Sensors and Actuator

Unit-V: Pneumatic and Hydraulic Acutation Systems

Dr. Mukesh G. Ghogare

Department of Mechtronics Engineering

Marthwada Mitramandal’s Institute of Technology (MMIT), Pune-47

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Contents
1 Introduction
2 Pneumatic and hydraulic systems
Hydraulic Systems
Pneumatic Systems
Valves
3 Directional control valves
Valve Symbols
4 Pressure Control Valves
5 Cylinders
6 Servo and proportional control valves
7 Process Control Valves
Control-Valve Principles
Control-Valve Types
8 Rotary Actuators
9 Electro pneumatic systems
10 Mechanical actuation systems
11 Basic Electrical Device
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 Introduction

Introduction

Actuation systems are the elements of control systems which are

responsible for transforming the output of a microprocessor or control
system into a controlling action on a machine or device.
Thus, for example, we might have an electrical output from the
controller which has to be transformed into a linear motion to move a
load.
Another example might be where an electrical output from the
controller has to be transformed into an action which controls the
amount of liquid passing along a pipe.
In this module fluid power systems, namely pneumatic and hydraulic
actuation systems, are discussed.
Pneumatics is the term used when compressed air is used and
hydraulics when a liquid, typically oil.

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 Pneumatic and hydraulic systems

Pneumatic and hydraulic systems

Pneumatic signals are often used to control final control elements,

even when the control system is otherwise electrical.
This is because such signals can be used to actuate large valves and
other high-power control devices and so move significant loads. The
main drawback with pneumatic systems is, however, the
compressibility of air.
Hydraulic systems can be used for even higher power control devices
but are more expensive than pneumatic systems and there are hazards
associated with oil leaks which do not occur with air leaks.
The atmospheric pressure varies with both location and time but in
pneumatics is generally taken to be 105 Pa, such a pressure being
termed 1 bar.

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 Pneumatic and hydraulic systems Hydraulic Systems

Hydraulic Systems
With a hydraulic system, pressurised oil is provided by a pump driven
by an electric motor.

Figure 1: (a) Hydraulic power supply, (b) accumulator.

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 Pneumatic and hydraulic systems Hydraulic Systems

The pump pumps oil from a sump through a non-return valve and an
accumulator to the system, from which it returns to the sump. Figure
1(a) illustrates the arrangement.
A pressure-relief valve is included, this being to release the pressure if
it rises above a safe level, the non-return valve is to prevent the oil
being back driven to the pump and the accumulator is to smooth out
any short-term fluctuations in the output oil pressure.
Essentially the accumulator is just a container in which the oil is held
under pressure against an external force, Figure 1(b) showing the
most commonly used form which is gas pressurised and involves gas
within a bladder in the chamber containing the hydraulic fluid; an
older type involved a spring-loaded piston.
If the oil pressure rises then the bladder contracts, increases the
volume the oil can occupy and so reduces the pressure.
If the oil pressure falls, the bladder expands to reduce the volume
occupied by the oil and so increases its pressure.
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 Pneumatic and hydraulic systems Hydraulic Systems

Figure 2: (a) Gear pump, (b) vane pump, (c) radial piston pump, (d) axial piston
pump with swash plate.
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 Pneumatic and hydraulic systems Hydraulic Systems

Commonly used hydraulic pumps are the gear pump, the vane pump
and the piston pump.
The gear pump consists of two close-meshing gear wheels which
rotate in opposite directions (Figure 2(a)).
Fluid is forced through the pump as it becomes trapped between the
rotating gear teeth and the housing and so is transferred from the
inlet port to be discharged at the outlet port.
Such pumps are widely used, being low cost and robust.
However, leakage occurs between the teeth and the casing and
between the interlocking teeth, and this limits the efficiency.

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 Pneumatic and hydraulic systems Hydraulic Systems

The vane pump has spring-loaded sliding vanes slotted in a driven

rotor (Figure 2(b)).
As the rotor rotates, the vanes follow the contours of the casing.
This results in fluid becoming trapped between successive vanes and
the casing and transported round from the inlet port to outlet port.
The leakage is less than with the gear pump.
Piston pumps used in hydraulics can take a number of forms. With
the radial piston pump (Figure 2(c)), a cylinder block rotates round
the stationary cam and this causes hollow pistons, with spring return,
to move in and out.
The result is that fluid is drawn in from the inlet port and transported
round for ejection from the discharge port.
The axial piston pump (Figure 2(d)) has pistons which move axially
rather than radially.

