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210 Programming 1

The document explains the concept of programming instructions and control structures, emphasizing the importance of logical control structures like branching and looping in creating more dynamic and interesting programs. It details how these structures allow computers to make decisions and repeat actions based on conditions, similar to making choices in games. The document also illustrates the use of 'if-else' statements for decision-making in programming, highlighting how they function based on true or false evaluations.

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0% found this document useful (0 votes)
19 views23 pages

210 Programming 1

The document explains the concept of programming instructions and control structures, emphasizing the importance of logical control structures like branching and looping in creating more dynamic and interesting programs. It details how these structures allow computers to make decisions and repeat actions based on conditions, similar to making choices in games. The document also illustrates the use of 'if-else' statements for decision-making in programming, highlighting how they function based on true or false evaluations.

Uploaded by

sumiyaahmedachol
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© © All Rights Reserved
We take content rights seriously. If you suspect this is your content, claim it here.
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Download as PDF, TXT or read online on Scribd
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210-programming

Slide 3-210
* Instructions are done in order: Just like you push the first car, then the second car, then the third, the computer does the first instruction, then the
second, then the third, exactly inthe order you wrote them.
* Each instruction isdone only once: Each car moves forward one time, and that's it for that turn. Similarly, each line of code in a simple program is done
one time and then the computer movesto thenext line.
The slide then says, "Programsof this type are unrealistically simple, since they do notinclude anylogicalcontrol structures."
What doesthat mean in ourtoystory?
It means a story where the cars only move forward in a line, one after the other, just once, is a very boring story! There are no surprises, no choices, no
repeating actions.
"Logical control structures" are like the rules that make our toy story more interesting! Remember the "if... then..." rule (if the red car wins, the blue cars
dance) and the "do this again and again" rule (make each soldier march 5 times)? Those are logical control structures! They control how the story (the
program) unfolds.
Without these rules, the story (the program) just goesstraightfrom beginning to end in avery simple and predictable way.
So, the slide is basically saying that the first way we learn to tell the computer what to do is very straightforward (do this, then do that). But to make the
computer do more interesting and useful things, we need to give it rules ("control structures") so it can make decisions and repeat actions, just like
making our toy story more exciting with different rules!

Okay, let's think about choosing differentpathsin agame and doing thingsoverand over again!
Control Structure islike having choices and repeating actionsin agame.
* Branching (or Selection): Choosing one path. Imagine you're playing a board game, and you land on a special square.The card you pick up says: "If you
have a key, go down the green path. If you don't have akey, go down the blue path." You have to choose one of the pathsdepending on whether you have
a key or not. This choosing of one path out of many is called branching or selection. The computer does something similar – it looks at a condition (like
"Do you have akey?") and then choosesto do one setof instructionsoranother.
* Looping: Doing something again and again. Now, imagine in the same game, you land on a square that says: "Roll the dice and move that many steps.
Do this 3 times." You have to roll the dice and move, and then you have to do it again, and then one more time – a total of 3 times. Doing something
repeatedly until acertain condition ismet (likedoing it 3 times) is called looping.Thecomputer can also repeat a set of instructions many times.
* Sometimesthe game tellsyou exactly how many timestorepeat (like "3 times").
* Other times, the game might say, "Keep rolling the dice until you get a 6." You don't know exactly how many times you'll roll, but you keep doing it until
you geta 6.The computercanalso do this– itcan keep repeating something until a certain thing becomes true.
So, Control Structure is all about making the computer program do different things based on choices (branching) or repeat things multiple times
(looping).Itmakestheprogram much more flexible and able to handle different situations, just like having choicesand repeating actions makes agame
more interesting!

