Definition

“An ecosystem is defined as a community of lifeforms in concurrence with

non-living components, interacting with each other.”

• An ecosystem is a structural and functional unit of ecology where the living

organisms interact with each other and the surrounding environment. In other
words, an ecosystem is a chain of interactions between organisms and their
environment.
• The term “Ecosystem” was first coined by A.G.Tansley, an English botanist,
in 1935.
Structure of Ecosystem
• The structure of an ecosystem is characterised by the organisation of both
biotic and abiotic components. This includes the distribution of energy in our
environment. It also includes the climatic conditions prevailing in that
particular environment.
• The structure of an ecosystem can be split into two main components,
namely:
• Biotic Components
• Abiotic Components
Biotic Components
• Biotic components refer to all living components in an ecosystem. Based on
nutrition, biotic components can be categorised into autotrophs, heterotrophs
and saprotrophs (or decomposers).
• Producers include all autotrophs such as plants. They are called autotrophs
as they can produce food through the process of photosynthesis.
Consequently, all other organisms higher up on the food chain rely on
producers for food.
• Consumers or heterotrophs are organisms that depend on other organisms
for food. Consumers are further classified into primary consumers,
secondary consumers and tertiary consumers.
• Primary consumers are always herbivores as they rely on producers for food.
• Secondary consumers depend on primary consumers for energy. They can either be
carnivores or omnivores.
• Tertiary consumers are organisms that depend on secondary consumers for
food. Tertiary consumers can also be carnivores or omnivores.

• Decomposers include saprophytes such as fungi and bacteria. They directly

thrive on the dead and decaying organic matter. Decomposers are essential
for the ecosystem as they help in recycling nutrients to be reused by plants.
Abiotic Components

• Abiotic components are the non-living component of an ecosystem. It

includes air, water, soil, minerals, sunlight, temperature, nutrients, wind,
altitude, turbidity, etc.
Functions of ecosystem
• The functions of the ecosystem are as follows:
• It regulates the essential ecological processes, supports life systems and
renders stability.
• It is also responsible for the cycling of nutrients between biotic and
abiotic components.
• It maintains a balance among the various trophic levels in the ecosystem.
• It cycles the minerals through the biosphere.
• The abiotic components help in the synthesis of organic components that
involve the exchange of energy.
PRODUCTIVITY
• Productivity – It refers to the rate of biomass production.
• productivity refers to the rate of formation of biomass in the ecosystem. It
can also be referred to as the energy accumulated in the plants by
photosynthesis. There are two types of productivity, namely:
• Primary Productivity refers to the generation of biomass from autotrophic
organisms such as plants. Photosynthesis is the primary tool for the creation
of organic material from inorganic compounds such as carbon dioxide and
water. Primary productivity can be divided into two aspects:
• Gross primary productivity
• Net primary productivity
• Gross primary productivity
• The solar energy trapped by the photosynthetic organism is called gross
primary productivity. All the organic matters produced falls under gross
primary productivity. This depends upon the photosynthetic activity and
environmental factors.
• Net primary productivity
• This is estimated by the gross productivity minus energy lost in respiration.
• NPP = GPP – Energy lost by respiration

• Heterotrophs such as animals influence Secondary Productivity. It is the

accumulation of energy at the consumer’s level. It keeps moving from one
organism to another, unlike primary productivity. This process occurs as a
result of organic materials being transferred between various trophic levels.
Food Chain

• “The food chain is a linear sequence of organisms where

nutrients and energy is transferred from one organism to the
other”.
Grazing food chain
• The grazing food chain is a type of food chain that starts with green plants,
passes through herbivores and then to carnivores. In a grazing food chain,
energy in the lowest trophic level is acquired from photosynthesis.
Detritus food chain
• The detritus food chain includes different species of organisms and plants
like algae, bacteria, fungi, protozoa, mites, insects, worms and so on. The
detritus food chain begins with dead organic material. The food energy
passes into decomposers and detritivores, which are further eaten by smaller
organisms like carnivores. Carnivores, like maggots, become a meal for
bigger carnivores like frogs, snakes and so on. Primary consumers like fungi,
bacteria, protozoans, and so on are detritivores which feed on detritus.
Parasitic food chain
• Parasitic food chain is a type of food chain that starts from herbivore, but the
food energy transfers from larger organisms to smaller organisms, without
killing in case of a predator. Thus, the larger animals are known to be the
hosts and the smaller living organisms which acquire nutrition from the hosts
are known to be the parasites.
FOOD WEB
“a complex network of interconnected food chains that shows
how energy and matter are transferred between species in an
ecosystem”

The concept of a food web, previously known as a food cycle, is

typically credited to Charles Elton, who first introduced it in his
book Animal Ecology, published in 1927.
ECOLOGICAL PYRAMIDS
“An ecological pyramid is the graphical representation of the
number, energy, and biomass of the successive trophic levels of
an ecosystem”
• Charles Elton was the first ecologist to describe the ecological
pyramid and its principals in 1927.