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 Pneumatic and hydraulic systems Hydraulic Systems

The pistons are arranged axially in a rotating cylinder block and made
to move by contact with the swash plate.
This plate is at an angle to the drive shaft and thus as the shaft
rotates they move the pistons so that air is sucked in when a piston is
opposite the inlet port and expelled when it is opposite the discharge
port.
Piston pumps have a high efficiency and can be used at higher
hydraulic pressures than gear or vane pumps.

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 Pneumatic and hydraulic systems Pneumatic Systems

Pneumatic Systems

Figure 3: Pneumatic power supply.

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 Pneumatic and hydraulic systems Pneumatic Systems

With a pneumatic power supply (Figure 3) an electric motor drives an

air compressor.
The air inlet to the compressor is likely to be filtered and via a
silencer to reduce the noise level.
A pressure-relief valve provides protection against the pressure in the
system rising above a safe level. Since the air compressor increases
the temperature of the air, there is likely to be a cooling system and
to remove contamination and water from the air a filter with a water
trap.
An air receiver increases the volume of air in the system and
smoothes out any short-term pressure fluctuations.

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 Pneumatic and hydraulic systems Valves

Valves are used with hydraulic and pneumatic systems to direct and
regulate the fluid flow.
There are basically just two forms of valve, the finite position and
the infinite position valves.
The finite position valves are ones where the action is just to allow or
block fluid flow and so can be used to switch actuators on or off.
They can be used for directional control to switch the flow from one
path to another and so from one actuator to another.
The infinite position valves are able to control flow anywhere between
fully on and fully off and so are used to control varying actuator
forces or the rate of fluid flow for a process control situation.

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 Directional control valves

Directional control valves

Pneumatic and hydraulic systems use directional control valves to
direct the flow of fluid through a system.
They are not intended to vary the rate of flow of fluid but are either
completely open or completely closed, i.e. on/off devices.
Such on/off valves are widely used to develop sequenced control
systems.
A common type of directional control valve is the spool valve. A
spool moves horizontally within the valve body to control the flow.
Figure 4 shows a particular form.

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 Directional control valves

In Figure 4(a) the air supply is connected to port 1 and port 3 is

closed.
Thus the device connected to port 2 can be pressurised.
When the spool is moved to the left (Figure 4(b)) the air supply is
cut off and port 2 is connected to port 3.
Port 3 is a vent to the atmosphere and so the air pressure in the
system attached to port 2 is vented.
Thus the movement of the spool has allowed the air firstly to flow
into the system and then be reversed and flow out of the system.
Rotary spool valves have a rotating spool which, when it rotates,
opens and closes ports in a similar way.

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 Directional control valves

Figure 5: Poppet valve.

Another common form of directional control valve is the poppet

valve. Figure 5 shows one form.
This valve is normally in the closed condition, there being no
connection between port 1 to which the pressure supply is connected
and port 2 to which the system is connected.
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 Directional control valves

In poppet valves, balls, discs or cones are used in conjunction with

valve seats to control the flow. In the figure a ball is shown.
When the push-button is depressed, the ball is pushed out of its seat
and flow occurs as a result of port 1 being connected to port 2.
When the button is released, the spring forces the ball back up
against its seat and so closes off the flow.

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 Directional control valves Valve Symbols

Valve Symbols

The symbol used for a control valve consists of a square for each of
its switching positions.
Thus for the poppet valve shown in Figure 5, there are two positions:
one with the button not pressed and one with it pressed.
Thus a two-position valve will have two squares, a three-position
valve three squares.

Figure 6: (a) Flow path,(b) flow shut-off, (c) initial connections.

