CHILD PSYCHOPATHOLOGY

Assignment # 3

Course of Prenatal Development

Date of submission: October 18, 2010

Submitted to: Madam Uzma Zaidi

Submitted by: Aiman Javed

Roll # 07

BS (Honors) Semester VII

Session: 2007-2011

DEPARTMENT OF APPLIED PSYCHOLOGY

UNIVERSITY OF THE PUNJAB

 COURSE OF PRENATAL DEVELOPMENT

DEFINITION

Prenatal development refers to the process in which a baby develops from a single cell after
conception into an embryo and later a fetus. Often, the terms fetal development, foetal
development, or embryology are used in a similar sense.

DESCRIPTION

The average length of time for prenatal development to complete is 38 weeks from the date of
conception. During this time, a single-celled zygote develops in a series of stages into a full-term
baby. The three primary stages of prenatal development are the germinal stage, the embryonic
stage, and the fetal stage.

Germinal stage:

Conception occurs when the female egg (ovum) is fertilized by a male sperm. Under normal
circumstances, one egg is released approximately once a month from a woman's ovary during a
process called ovulation. The egg makes its way into a fallopian tube, a structure that guides the
egg away from the ovary toward the uterus. For fertilization to occur, sperm ejaculated during
sexual intercourse (or introduced during artificial insemination) in a substance called semen must
have made their way from the vagina into the uterus and subsequently into the fallopian tube
where the ovum has been released. This process can take up to ten hours after ejaculation. For
fertilization to occur, a sperm must penetrate the tough outer membrane of the egg called the
zona pellucida. When one sperm successfully binds with the zona pellucida, a series of chemical
reactions occurs to allow only that sperm to penetrate. Fertilization occurs when the sperm
successfully enters the ovum's membrane. The genetic material of the sperm and egg then
combine to form a single cell called a zygote and the germinal stage of prenatal development
commences.

The zygote soon begins to divide rapidly in a process called cleavage, first into two identical
cells called blastomeres, which further divide to four cells, then into eight, and so on. The group
of diving cells begins to move along the fallopian tube toward the uterus. About sixty hours after
fertilization, approximately sixteen cells have formed to what is called a morula, still enclosed by
the zona pellucida; three days after fertilization, the morula enters the uterus. As cell division
continues, a fluid-filled cavity called a blastocoele forms in the center of the group of cells, with
the outer shell of cells called trophoblasts and an inner mass of cells called embryoblasts. The
zona pellucida disappears and the morula becomes a blastocyst. At this stage the blastocyst
consists of 200 to 300 cells and is ready for implantation.

Implantation, the process in which the blastocyst implants into the uterine wall, occurs
approximately six days after conception. Hormones secreted from the mother's ovaries and a
chemical secreted by the trophoblasts begin to prepare the uterine wall. The blastocyst first
adheres to the wall then moves into the uterine tissue. Implantation marks the end of the
germinal stage and the beginning of the embryonic stage.

Embryonic stage:

The embryonic stage begins after implantation and lasts until eight weeks after conception. Soon
after implantation, the cells continue to rapidly divide and clusters of cells begin to take on
different functions, a process known as differentiation. A process called gastrulation leads to
the formation of three distinct layers called germ layers: the ectoderm (outer layer), the
mesoderm (middle layer), and the endoderm (inner layer). As the embryo develops, each germ
layer differentiates into different tissues and structures. For example, the ectoderm eventually
forms skin, nails, hair, brain, nervous tissue and cells, nose, sinuses, mouth, anus, tooth enamel,
and other tissues. The mesoderm develops into muscles, bones, heart tissue, lungs, reproductive
organs, lymphatic tissue, and other tissues. The endoderm forms the lining of lungs, bladder,
digestive tract, tongue, tonsils, and other organs.