• The ecological pyramid is of three types

 the pyramid of numbers
 the pyramid of biomass
 the pyramid of energy
Pyramid of Number

• The Pyramid of Number denotes the total number of living

individuals at various trophic levels in an ecological system.
The producers are at the base and top carnivores at the topmost
level in this pyramid.
Pyramid of Biomass

• The ecological pyramid that is made by considering the amount

of biomass that is produced by the living system of each trophic
level is represented by the pyramid of biomass. The pyramid
that demonstrates the total weight of every trophic level in a
specific food chain in an ecosystem is the biomass pyramid.
Pyramid of Energy

• The ecological pyramid which is formed by determining the flow of energy

from one trophic level to another is known as the pyramid of energy. The
producers situated at the base of the pyramid of energy have the highest
amount of energy and the topmost consumer at the top has the least amount
of energy.
“Lindeman’s 10% regulation law”
 DESERT ECOSYSTEM
Hot Desert Cold Desert

It refers to a desert with extremely hot climate. It refers to a desert with extremely cold climate.

Hot deserts are found in the tropical and Cold deserts are mostly found in temperate regions
sub-tropical regions (western coasts of continents). at higher latitudes.

It has a sandy soil. It has sand, ice or snow covered land.

It is red or orange in colour. It generally appears gray.

Precipitation levels are generally lower than cold They tend to have higher precipitation levels than
deserts. hot deserts.

Evaporation is higher than precipitation in hot Precipitation is higher than evaporation in cold
deserts. deserts.
Commonly found animals include fennec foxes, Commonly found animals include foxes,
dung beetles, bactrian camels, sidewinder snakes, jackrabbits, kangaroo rats, pocket mice, badger etc.
Mexican coyotes etc.

Vegetation is very rare and mostly includes Vegetation is scattered with needle like leaves.
ground-hugging shrubs and short woody trees.
AQUATIC ECOSYSTEM
 LENTIC ECOSYSTEM LOTIC ECOSYSTEM

The term lentic (meaning ‘to make calm') is used for still The term lotic (from lavo, meaning ‘to wash') represents
waters of lakes and ponds running water, where the entire body of water moves in a
definite direction.

The presence of stratification is created by the difference in The velocity of current in running waters depends on the
density resulting from differential heating of lake waters nature of their gradient and substrates.

the water movement is strongly influenced by wind pattern The continual downstream movement of water, dissolved
and temperature. Often, the movement of water in lake is substances and suspended particles is depended primarily
multidirectional. on the drainage basin characteristics.

