Gözde Begüm Uyanik M.A.

Marmara University
Department of Translation and Interpreting

Translation and Interpreting in

Sports Contexts

Abstract: This study deals with a relatively recent field in translation: Sports Translation,
and handles it as a field of specialization. The study first divides Sports Translation into
fields by introducing them in terms of its types (mode) and contexts (modality). Secondly,
it handles as well as discusses Sports Translation as a field of specialization by defining
the role of the Sports Translator, and by observing its technicality in terms of its use of
technical terms and subject matter. Moreover, the chapter also tries to conceptualize Sports
Translation as a type of Translation. Finally, the last part of the study suggests strategies for
translation of sports language by mentioning two strategies related to the terminology –
namely borrowing and calque – as well as strategies regarding the text type with examples
provided from sports news and rules book.

1. Introductory Remarks
Sports Translation is the term holding a wide range of definitions. Before touching
upon those various definitions, it is first and foremost necessary to state that by
using the term ‘Translation/Translator’ in this study, both translation/translator
and interpreting/interpreter are meant1. Translation used herein with the capital
‘T’ is the umbrella term for both written and oral renderings in Sports Translation.
The definitions of Sports Translation could be regarded as:
a) every type of Translation within the sports field,
b) Translation service given to the people within the sports industry, and
c) a sub-type of community interpreting.
These definitions may vary according to the mode and modality.

1 The capital ‘T’ is used in the same manner as Pöchhacker (2004, p. 9) does for ‘Transla-
tion’ so as to mean both Translation and Interpreting.
102 Gözde Begüm Uyanik

2. The Key Concepts: Mode and Modality

‘Mode’ and ‘modality’ determine the types of Sports Translation. The former
stands for the way Sports Translation is performed, while the latter stands for the
contexts where Sports Translation is performed.

2.1. Mode
Modes of translation in the field of sports are, first of all, bidirectional; that is,
written and oral renderings in terms of the way they are performed – as explained
in Table 1.

Table 1. Modes in Sports Translation

Modes in Sports Translation

Written Sports Translation Oral Sports Translation (Interpreting)
– press releases * simultaneous
– rules books – draws in international sporting
– websites of sports teams/ international events
sporting events * consecutive
– sports news … – press conferences
– in-field interpreting …

In sports field, written renderings could be press releases, rules books, transla-
tion of the websites of sports teams or international sporting events, translation
of sports news, and so on. As for the oral renderings in sports, simultaneous as
well as consecutive modes are performed. Simultaneous mode could be used in
draws of international sporting events (World Cup Draw, for instance), whereas
consecutive mode could be observed in press conferences or in-field interpreting.

2.2. Modality
Modality involves the contexts. Contextual differences are closely interrelated
with the types in translation (such as medical translation, legal translation, and
so on) as well as interpreting (such as medical interpreting, court interpreting,
community interpreting, and so on) in general. The same is also true for Sports
Translation as a sub-type of Translation.
Sports Translation could be divided into two in terms of the way the Transla-
tion services are provided. Firstly, they could be about sports; in other words, the
context of the Translation services could be about sports. Secondly, these services
 Translation and Interpreting in Sports Contexts 103

could be provided for the people within the sports industry such as sportsmen,
trainers, sports teams, and so forth.
To sum up, while Sports Translation could be regarded according to the way it
is performed (mode), it could also be regarded according to the contexts where
it is performed (modality).

3. Sports Translation as a Specific Field

There are two important models in communication; namely transfer (conduit)
model and the social-interactionalist model. While the former is monological,
the latter model is dialogical. In the social-interactionalist model, “the speaker
interacts with his/her physical and social environments, with interlocutors and
[sic] situational and cultural contexts; messages are co-produced in dialogue”
(Linell, 1997, p. 52). Therefore, an interpreter is the person who provides com-
munication within these situations and contexts and between people or groups
belonging to different cultures.
Being both a language expert and a cultural expert, the most important task
of a Translator is to provide communication as accurately and smoothly as pos-
sible between parties with different cultural backgrounds2. However, a Sports
Translator is also expected to have thorough knowledge of the terminology and
the subject matter of the technical field where Translation task is performed.
The reason why the term ‘technical’ has been used in Sports Translation is in-
tentional, for sports can be regarded as a technical field with its own terminology,
and the field of sports could cover a variety of fields thanks to its interdisciplinary
nature as well. For example, for the last two decades ‘sports law’ has emerged as a
sub-discipline of law all over the world and in Turkey. Sports law deals with cases
and suits of the wide range of clients demanding representation and legal advice.
This field requires knowledge of several sub-disciplines of law. The distinctive
feature of the sports law comparing to other sub-disciplines of law is that the
clients with whom sports lawyers deal are mostly professional or amateur players,
coaches, referees/officials, and governing bodies of the sports industry. Even more
broadly, sports lawyers’ “[…] representation might extend to sports broadcasters;
sports equipment manufacturers; sports medicine care providers; businesses that
sponsor athletic events or athletes; and concessionaires who serve food and drink
to fans at games.”3 Thus, sports lawyers may find themselves dealing with a wide
range of legal suits from medical malpractice suits to intellectual property law

