Chapter:1 Introduction of FLAT

I. What is Formal Languages and Automata Theory

 It is the mathematical study of computing machine and its capabilities.

 It is a study of formal language and automata theory.

II. Alphabet

 The non empty finite set of symbols is called as an alphabet and it is denoted by
∑.

 Example

 ∑ = {a.b.c………z}
 ∑ = {0,1}
 ∑ = {1}

III. String

 Any finite sequence of symbol from alphabet ∑ , is called as string and is

represented by w.

 Example

 ∑ = {a,b}
 W = a,ab,aa,bb
 W= ab,aab,abc
 ∑ = {0,1}
 W = 0,01,00,11,1
 W = 102,2013
 ∑ = {1}
 W = 1, 11, 111
 W = 1,12, 121
IV. Length of a string

 If w is any string over alphabet ∑ then the number of symbols involved in the
sequence of string is called as length of the string and denoted by |w|.
 Example

 ∑ = {a,b} W = a,ab,aa,bb ,|w|=1,2,2,2

 ∑ = {0,1} W = 0,01,00,11,1 |w| = 1,2,2,2

V. Empty string

 A string of length zero or string without any symbols is known as empty string
and is denoted by €

w = € , |w| = 0
w. € = w = €.w

VI. Substring

 Let u,w be the two strings over same alphabet ∑ then u is said to be substring of
w if u can be obtained from w.
 Any consecutive sequence of symbols over given string.
 Example
 W = TOC
 Zero length Substring= €
 One length substring=T,O,C
 Two length substring= TO,OC
 Three length substring=TOC
 If u is a substring of w then |u| <= |w|
 Every string is substring to itself.
 Empty string “€” is substring for every string

 Types substring

 The substrings are classified into two types

1. Trivial Substring or improper Substring
2. Non-trivial or proper substring
 Trivial Substring or improper Substring
1. If w is any string over alphabet ∑ then the substring w itself and € is called
as trivial substring
 Non-trivial Substring or proper Substring
 1. If w is any string over alphabet ∑ then any substring of w over w other
than w itself and € is called non trivial substring.

 If w is any string with distinct symbols and |w|= n

1. No of substrings = ∑n +1 = n(n+1)/2
2. No. of trivial string = 2
3. No. of non-trivial substring = ∑n -1
4. No. of non-empty substring= ∑n
5. No of substrings of distinct length = n
6. No. of strings of length n generated over alphabet ∑ = | ∑ |n

VII. Prefix and Suffix

 Prefix
 The sequence of starting or leading symbol is called as prefix.
 Suffix
 The sequence of ending or trailing symbol is called as suffix.
 Example
1. w=TOC , |w|=3
2. Prefix : € , T , TO , TOC
3. Suffix : TOC , OC , C , €
 If w is any string of length ‘n’ then
1. No. of prefix = No. of suffix = n+1
2. Trivial substrings are common for both prefix and suffix
3. Every prefix and suffix must be a substring but every substring need not
be prefix or suffix.

VIII. Power of an alphabet

 If ∑ is any alphabet then ∑k is the set of all the strings of length k.

 Example : ∑ = {0,1}
 ∑2 = {00,01,10,11}
 ∑3 = {000,001,010,011,100,101,110,111}
 ∑k = {all k-length stings}

 +ve closure(∑+)
 ∑+ = {w | |w|>=1}
 Kleen closure(∑*)
 ∑* = {w | |w|>=0}
  ∑* = ∑+ ꓴ €

IX. Language

 The collection of strings from the alphabet ∑ is called language

 . Example ∑ = {0,1}
 L ={00,01,10,11}
 L = { (01)n | n>=1 }
 L = { 0n 1m |m>=1,n>=1}

 If ∑ is any alphabet then ∑* is called as universal language

 Formal Languages
 The collection of strings where we can put some restriction in the
formation of string is called as formal language.
 Example ∑ = {0,1}
 L ={00,01,10,11}
 L = { (01)n | n>=1 }
 L = { 0n 1m |m>=1,n>=1}

X. Chomsky classification of Formal Languages

 According to Chomsky the formal languages are classified as
 Type 0 or Recursive Enumerable Languages
 Type 1 or Context sensitive languages
 Type 2 or Context free languages
 Type 3 or Context Regular languages
XI. Types of languages

 Empty Languages
 The Language that does not contain any string even empty string is
called as empty language and is denoted by ф.

 Non Empty Languages

 The Language that contain at least one string is called as non empty
language

 Finite Languages
 The Language which contains finite number of strings and length of
each string is finite is called as finite language

 L = { 0n 1n |1<=n<=1}

 Infinite Languages
 The Language which contains infinite number of strings and length of
each string is finite is called as infinite language .

 L = { 0n 1n |n>=1}

XII. Automata

 The mathematical system that can represent the formal language is called as
Automata i.e. The mathematical representation of formal language is called as an
automata.

 Types of Automata

1. Finite Automata(FA)
2. Push Down Automata(PDA)
3. Linear Bound Automata(LBA)
4. Turing Machine(LBA)
XIII. Expressive power of an automata

 The number of languages accepted by an automata is called as Expressive

Power of an Automata.

1. E(FA)=1
2. E(PDA)=2
3. E(LBA)=3
4. E(TM)=4

XIV. Grammar

 The collection of rules which are used to generate the string is called grammar.
 Grammar G is a collection of 4 tuples {V,T,P,S}

 G= {V,T,P,S} ,Where

 V= set of all Nonterminal symbol/variable

 P= setoff all productions
 T= set of all terminal symbols
 S= starting symbol
 Example
1. A XYZ (r1) V={A,X,Y,Z}
2. X a (r2) T={a,b,c}
3. Y b (r3) P={r1,r2,r3,r4}
4. Z c (r4) S=A

XV. Chomsky classification of grammar

 According to Chomsky the Grammar is classified as

1. Type 0 or Recursive Enumerable Grammar

2. Type 1 or Context sensitive Grammar
3. Type 2 or Context free Grammar
4. Type 3 or Context Regular Grammar
  Other Classification of grammar
1. Recursive grammar
 The grammar g is said to be recursive if atleast one production
contain the same variable at both left hand side and right hand side
of production.
 Example
S asb|€
2. Non Recursive grammar
 The grammar g is said to be recursive if noproduction contain the
same variable at both left hand side and right hand side of
production.
 Example
S ab|€

XVI. Derivation

 The process of deriving a string is called as derivation.

 The geometrical representation of derivation is called Derivation tree or parse
tree.
 Steps involved in derivation is called sentential form
 Example

 Consider the following grammar and write the derivation to generate string abc.

1. A XYZ (r1)
2. X a (r2)
3. Y b (r3)
4. Z c (r4)
5.
 Derivation
 A XYZ
 A aYZ
 A abZ
 A abc

 Parse Tree

X Y Z

a b c