The process of differentiation takes place over a period of weeks with different structures
forming simultaneously. Some of the major events that occur during the embryonic stage are as
follows:

 Week 3: Beginning development of the brain, heart, blood cells, circulatory system,
spinal cord, and digestive system.
  Week 4: Beginning development of bones, facial structures, and limbs (presence of arm
and leg buds); continuing development of the heart (which begins to beat), brain, and
nervous tissue.
 Week 5: Beginning development of eyes, nose, kidneys, lungs; continuing development
of the heart (formation of valves), brain, nervous tissue, and digestive tract.
 Week 6: Beginning development of hands, feet, and digits; continuing development of
brain, heart, and circulation system.
 Week 7: Beginning development of hair follicles, nipples, eyelids, and sex organs (testes
or ovaries); first formation of urine in the kidneys and first evidence of brain waves.
 Week 8: Facial features more distinct, internal organs well developed, the brain can
signal for muscles to move, heart development ends, external sex organs begin to form.

By the end of the embryonic stage, all essential external and internal structures have been
formed. The embryo is now referred to as a fetus.

Fetal stage:

Prenatal development is most dramatic during the fetal stage. When an embryo becomes a fetus
at eight weeks, it is approximately 3 centimeters (1.2 inches) in length from crown to rump and
weighs about 3 grams (0.1 ounce). By the time the fetus is considered full-term at 38 weeks
gestation, he or she may be 50 centimeters (20 inches) or 3.3 kilograms (7.3 pounds). Although
all of the organ systems were formed during embryonic development, they continue to develop
and grow during the fetal stage. Examples of some of the major features of fetal development by
week are as follows:

 Weeks 9–12: The fetus reaches approximately 8 cm. (3.2 in.) in length; the head is
approximately half the size of the fetus. External features such as the face, neck, eyelids,
limbs, digits, and genitals are well formed. The beginnings of teeth appear, and red blood
cells begin to be produced in the liver. The fetus is able to make a fist.
 Weeks 13–15: The fetus reaches approximately 15 cm. (6 in.) in length. Fine hair called
lanugo first develops on the head; structures such as the lungs, sweat glands, muscles,
and bones continue to develop. The fetus is able to swallow and make sucking motions.
  Weeks 16–20: The fetus reaches approximately 20 cm. (8 in.) in length. Lanugo begins
to cover all skin surfaces, and fat begins to develop under the skin. Features such as
finger and toenails, eyebrows, and eyelashes appear. The fetus becomes more active, and
the mother can sometimes begin to feel fetal movements at this stage.
 Weeks 21–24: The fetus reaches approximately 28.5 cm. (11.2 in.) in length and weighs
approximately 0.7 kg (1 lb. 10 oz.). Hair grows longer on the head, and the eyebrows and
eye lashes finish forming. The lungs continue to develop with the formation of air sac
(alveoli); the eyes finish developing. A startle reflex develops at this time.
 Weeks 25–28: The fetus reaches approximately 38 cm. (15 in.) in length and weighs
approximately 1.2 kg (2 lb. 11 oz.). The next few weeks mark a period of rapid brain and
nervous system development. The fetus gains greater control over movements such as
opening and closing eyelids and certain body functions. The lungs have developed
sufficiently that air breathing is possible.
 Weeks 29–32: The fetus reaches approximately 38–43 cm. (15–17 in.) in length and
weighs approximately 2 kg (4 lb. 6 oz.). Fat deposits become more pronounced under the
skin. The lungs remain immature but breathing movements begin. The fetus's bones are
developed but not yet hardened.
 Weeks 33–36: The fetus reaches approximately 41–48 cm. (16–19 in.) in length and
weighs 2.6–3.0 kg (5 lb. 12 oz. to 6 lb. 12 oz.). Body fat continues to increase, lanugo
begins to disappear, and fingernails are fully grown. The fetus has gained a high degree
of control over body functions.
 Weeks 36–
38: The fetus reaches 48–53 cm. (19–21 in.) in length is considered to be full-term by the
end of this period. Lanugo has mostly disappeared and is replaced with thicker hair on the
head. Fingernails have grown past the tips of the fingers. In a healthy fetus, all organ
systems are functioning.