2 For further information, see Kondo and Tebble (1997, p. 153).

3 This information was retrieved from the website of American Bar on 24.02.2016.
104 Gözde Begüm Uyanik

suits and arbitration. As this is the case, it could be rightful to say that a sports
lawyer works in every sub-discipline of law dealing with wide range of clients. No
matter how skilful a sports lawyer is, he/she may not have a good command of a
foreign language. This is when a Translator is required. A sports Translator could
be the one who translates legal documents for the sports lawyer or the client, or
he/she could be the one who provides assistance to an attorney and his/her client
to communicate with one another. The profile of the sports-related people within
the sports industry certainly varies, so do their language combinations. Whenever
a person within the sports industry requiring legal assistance consults to a sports
lawyer and whenever they could not agree on a language to communicate one
another, they need an interpreter. The topic for this type of interpreting is mainly
related to sports; thus, sports interpreters step in this subject matter. However,
since it is also related to the field of law, sports interpreters should have knowledge
about legal terms in addition to the subject matter.
The link between sports and medicine is also worth mentioning to reflect the
interdisciplinary nature of sports. Even a person outside of Translation Studies
or a person who has not been involved with Translation at all would be aware of
the high possibility of players’ getting injured during games and trainings more
than an average person does since this is the nature of their profession. Players
staying in a foreign country as members of a local team or for an official sporting
event (the world championship, for instance) may get injured and need medical
assistance. Provided that they do not know that country’s language, they would
need an interpreter to get medical assistance. Again, a sports interpreter should
be there to provide the communication between the players and healthcare pro-
fessionals. In this case, sports interpreter must have thorough knowledge about
medical terminology and its subject matter.
In both cases, the need for knowledge of field-specific terminology (such as
that of medicine, law, and so on) is obvious. In Uyanık’s study (2015) on sports
interpreting, 30 sports interpreters were requested to answer a questionnaire with
open-ended questions on the difficulties they faced during interpreting. The re-
sults of this study are presented in Graph 1 (Ibid, p. 82).
 Translation and Interpreting in Sports Contexts 105

Graph 1. The Difficulties Faced During Sports Interpreting

The most prominent two findings of this study are ‘the difference in accents /
lack of foreign language knowledge’ (33%) and ‘being go-between / mediating /
smoothing expressions’ (13%). Apart from these two findings, 10% of the sports
interpreters participated in the questionnaire indicated the discomfort of ‘lack
of terminology’ during their interpreting performances; likewise, 10% of them
stated that they suffered from performing technical consecutive interpreting, that
is ‘interpreting in technical fields’4 (Ibid.). As this study suggests, the knowledge
of technical terminology, namely those of sports and the related fields, is essential
for oral renderings in sports as well as those of written.
Sports interpreting also bears significant similarities to community interpret-
ing. One can easily claim and is rightful to say that overcoming aforementioned
difficulties is in fact community interpreters’ task, for ‘community interpreting’
is defined in Routledge Encyclopaedia of Translation Studies (Wadensjö, 2001,
p. 33) as
[…] the type of interpreting which takes place in the public service sphere to facilitate
communication between officials and lay people: at police departments, immigration de-
partments, social welfare centres, medical and mental health offices, schools, and similar
institutions.