The temperature is not uniform, due to density difference, The stratification due to temperature is absent and due to
the lake is stratified into epilimnion, hypolimnion and more contact with air, the temperature of a stream follows
thermocline. that of air temperature.
Materials in suspension can be divided into two The erosion, transportation and deposition of solid
types depending on origin. Autochthonous matter, materials within a running water is closely linked to
which is generated from lake itself, and current velocity. The organic matter in suspended
allochthonous matter originating from outside the form is mainly from litter that is brought into the
lake and brought into it. The autochthonous matter river. The other suspended matter includes
is mainly derived from growth of algae and inorganic matter such as silt, detritus and materials
macrophytes. The allochthonous organic matter is removed from the sediments, which cause turbidity
derived from peat, fallen leaves and other decaying to the water.
types of vegetation.
The depth to which rooted macrophytes and The penetration of light in running waters is strongly
attached algae can grow on suitable substrates is influenced by the turbidity. In addition to scattering
largely controlled by the spectral composition and by particles, there is also a loss due to absorption by
intensity of light there. According to penetration of water.
light, a lake can be divided into tropogenic zone and
tropolytic zone. Light determines the primary
productivity of lake and phytoplankton inturn
determine the depth of light penetration.
The quantities of oxygen in a lake depend on the Of the dissolved gases present in running waters,
extent of contact between water and air, on the oxygen is the most abundant and important. The
circulation of water and on the amounts produced concentration of oxygen is high due to turbulence
and consumed within each lake. and mixing.
The dissolved solids content of standing water is The dissolved solids present in a river may vary
dependant on the catchment area. The dissolved greatly from source to mouth, usually increasing in
solids are also fixed by phytoplankton. Major downstream direction. The effect of rainfall also
nutrients like nitrogen, phosphorus, iron, silicon and plays an important role.
others may be depleted and so limit production or
alter the composition of algal community.
 Zonation of Lake
Littoral zone
The littoral zone adjoins the shore (and is thus the home of rooted plants) and
extends down to a point called the light compensation level, or the depth at
which the rate of photosynthesis equals the rate of respiration. Within the
littoral zone producers are of two main types: rooted or benthic plants, and
phytoplankton (plant plankton) or floating green plants, which are mostly algae.
Limnetic Zone
The limnetic zone includes all the waters beyond the littoral zone and down to
the light compensation level. The limnetic zone derives its oxygen content from
the photosynthetic activity of phytoplankton and from the atmosphere
immediately over the lake’s surface. The atmospheric source of oxygen
becomes significant primarily when there is some surface disturbance of water
caused by wind action or human activity. The community of the limnetic zone
is composed only of plankton, nekton, and sometimes neuston (organisms
resting or swimming on the surface).
Profundal Zone
The bottom and deep water area of a lake, which is beyond the depth of
effective light penetration is called the pro-fundal zone. In north-temperate
latitudes, where winters are long and severe, this zone has the warmest water
(4°C) in the lake in winter and coldest water in summer.

Neuston: These are unattached organisms which live at the air-water interface such as floating plants and several types of animals
Plankton are tiny aquatic organisms that cannot move on their own. They live in the photic zone. They include phytoplankton and
zooplankton. Phytoplankton are bacteria and algae that use sunlight to make food. Zooplankton are tiny animals that feed on phytoplankton.
Nekton are aquatic animals that can move on their own by “swimming” through the water. They may live in the photic or aphotic zone. They feed
on plankton or other nekton. Examples of nekton include fish and shrimp.
Nekton: This group contains animals which are swimmers. The nektons are relatively large and powerful as they have to overcome the water
currents
Benthos are aquatic organisms that crawl in sediments at the bottom of a body of water. Many are decomposers. Benthos include sponges, clams
Wetlands are areas where water is the primary factor controlling the environment and the associated plant and animal life.
They occur where the water table is at or near the surface of the land, or where the land is covered by water.
Wetlands are defined as: "lands transitional between terrestrial and aquatic eco-systems where the water table is usually at or
near the surface or the land is covered by shallow water".

Types
Wetlands take many forms including:

Coastal Wetlands: Coastal wetlands are found in the areas between land and open sea that are not influenced by rivers such
as shorelines, beaches, mangroves and coral reefs. A good example is the mangrove swamps found in sheltered tropical
coastal areas.
Shallow lakes and ponds: These wetlands are areas of permanent or semi-permanent water with little flow. They include
vernal ponds, spring pools, salt lakes and volcanic crater lakes.
Marshes: These are periodically saturated, flooded, or ponded with water and characterized by herbaceous (non-woody)
vegetation adapted to wet soil conditions. Marshes are further characterized as tidal marshes and non-tidal marshes.
Swamps: These are fed primarily by surface water inputs and are dominated by trees and shrubs. Swamps occur in either
freshwater or saltwater floodplains.
Bogs: Bogs are waterlogged peatlands in old lake basins or depressions in the landscape. Almost all water in bogs comes
from rainfall.
Estuaries: The area where rivers meet the sea and water changes from fresh to salt can offer an extremely rich mix of
biodiversity. These wetlands include deltas, tidal mudflats and salt marshes.

Importance
Wetlands are highly productive ecosystems that provide the world with nearly two-thirds of its fish harvest.
Wetlands play an integral role in the ecology of the watershed. The combination of shallow water, high levels of nutrients is
ideal for the development of organisms that form the base of the food web and feed many species of fish, amphibians,
shellfish and insects.
Wetlands' microbes, plants and wildlife are part of global cycles for water, nitrogen and sulphur. Wetlands store carbon within
their plant communities and soil instead of releasing it to the atmosphere as carbon dioxide.
Wetlands function as natural barriers that trap and slowly release surface water, rain, snowmelt, groundwater and flood
waters. Wetland vegetation also slow the speed of flood waters lowering flood heights and reduces soil erosion.