Prenatal death major congenital anomalies (black) functional defects (grey)

PROBLEMS DURING PRENATAL DEVELOPMENT

Most prenatal develop occurs normally, following the established patterns with little variation.
However, there are a number of things that can go wrong during this time, which are usually
caused by genetics or environmental problems.

Congenital abnormalities

In some cases abnormalities may arise during prenatal development that cause physical
malformations or developmental delays or affect various parts of the body after the child is born.
The cause may be a small mutation in or damage to the genetic material of cells, or a major
chromosomal abnormality (each normal cell has two copies each of 23 strands [called
chromosomes] of genetic material, and abnormalities can arise if there are three copies of a
strand or only one). Sometimes the abnormality is inherited from one or both parents; in other
cases, the defect occurs because of an error in prenatal development.

Some abnormalities are minor and do not affect the long-term prognosis once the child is born.
At the other end of the spectrum, abnormalities may be so severe that fetal demise is inevitable.
Approximately 10 to 15 percent of pregnancies end before the twentieth week, a process called
miscarriage or spontaneous abortion; congenital abnormalities account for a significant
proportion of miscarriages. Genetic abnormalities account for approximately 5 percent of
miscarriages. Some of the genetic problems are as follows

 Down syndrome – Also known as trisomy 21, Down syndrome is the most common
genetic anomaly during prenatal development. Down syndrome is caused by and extra
copy of the 21 chromosome (meaning there are three chromosomes instead of the usual
two) and impacts approximately 1 out of every 1,000 infants. Typical features of Down
syndrome include flattened facial features, heart defects, and mental retardation. The risk
of having a child with Down syndrome increases with maternal age.
 Inherited diseases – A number of illnesses can be inherited if one or both parents carry a
gene for the disease. Examples of inherited diseases include Sickle-cell anemia, Cystic
fibrosis, and Tay-Sachs disease. Genetic tests can often determine if a parent is a carrier
of genes for a specific disease.
  Sex-Chromosome Problems – A third type of genetic problems involves sex-
chromosomes. These include conditions such as Klinefelter’s syndrome (an extra X-
chromsome) and Turner syndrome (a single X-chromosome).

Environmental Problems

Harmful environmental elements that can affect the fetus are known as teratogens. There a
number of teratogens that can harm the fetus, including:

 Maternal Drug Use – The use of substances by the mother can have devastating
consequences to the fetus. Smoking is linked to low birth weight, which can result in a
weakened immune system, poor respiration, and neurological impairment. Alcohol use
can lead to fetal alcohol syndrome, which is linked to heart defects, body malformations,
and mental retardation. The use of illicit drugs such as cocaine and methamphetamine is
also linked to low birth weight and neurological impairment.
 Maternal Disease – There are a number of maternal diseases that can negatively impact
the fetus, including herpes, rubella, and AIDS. Herpes virus is one of the most common
maternal diseases and can be transmitted in the fetus, leading to deafness, brain swelling,
or mental retardation. Women with herpes virus are often encouraged to deliver via
cesarean to avoid transmission of the virus.

Prematurity

Advances in medical care have made it possible for many infants born prematurely to survive
and develop normally. The earlier the gestational age, the greater is the chance of death or
significant medical problems. Whether or not a premature infant will survive is intimately tied to
his or her gestational age:

 21 weeks or less: 0 percent survival rate

 22 weeks: 0–10 percent survival rate
 23 weeks: 10–35 percent survival rate
 24 weeks: 40–70 percent survival rate
 25 weeks: 50–80 percent survival rate
  26 weeks: 80–90 percent survival rate
 27 weeks: greater than 90 percent survival rate

References

Cherry, K. (2010). Stages of Prenatal Development. Retrieved October 15, 2010, from
http://psychology.about.com/od/developmentalpsychology/a/prenataldevelop.htm

Prenatal development. (2010). As cited in Gale encyclopedia of children health. Retrieved

October 15, 2010, from http://www.healthline.com/galecontent/prenatal-development

Prenatal development. (2010). As cited in Wikipedia the free encyclopedia. Retrieved October
15, 2010, from http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Prenatal_development