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 Directional control valves Valve Symbols

Arrow-headed lines (Figure 6(a)) are used to indicate the directions of

flow in each of the positions, with blocked-off lines indicating closed
flow lines (Figure 6(b)).
The initial position of the valve has the connections (Figure 6(c)) to
the ports shown; in Figure 6(c) the valve has four ports.
Ports are labelled by a number or a letter according to their function.
The ports are labelled 1 (or P) for pressure supply, 3 (or T) for
hydraulic return port, 3 or 5 (or R or S) for pneumatic exhaust ports,
and 2 or 5 (or B or A) for output ports.

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 Directional control valves Valve Symbols

Figure 7: Valve actuation symbols.

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 Directional control valves Valve Symbols

Figure 7(a) shows examples of some of the symbols which are used to
indicate the various ways the valves can be actuated.
More than one of these symbols might be used with the valve symbol.
As an illustration, Figure 7(b) shows the symbol for the two-port,
two-position poppet valve of Figure 5.
Note that a two-port, two-position valve would be described as a 2/2
valve, the first number indicating the number of ports and the second
number the number of positions.
The valve actuation is by a push-button and a spring.

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 Directional control valves Valve Symbols

Figure 8: Lift system

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 Directional control valves Valve Symbols

Figure 8 shows a simple example of an application of valves in a

pneumatic lift system.
Two push-button 2/2 valves are used.
When the button on the up valve is pressed, the load is lifted.
When the button on the down valve is pressed, the load is lowered.
Note that with pneumatic systems an open arrow is used to indicate a
vent to the atmosphere.

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 Pressure Control Valves

Pressure Control Valves

There are three main types of pressure control valves:
1. Pressure-regulating valves
These are used to control the operating pressure in a circuit and maintain
it at a constant value.

2. Pressure-limiting valves

Figure 9: Pressure-limiting valve

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 Pressure Control Valves

These are used as safety devices to limit the pressure in a circuit to

below some safe value.
The valve opens and vents to the atmosphere, or back to the sump, if
the pressure rises above the set safe value.
Figure 9 shows a pressure-limiting/relief valve which has one orifice
which is normally closed.
When the inlet pressure overcomes the force exerted by the spring,
the valve opens and vents to the atmosphere, or back to the sump.

3. Pressure sequence valves

These valves are used to sense the pressure of an external line and
give a signal when it reaches some preset value.
With the pressure-limiting valve of Figure 10, the limiting pressure is
set by the pressure at the inlet to the valve.
We can adapt such a valve to give a sequence valve. This can be
used to allow flow to occur to some part of the system when the
pressure has risen to the required level.
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 Pressure Control Valves

Figure 10: (a) Pressure sequence valve symbol, (b) a sequential system.

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 Pressure Control Valves

Figure 10(a) shows the symbol for a sequence valve, the valve
switching on when the inlet pressure reaches a particular value and
allowing the pressure to be applied to the system that follows.
Figure 10(b) shows a system where such a sequential valve is used.
When the 4/3 valve first operates, the pressure is applied to cylinder
1 and its ram moves to the right.
While this is happening the pressure is too low to operate the
sequence valve and so no pressure is applied to cylinder 2.
When the ram of cylinder 1 reaches the end stop, then the pressure in
the system rises and, at an appropriate level, triggers the sequence
valve to open and so apply pressure to cylinder 2 to start its ram in
motion.

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 Cylinders

Cylinders

The hydraulic or pneumatic cylinder is an example of a linear actuator.

The principles and form are the same for both hydraulic and
pneumatic versions, differences being purely a matter of size as a
consequence of the higher pressures used with hydraulics.
The cylinder consists of a cylindrical tube along which a piston/ram
can slide.
There are two basic types, single-acting cylinders and double-acting
cylinders.
The term single acting is used when the control pressure is applied to
just one side of the piston, a spring often being used to provide the
opposition to the movement of the piston.
The other side of the piston is open to the atmosphere.

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 Cylinders

Figure 11: Single acting cylinder

Figure 11 shows one such cylinder with a spring return.

