at least two
different investigations.

Paragraph Templates
#1 - Summary of key findings ● The purpose of this experiment was…
● In this investigation, we aimed to…
● What is the purpose of the experiment?
● We hypothesized that… We predicted that…
● What was the hypothesis? ● According to our results, we [can/cannot] reject the
hypothesis.
● What, if any, trends or patterns did you ● According to our results, our predictions were supported as
observe? we observed that…

● Can the hypothesis be rejected? (or is the ● We observed that

hypothesis supported if no statistics?) ○ as [the IV changes], the [DV changes].
○ there [is/is not] a significant difference between the
● How do the means of your different [IV] and their effects on the [DV]
conditions compare?
● According to [specific table/graph],
● To what extent are the means between
the different test groups significantly [experimental group] had the highest mean of [specific
different? number],
○ Which, if any, test groups show
overlap between their error bars? whereas [experimental group] had the lowest mean at
● Are the results due to chance? [specific number].

● [Furthermore / However], the differences between the test

groups [are/are not] significant.

● The error bars between [the test groups]

[do/do not] overlap.

● This means that if we were to repeat the experiment 100

times, the means between [the test groups]

#2 - Discuss unexpected results and errors ● Some findings that were unexpected included

● Were there any results that did not match ● Unlike our predictions, we observed that…
your predictions? ● There was a substantial amount of variation within the
● Were there inconsistencies in trends, [describe treatment] group as we observed …
patterns, or observations (variation in ● Findings were inconsistent from trial to trial where [cite
trials) results]
● What errors may have accounted for
these discrepancies? ● One possible source of error that affected our observations
● How do these errors impact your results? was that…

● Because we [describe error], our observations of

[dependent variable] may have been affected as [explain
how this error impacts your measurements]

#3 - Improving the experiment and next steps ● Our results [are/are not] consistent with the scientific
(split into 4 paragraphs if paragraph 2 is context.
substantive!) ● Our findings can be supported by other scientists as X
observed that..
● Do the results conform to the state of the
science? Are they supported or refuted by ● According to prior research, we expected to see [describe
other scientists key biological concepts and define key vocabulary].

● What are two limitations of this [Indeed/However], we saw that [cite your results].
experiment? How could the design of the
experiment be improved? ● [That said/Thus], The experiment can be improved.
○ Do not include “human error”
○ Do describe a new negative or One limitation is the absence of a [negative/positive
positive control that could be control]. We can improve the reliability of the results by
included including a control group that [describe what the control
group would look like].

A second limitation is [describe a limitation to the

experiment’s design]. We can overcome this limitation by
[describe a solution to this experiment’s limitation].

● In addition to these improvements, we can design a new

experiment to help us understand concepts behind this lab.

For example, we can test whether [create a new

hypothesis].

We would expect to observe that [describe patterns or

trends you would expect to see].