4 Herein ‘technical field’ refers to the ‘specific field’.

106 Gözde Begüm Uyanik

What a sports interpreter actually does in legal and healthcare issues is, therefore,
community interpreting, which is true in many respects. In fact, sports interpret-
ing could be assessed and handled as a sub-field of community interpreting. At
which point it differs from community interpreting is related to for whom this
community interpreting service is performed5.
As is explained, the necessity of medical Translation as well as legal Translation
in the field of sports is foreseeable at the first glance. However, Sports Transla-
tors may also find themselves in unexpected situations. An observation during a
sporting event may provide an insight to the subject: The ‘FIBA6 U18 European
Championship Men’ was held in Konya, Turkey in 20147. Before the games in the
tournament began, each team had two days for training. During this period, the
national team of England faced a problem relating to the customs clearance. They
had brought jerseys on which the numbers and names were printed incorrectly,
and if they had played with those jerseys during the tournament, they would have
been given a penalty fine by FIBA for each game they would play. Being unaware
of the customs procedures followed in Turkey, they had ordered new jerseys from
China to Turkey to be sent to the general manager of the team. Thus, the jerseys
were detained by the customs, and the team attaché8 of the England U18 team
had to talk with the customs officials on the phone. However, the team attaché was
not prepared for such an unexpected situation; namely, knowing the customs and
trading terms. After communication was established, it was understood that the
earliest time England U18 team could get the jerseys would be after the tourna-
ment, for most of the games would be played during Ramadan Holiday time. To
prevent England U18 team from getting a penalty, something had to be done, and
the team attaché found herself in a situation where she looked for a local crafts-
man to do the patching on the jerseys. She contacted with that person and solved

5 For further information, see Lidi Wang and Jie Zhang (2011, pp. 263–279), ‘Com-
munity Interpreting in China Since the Beijing Olympics 2008 – Moving Towards a
New Olympic Discipline?’ for the development and changing the face of community
interpreting in China after Beijing Olympics (2008) as an indication of the effect of
sports interpreting on community interpreting.
6 For further information, see the website of Fédération Internationale de Basketball;
The International Basketball Federation.
7 For further information, see the official website of FIBA U18 European Championship
Men on 23.2.2016.
8 Team attachés are the contact people and responsible for a team. They may be lan-
guage assistants, as well. They maintain communication between parties and what they
mostly do is interpreting. Therefore, they are regarded as sports interpreters in this
study.
 Translation and Interpreting in Sports Contexts 107

the problem somehow. This was something unforeseeable by the team attaché
as well as the local organization committee. In short, as a problem solver, sports
interpreters could find themselves in different situations and should be prepared
for them. Whether foreseeable or unexpected, Sports Translators have to apply
some strategies so as to overcome difficulties faced within Translation process.

4. Strategies for the Translation of Sports Language

The strategies for the translation of sports language can be examined under two
categories: the strategies related to the terminology and those regarding the text.

4.1. Strategies Related to the Terminology

Although the number of sports-related terms in Turkish language is quite few,
sports is a field of specialization (Bulut, 2011, p. 64); in other words, a specific field.
Loan words entered Turkish language by means of translation in many specific
fields (such as medicine, law, trade, and so on), and this could be observed within
the sports field as well. One can notice two strategies used in translation of sports
terminology: borrowing and calque. Borrowing and calque are the terms used by
Jean-Paul Vinay and Jean Darbelnet in 19589 as two of the seven procedures for
translation.

4.1.1. Borrowing
Vinay and Darbelnet (1958/1995, in Venuti, 2004, p. 129) assert that borrowing
is the simplest of all translation methods. This is because terms in the source lan-
guage are directly transferred into the target language. This translation method
is used to fill a semantic gap within the target language. Jeremy Munday (2012,
p. 86) states that there is much borrowing of terms in some technical fields (such
terms as computer, internet, and so on from English to Malay). Similarly, bor-
rowing sports terms could also be observed in Turkish language, by adapting
their pronunciation into Turkish. Some examples of the borrowed sports terms
in Turkish are as follows:

Football
football: futbol goal: gol penalty: penaltı forward: forvet
back: bek offside: ofsayt corner: korner* free kick: frikik*

9 For further information, see Vinay, Jean-Paul and Jean Darbelnet’s (1958/1995) Com-
parative Stylistics of French and English: A Methodology for Translation.
108 Gözde Begüm Uyanik

Basketball
basketball: basketbol period: periyot dribbling: dripling rebound: ribaunt
assist: assist block: blok man-to-man: disqualification:
mentümen* diskalifiye

Volleyball
volleyball: voleybol block-out: blok aut defence: defans attack: atak
passeur: pasör antenna: anten service: servis scoreboard:
skorbord
* These terms have also calque usages.

Note that these Turkish words are pronounced exactly how they are written.