The fluid is applied to one side of the piston at a gauge pressure p
with the other side being at atmospheric pressure and so produces a
force on the piston of pA, where A is the area of the piston.
The actual force acting on the piston rod will be less than this
because of friction.
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 Cylinders

Figure 12: double acting cylinder

The term ’double acting’ is used when the control pressures are
applied to each side of the piston (Figure 12).
A difference in pressure between the two sides then results in motion
of the piston, the piston being able to move in either direction along
the cylinder as a result of high-pressure signals.
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 Servo and proportional control valves

Servo and proportional control valves

Figure 13: The basic form of servo valve

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 Servo and proportional control valves

Servo and proportional control valves are both infinite position valves
which give a valve spool displacement proportional to the current
supplied to a solenoid.
Basically, servo valves have a torque motor to move the spool within
a valve (Figure 13).
By varying the current supplied to the torque motor, an armature is
deflected and this moves the spool in the valve and hence gives a flow
related to the current.
Servo valves are high precision and costly and generally used in a
closed-loop control system.
Proportional control valves are less expensive and basically have the
spool position directly controlled by the size of the current to the
valve solenoid.
They are often used in open-loop control systems.

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 Process Control Valves

Fluid Valves
The chemical and petroleum industries have many applications that
require control of fluid processes.
Many other industries also depend in part on operations that involve
fluids and the regulation of fluid parameters.
The word fluid here represents either gases, liquids, or vapors. Many
principles of control can be equally applied to any of these states of
matter, with only slight corrections.
Many fluid operations require regulation of such quantities as density
and composition, but by far the most important control parameter is
flow rate.
A regulation of flow rate emerges as the regulatory parameter for
reaction rate, temperature, composition, or a host of other fluid
properties.
We will consider in some detail that process-control element
specifically associated with flow—the control valve.
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 Process Control Valves Control-Valve Principles

Control-Valve Principles

Flow rate in process control is usually expressed as volume per unit

time.
If a mass flow rate is desired, it can be calculated from the particular
fluid density.
If a given fluid is delivered through a pipe, then the volume flow rate
is,

Q = Av (1)
3
where,Q = flow rate(m /s)
A = pipe area(m2 )
V = flow velocity(m/s)

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 Process Control Valves Control-Valve Principles

Figure 14: A basic control-valve cross-section. The direction of flow is important

for proper valve action.

The purpose of the control valve is to regulate the flow rate of fluids
through pipes in the system.
This is accomplished by placing a variable-size restriction in the flow
path, as shown in Figure 14.
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 Process Control Valves Control-Valve Principles

You can see that as the stem and plug move up and down, the size of
the opening between the plug and the seat changes, thus changing
the flow rate.
Note the direction of flow with respect to the seat and plug. If the
flow were reversed, force from the flow would tend to close the valve
further at small openings.
There will be a drop in pressure across such a restriction, and the flow
rate varies with the square root of this pressure drop, with an
appropriate constant of proportionality, shown by
p
Q = K ∆p (2)
where,K = proportionality constant
∆p = p2 − p1 pressure difference

The constant, K, depends on the size of the valve, the geometrical

structure of the delivery system, and, to some extent, on the material
flowing through the valve.
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 Process Control Valves Control-Valve Types

Control-Valve Types
The different types of control valves are classified by a relationship
between the valve stem position and the flow rate through the valve.
This control-valve characteristic is assigned with the assumptions that
the stem position indicates the extent of the valve opening and that
the pressure difference is determined by the valve alone.
Correction factors allow one to account for pressure differences
introduced by the whole system.
Figure 15 shows a typical control valve using a pneumatic actuator
attached to drive the stem and hence open and close the valve.
There are three basic types of control valves, whose relationship
between stem position (as a percentage of full range) and flow rate
(as a percentage of maximum) is shown in Figure 16.
The types are determined by the shape of the plug and seat, as shown
in Figure 14.
As the stem and plug move with respect to the seat, the shape of the
plug determines the amount of actual opening of the valve.
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 Process Control Valves Control-Valve Types

Figure 15: A pneumatic actuator connected to a control valve. The actuator is

driven by a current through an I/PDr.converter.
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 Process Control Valves Control-Valve Types

Figure 16: Three types of control valves open differently as a function of valve
stem position.