4.1.2. Calque
Vinay and Darbelnet (1958/1995 in Venuti, 2004, p. 129) describe a calque as
“[…] a special kind of borrowing whereby a language borrows an expression
form of another, but then translates literally each of its elements.” In the light of
this definition, there are two kinds of calque: lexical calque and structural calque.
While the former is not intervened with source language structure and respects
the structure of the target language, the latter introduces a new structure to the
target language; both introducing a new mode for expression. The uses of these
two kinds of calque can also be observed in sports language. Some examples of
lexical calque in Turkish are as follows:

Football
corner kick: köşe vuruşu free kick: serbest vuruş back pass: geri pas

Basketball
jump ball: hava atışı basket: sepet bench: takım sırası
backcourt: geri saha front court: ön saha free-throw: serbest atış
dead ball: ölü top live ball: canlı top shoot clock operator: şut
saati görevlisi

Volleyball
double contact: çift vuruş husband/wife: karı-koca flare: parlama

Both procedures for translation – namely, borrowing and calque – become inte-
grated in the target language and become a part of that language after a period of
time (Ibid). While translating or interpreting, a sports Translator must know how
 Translation and Interpreting in Sports Contexts 109

to render sports terms. If he/she does not know that it is a sports term, he/she
could render that term literally, thus, resulting in a loss in meaning in the target
language. Sports Translator must be aware of this and render the terms accord-
ingly to succeed in transferring the meaning to the parties to the communication.

4.2. Strategies Regarding the Text

As mentioned earlier, the examples of written sports translation are press releases,
rules books, websites of sports teams, and/or international sporting events, sports
news, and so on. In each case, translation strategies should be different, for each
text is addressed to different target audience for different purposes. When a sports
Translator is expected to translate/interpret a text, he/she should consider the spe-
cific purpose (skopos)10 for the Translation. With respect to his/her specific pur-
pose of translation, a sports translator should translate the given text accordingly.
This can be exemplified with the translations of two different text types – sports
news and rules book – together with their strategies.

4.2.1. Strategies in Translation of Sports News

In sports news, sports language differs from other types of language use in that
it is generally composed of poetic discourse and creativity. According to Tahsin
Yücel (2004, p. 17) a football writer is a kind of poet. Moreover, a poetic discourse,
especially the use of rhythms, is mostly seen in his/her writing. Yücel exemplifies
this as follows:
Example 1
“Denizli kalesini golle doldurdu, üç puanı zorlanmadan buldu.” (Ibid.) **
Paraphrase: Denizli (a Turkish football team) scored so many goals that it easily
won the game and got three points.
Example 2
“Paris Saint-Germain golü erken buldu, CimBom’un rüyası 20 dakikada soldu.”
(Ibid, pp. 17–18) **
Paraphrase: Paris Saint-Germain scored an early goal in the twentieth minute
of the game, which faded away Galatasaray’s (a Turkish football team) hopes of
winning.
** So as to preserve the rhythmic essence of discourse, the first two examples were not translated into
English – only their meanings were given.

10 See Hans J. Vermeer’s (2004) Skopos Theory and ‘Skopos and Commission in Transla-
tional Action.
110 Gözde Begüm Uyanik

Apart from the poetic discourse, the main objective of sports news is to draw
readers’ attention through creativity. The respective examples are as follows:
Example 3
“Fenerbahçe’nin içine girip bir türlü çıkamadığı tencereye Bursa cenderesi deni-
yordu.” (Ibid. p. 18)
Paraphrase: ‘Cendere’ [mangle] is figuratively used to refer to the hardship Fener-
bahçe (a Turkish football team) faced against Bursa (also a Turkish football
team), while ‘tencere’ [pot] symbolizes that Fenerbahçe got stuck against this
hardship.
Example 4
“Telekom Kazan’da boğuldu.”11
Paraphrase: ‘Kazan’ is used in the example as a pun (a kind of wordplay), for it
refers to both ‘Unics Kazan Basketball Club’ and the ‘boiler’ (in Turkish), into
which Türk Telekom Basketball Club fell and got drowned.

The third and fourth examples involve wordplays in Turkish. Therefore, it is not
an easy task for a sports Translator to render the meaning with the same effect in
a foreign language other than Turkish. As a result, it can be stated that the uses of
wordplays as well as rhythmic language are highly observed in sports news writ-
ing, as in other languages’ sports news writing. Thus, a sports Translator needs
to find a solution so as to create a similar effect in the target language. It can be
concluded that sports translation necessitates creativity in target language, as
it does in sports writing discourse in the source language, which is frequently
encountered in literary discourse as well.

4.2.2. Strategies in Translation of Rules Book

Sports is a specific field. There are rules for each sports branch so as to standardize
and regulate them throughout the world. Therefore, rules books are prepared and
they have prescriptive, binding features. Each person before exercising a particular
branch of sport – either professionally or unprofessionally – agrees that these rules
are binding; therefore, they act accordingly during the game. When a player acts
against the general principles and/or the rules of the game, some penalties – as
sanctions – are imposed on the player by the officials according to the rules book.