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 Process Control Valves Control-Valve Types

Quick Opening
This type of valve is used predominantly for full ON/full OFF control
applications.
The valve characteristic of Figure 16 shows that a relatively small
motion of the valve stem results in maximum possible flow rate
through the valve.
Such a valve, for example, may allow 90% of maximum flow rate with
only a 30% travel of the stem.

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 Process Control Valves Control-Valve Types

Linear
This type of valve, as shown in Figure 16, has a flow rate that varies
linearly with the stem position.
It represents the ideal situation where the valve alone determines the
pressure drop.
The relationship is expressed as,
Q S
= (3)
Qmax Smax
where,Q = flow rate(m3 /s)
S = stem position(m)
Qmax = maximum flow rate(m3 /s)
Smax = maximum stem position(m)

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 Process Control Valves Control-Valve Types

Equal Percentage
A very important type of valve employed in flow control has a
characteristic such that a given percentage change in stem position
produces an equivalent change in flow—that is, an equal percentage.
Generally, this type of valve does not shut off the flow completely in
its limit of stem travel.
Thus,Qmin represents the minimum flow when the stem is at one
limit of its travel.
At the other extreme, the valve allows a flow, Qmax as its maximum,
open-valve flow rate. For this type, we define rangeability, R, as the
ratio,
Qmax
R = (4)
Qmin

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 Process Control Valves Control-Valve Types

The curve in Figure 16 shows a typical equal percentage curve that

depends on the rangeability for its exact form.
The curve shows that increase in flow rate for a given change in valve
opening depends on the extent to which the valve is already open.
This curve is typically exponential in form and is represented by,

Q = Qmin RS/Smax (5)

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 Process Control Valves Control-Valve Types

Control Valve Sizing

Another important factor associated with all control valves involves

corrections to Equation (7.2) because of the nonideal characteristics
of the materials that flow.
A standard nomenclature is used to account for these corrections,
depending on the liquid, gas, or steam nature of the fluid.
These correction factors allow selection of the proper size of valve to
accommodate the rate of flow that the system must support.
The correction factor most commonly used at present is measured as
the number of U.S. gallons of water per minute that flow through a
fully open valve with a pressure differential of 1 lb per square inch.
The correction factor is called the valve flow coefficient and is
designated as Cv .
Using this factor, a liquid flow rate in U.S. gallons per minute is

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 Process Control Valves Control-Valve Types

s
∆p
Q = Cv (6)
Sg
where,∆p = pressure across the valve (psi)
Sg = specific gravity of liquid
Typical values of Cv for different-size valves are shown in Table 1. Similar
equations are used for gases and vapors to determine the proper valve size
in specific applications.
Valve Size (inches) Cv
1
4 0.3
1
2 3
1 14
1 12 35
2 55
3 108
4 174
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6
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400 April 5, 2024 45 / 57
 Process Control Valves Control-Valve Types

Fluid-Control Example

Figure 17: Feed control to a distillation column based on temperature.

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 Rotary Actuators

Rotary Actuators

Figure 18: (a) A linear cylinder used to produce rotation, (b) vane-type
semi-rotary actuator.

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 Rotary Actuators

A linear cylinder can, with suitable mechanical linkages, be used to

produce rotary movement through angles less than 3600 , Figure 18(a)
illustrating such an arrangement.
Another alternative is a semi-rotary actuator involving a vane (Figure
18(b)).
A pressure difference between the two ports causes the vane to rotate
and so give a shaft rotation which is a measure of the pressure
difference.
Depending on the pressures, so the vane can be rotated clockwise or
anti-clockwise.

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 Electro pneumatic systems

Electro pneumatic systems

Electro pneumatics is now commonly used in many areas of Industrial
low cost automation.
They are also used extensively in production, assembly,
pharmaceutical, chemical and packaging systems.
Electro-pneumatic control consists of electrical control systems
operating pneumatic power systems.
In this solenoid valves are used as interface between the electrical and
pneumatic systems.
Devices like limit switches and proximity sensors are used as feedback
elements.
In Electro Pneumatics, the signal medium is the electrical signal
either AC or DC source is used.
Working medium is compressed air. Operating voltages from around
12 V to 220 Volts are often used.
The final control valve is activated by solenoid actuation.
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 Electro pneumatic systems