11 The headline was retrieved from the web page of Hürriyet (dated 4.2.2009) on
27.02.2016.
 Translation and Interpreting in Sports Contexts 111

Consequently, to some extent, this is similar to the ruling of the law in terms of
sanctions which are imposed by the judges. in accordance with the rules.
Two articles are taken as examples from FIBA ‘Official Basketball Rules 2014’ so
as to illustrate the aforementioned similarities, in which the uses of legal language
could be observed. In her article on the characteristics of English and Turkish
Legal Languages, Ayfer Altay (2002, p. 27) states,
the helping verb ‘shall’ does not express the future tense in law discourse although it
generally expresses the future tense. In daily language, it is used with the first-person
singular and the first-person plural, but in the legal language, it is used to express obliga-
tion, order, explanation, and notification.

A similar usage of ‘shall’ can be observed in the following article in FIBA Of-
ficial Basketball Rules Book (2014, p. 34): “Any number of fouls may be called
against a team. Irrespective of the penalty, each foul shall be charged, entered
on the scoresheet against the offender and penalised accordingly.” It is clear that
this article regarding the fouls in the rules book shows similarities with the legal
language usage. The following examples clearly show this similarity12:
Example 5
Source Text
“Any number of fouls may be called against a team. Irrespective of the penalty,
each foul shall be charged, entered on the scoresheet against the offender and
penalised accordingly” (Ibid.).
Target Text
“Bir takıma herhangi bir sayıda faul verilebilir. Cezasına bakılmaksızın her faul
değerlendirilir, sayı cetvelinde faul yapan takımın hanesine kaydedilir ve kurallara
uygun şekilde cezalandırılır.”
Example 6
Source Text
“The offensive player, whether on the floor or airborne, shall not cause contact
with the defensive player in a legal guarding position by:
Using his arms to create more space for himself (pushing off).
Spreading his legs or arms to cause contact during or immediately after a shot
for a field goal.” (Ibid, p. 35)

12 The examples taken from the rules book are original and they have been translated by
the writer of this chapter accordingly. The italics in the examples are used for emphasis.
112 Gözde Begüm Uyanik

Target Text
“Zemindeki veya havadaki hücum oyuncusu;
Kendisi için daha fazla alan yaratmak üzere kollarını kullanarak (iterek),
Sahadan yapılan bir atış sırasında veya atışın hemen akabinde temasa neden
olacak şekilde bacaklarını veya kollarını açarak, legal savunma pozisyonundaki
savunma oyuncusuyla temasa neden olamaz.”

As seen in the examples of both source and target languages, it can be stated that
when translating a rules book or this kind of another text, a sports translator must
pay attention to this kind of legal language use. In other words, he/she should
pay attention to the grammatical structures as well as language uses in the source
and target languages. The use of languages might show differences in the source
and target cultures; however, when translating, a sports translator needs to find
correspondences within the target language system. Moreover, he/she should be
aware of the source texts and the target texts as well as their audiences.

5. Concluding Remarks
Sports is a specific field in itself so is sports Translation; the prominent charac-
teristics of which can be summarized as:
• There is no single definition for sports Translation; it may vary according to
the contexts and for whom it is performed along with the way it is performed
(mode and modality).
• Knowledge for field-specific terminology is of utmost importance to sports
Translators.
• Sports Translators, especially sports interpreters, should have problem solving
skills, for they could easily find themselves in unforeseeable situations.
• Thanks to the interdisciplinary nature of sports, sports Translation could cover
up other disciplines such as law and medicine.
• Sports interpreting shows significant similarities with community interpreting
and is highly interactive.
• As a result of the universality of sports, sports terminology shows similarities
in different languages, resulting in the use of loan words in the target culture.
• Its prescriptive characteristic is mostly observed in written language and sports
texts should be translated accordingly.
• Sports news involves high level of aesthetic language use as well as creativity,
and a sports Translator should transfer these features into the target language
so as to accomplish functionality and the desired effect in the target culture.
 Translation and Interpreting in Sports Contexts 113

Considering all these aforementioned characteristics, a sports Translator should

render all the specific features of sports language. Moreover, being aware of the
existence of both foreseeable and unexpected situations, he/she should acquire
the necessary background information. Last but not least, in undergraduate pro-
grams, students should be given examples of such situations that sports Transla-
tors face in real life and should be taught ways on how to deal with these situations.
Since Sports Translation is a new specific field in Translation Studies in itself, the
future sports Translators will definitely require specialization in this field.

References
Altay, Ayfer. (2002). İngilizce ve Türkçe Hukuk Dillerinin Özellikleri:
Karşılaştırmalı Bir Çalışma [Characteristics of English and Turkish Legal
Languages: A Comparative Study]. Ankara: Hacettepe Üniversitesi Edebiyat
Fakültesi Dergisi [Hacettepe University Journal of Faculty of Letters]. Vol: 19
No: 2. (pp. 13–32).
Bulut, Alev. (2011). Spor Dilinin Çevirisi: Çok Dramatik Bir Final Oldu [Transla-
tion of Sports ....Language: A Very Dramatic Final]. Sözcükler. 2011/1 No: 29.
(pp. 64–66). Istanbul: Yazın Basın Yayın Matbaacılık Turizm Ltd. Şrk.
Kondo, Masaomi and Tebble, Helen. (1997). Intercultural Communication,
Negotiation and Interpreting. Conference Interpreting: Current Trends in Re-
search Proceedings of the International Conference on Interpreting: What Do
We Know and How?. Yves Gambier, Daniel Gile, and Christopher Taylor
(Eds.). (pp. 149–166). Amsterdam/Philadelphia: John Benjamins Publishing
Company.
Linell, Per. (1997). Interpreting as Communication. Conference Interpreting: Cur-
rent Trends in Research Proceedings of the International Conference on Interpret-
ing: What Do We Know and How?, Yves Gambier, Daniel Gile, and Christopher
Taylor (Eds.). (pp. 49–67). Amsterdam/Philadelphia: John Benjamins Publish-
ing Company.
Munday, Jeremy. (2012). Introducing Translation Studies: Theories and Applica-
tions. (2nd ed.) London and New York: Routledge.
Pöchhacker, Franz. (2004). Introducing Interpreting Studies. London: Routledge.
Uyanık, Gözde Begüm. (2015). Spor Çevirmenliğinde Durumların ve Görevlerin
Tanımlanması [Defining the Contexts and Tasks in Sports Interpreting]. Master
Thesis, İstanbul: İstanbul Üniversitesi [Istanbul University].
Vermeer, Hans J. (2004). Skopos and Commission in Translational Action. The
Translation Studies Reader. Venuti, Lawrence (Ed.). (2nd ed.). (pp. 227–238.).
New York and London: Routledge.
114 Gözde Begüm Uyanik

Vinay, Jean-Paul and Darbelnet, Jean. (1958/1995). Comparative Stylistics of

French and English: A Methodology for Translation. Juan Sager and Marie-Jo
Hamel (Tr.s and Eds.). Amsterdam and Philadelphia: John Benjamins.
Vinay, Jean-Paul and Darbelnet, Jean. (1958/1995). A Methodology for Trans-
lation. In The Translation Studies Reader. (2004). Venuti Lawrence (Ed.).
(pp. 128–137). London and New York: Routledge.
Wadensjö, Cecilia. (2001). Community Interpreting. Routledge Encyclopaedia of
Translation Studies. Baker, Mona (Ed.). (2nd ed.). (1st ed., 1998). (pp. 33–37).
London and New York: Routledge.
Wang, Lidi and Zhang, Jie. (2011). Community Interpreting in China Since the
Beijing Olympics 2008 – Moving Towards a New Olympic Discipline? Model-
ling the Field of Community Interpreting: Questions in Methodology in Research
and Training. (pp. 263–279). Wien: LIT VERLAG GmbH and Co. KG.
Yücel, Tahsin. (2004). Söylemlerin İçinden [Through Discourse]. (2nd ed.) İstanbul:
Alkım.

Electronic Sources
American Bar:
http://www.americanbar.org/publications/tyl/topics/professional-develop
ment/what-is-sports-law-who-is-sports-lawyer.html.
FIBA:
http://www.fiba.com/
FIBA. (February 2014). Official Basketball Rules 2014. (Approved by FIBA Cen-
tral Board). Barcelona. https://www.fiba.com/downloads/Rules/2014/Official_
Basketball_Rules_2014_Y.pdf
FIBA U18 European Championship Men:
http://www.fibaeurope.com/compID_8aYeHlfuGF-mF5IqO8aFH1.sea-
son_2014.html
Hürriyet:
http://www.hurriyet.com.tr/telekom-kazanda-boguldu-10921949.