Control of Electro Pneumatic system is carried out either using

combination of Relays and Contactors or with the help of
Programmable Logic Controllers [PLC].
A Relay is often is used to convert signal input from sensors and
switches to number of output signals [ either normally closed or
normally open] .
Signal processing can be easily achieved using relay and contactor
combinations.
A Programmable Logic Controller can be conveniently used to obtain
the out puts as per the required logic, time delay and sequential
operation.
Finally the out put signals are supplied to the solenoids activating the
final control valves which controls the movement of various cylinders.
The greatest advantage of electro pneumatics is the integration of
various types of proximity sensors [electrical] and PLC for very
effective control.
As the signal speed with electrical signal, can be much higher, cycle
time can be reduced and signal can be conveyed over long distances.
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 Electro pneumatic systems

In Electro pneumatic controls, mainly three important steps are

involved:
1 Signal input devices -Signal generation such as switches and
contactor, Various types of contact and proximity sensors
2 Signal Processing – Use of combination of Contactors of Relay or
using Programmable Logic Controllers
3 Signal Outputs – Out puts obtained after processing are used for
activation of solenoids, indicators or audible alarms

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 Mechanical actuation systems

Mechanical actuation systems

Mechanisms are devices which can be considered to be motion

converters in that they transform motion from one form to some
other required form.
They might, for example, transform linear motion into rotational
motion, or motion in one direction into a motion in a direction at
right angles, or perhaps a linear reciprocating motion into rotary
motion, as in the internal combustion engine where the reciprocating
motion of the pistons is converted into rotation of the crank and
hence the drive shaft.
Mechanical elements can include the use of linkages, cams, gears, rack
and pinion, chains, belt drives, etc. For example, the rack-and-pinion
can be used to convert rotational motion to linear motion.

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 Mechanical actuation systems

Many of the actions which previously were obtained by the use of

mechanisms are, however, often nowadays being obtained, as a result
of a mechatronics approach, by the use of microprocessor systems.
For example: Washing Machine
While electronics might now be used often for many functions that
previously were fulfilled by mechanisms, mechanisms might still be
used to provide such functions as:
1 force amplification, e.g. that given by levers;
2 change of speed, e.g. that given by gears;
3 transfer of rotation about one axis to rotation about another, e.g. a
timing belt;
4 particular types of motion, e.g. that given by a quick-return
mechanism.
Mechanisms are devices which can be considered to be motion
converters in that they transform motion from one form to some
other required form.
The motion of a body can be considered to be a combination of
translational and rotational motions.
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 Basic Electrical Device

Basic Electrical Device

Seven basic electrical devices commonly used in the control of fluid power
systems are
1. Manually actuated push button switches
2. Limit switches
3. Pressure switches
4. Solenoids
5. Relays
6. Timers
7. Temperature switches
Other devices used in electro pneumatics are
1. Proximity sensors
2. Electric counters

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 Summary

Summary
Pneumatic systems use air, hydraulic systems use oil. The main
drawback with pneumatic systems is the compressibility of air.
Hydraulic systems can be used for higher power control devices but
are more expensive than pneumatic systems and there are hazards
associated with oil leaks which do not occur with air leaks.
Pneumatic and hydraulic systems use directional control valves to
direct the flow of fluid through a system. Such valves are on/off
valves.
The hydraulic or pneumatic cylinder consists of a cylindrical tube
along which a piston/ram can slide.
There are two basic types, single-acting cylinders and double-acting
cylinders.
With single-acting, the control pressure is applied to just one side of
the piston, a spring often being used to provide the opposition to the
movement of the piston.
(Sensors and Actuators) Dr. Mukesh Ghogare April 5, 2024 55 / 57
 Summary

The other side of the piston is open to the atmosphere. The term
double-acting is used when the control pressures are applied to each
side of the piston.
Process control valves are used to control the rate of fluid flow.
The basis of such valves is an actuator being used to move a plug
into the flow pipe and so alter the cross-section of the pipe through
which the fluid can flow.
There are many forms of valve body and plug, these determining how
the valve controls the fluid flow.

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 Summary

Thank You

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