Okay, look at this picture like a map of how our toy story can go! "Control Statements" is the name of the whole map.It shows usthe different wayswe can
control whatourtoysdo.
There are three mainpathsonthis map:
* Selection/Branching Statements (The "Choosing" Path): This path is for when we want our toys to do different things depending on something.
Remember our "If...Then..." rules? Thisiswhere those ruleslive!
* If: This is likesaying, "If the sun isshining, the toy cars will go fast." If the sun isn't shining, they might just stay still.
* If-Else: Thisislike saying, "If it'sraining, the toy boats will float. Else (if it'snot raining), the toy planes will fly." We have two choices here!
* If-Else-If: This islike having more choices! "If the cat toy is red, it will meow.Else if the cat toy is blue, it willpurr.Else (if it's anyother color), it will just sit."
We have three or more choices!
* Switch: This is like having a bunch of different buttons on a toy, and each button makes it do a different thing. "If you press the star button, the toy
sings. If you press the square button, it dances.If you pressthe circle button, itlights up."
* Iterative Statements (The "Repeating" Path): This path is for when we want our toys to do something again and again. Remember our "Do this again..."
rules? Thisiswhere those ruleslive!
* While: Thisislike saying, "While themusic is playing, the toy robot will keep dancing." It keeps dancing as long as the music is on.
* Do...While: This is like saying, "First, the toy dog will wag its tail. Then, while you are still petting it, it will keep wagging its tail." It does it at least once,
and then keepsdoing it as long as you're petting it.
* For: Thisislike saying, "Make the toy train go around the track 5 times." We know exactly how manytimesto repeat!
* Jump Statements (The "Skipping Around" Path): This path is for when we want to jump out of a repeating action or skip some steps. These are a little
trickier, butthink of them likeshortcutsoremergencyexits in ourtoystory.
* Break: This is like saying, "If the toy car crashes, stop the whole raceright now!" It jumps out of a loop or a switch statement.
* Continue: This is like saying, "If this one toy soldier trips, just skip him and move on to the next one." It skips the rest of the current loop and goes to the
next one.
* Got: Thisislike having asecret tunnel in yourtoysetup thattakes you from one specific spot to another specific spot, but it can sometimesmake the
story confusing, so we don't use it as much.
So, this map of "Control Statements" shows us all the different ways we can tell the computer (our toys) how to act, not just in a straight line, but by
making choices, repeating actions, and eventaking some shortcuts!

Imagine you're playing a game where you need to make choices! Sometimes you need to check if something is true or false before you decide what to
do next. That's kind of what "Control Structure" in computers is like.It helpsthe computermake decisions.
Let's look at the first picture.
Control Structure
* True or False Checks: The computer needs to check if something is "yes" (true) or "no" (false). Think of it like asking, "Is the sky blue?" The answer is
either yesor no.
* Checking Numbers: To do this, the computer uses special signs:
* < means "smaller than." Like, is 5smaller than 10? (Yes!)
* > means "bigger than." Like, is 10 bigger than5? (Yes!)
* <= means"smaller than or the same as." Like, is 5smaller than or the same as 5? (Yes!)
* >= means"bigger than or the same as." Like, is 10bigger than or the same as 8? (Yes!)
* == means"exactly the same as." Like, is2 the same as 2? (Yes!)
* != means"not the same as." Like, is3 not the same as 4? (Yes!)
Look at the examplesin the picture:
* count == 100: This checks if the number in "count" is exactly 100.
* Sqrt(albic)>0.005: Thischecksif the result of amath problem is biggerthan a smallnumber.
* answer == 0: Thischecksif the "answer" isexactly 0.
* balance >= cutoff: Thischecksif the "balance" is bigger thanorthe same asa "cutoff" number.
* Letter != 'X': Thischecksif the "letter" is not the letter 'X'.
Now, let'slook at the second picture.
* More Waysto Say Yesor No: Sometimes, we need to check more than onething at once.The computer has special wordsfor this:
* && (AND): Thismeans both things must be true.Imagine your mom says, "You can have icecreamAND you must finish your vegetables." You only get
ice cream if bothare true!
* || (OR): This means at least one of the things must be true. Imagine your dad says, "You can watch TV OR play outside." You can do either one, or
maybe even both!
* ! (NOT): This flips the answer. If something is true, "NOT true" is false. If something is false, "NOT false" is true. Imagine your friend says, "It is NOT
raining." If it israining, your friend is wrong!
Look at the examples:
* (count <= 100) &&(Ch != '*'): This is true only if "count" is lessthan or equal to 100 AND "Ch" is not the star symbol.
* (balance < 1000.0) || (status== 'R'): This is true if either "balance" isless than 1000.0OR "status" is the letter 'R', or if both are true.
* (answer < 0) || ((answer > 5.0) && (answer <= 10.0)): This is a bit more complicated! It's true if "answer" is less than 0, OR if "answer" is bigger than 5.0
AND smallerthan or equal to 10.0.
* !((pay >= 1000.0) && (status== 's')): First, it checks if "pay" is bigger than or equal to 1000.0 AND "status" is 's'. Then, the "!" flips the answer. So, it'strue
only if it's NOT the case thatboth of those things are true.
There are also some shorter ways to write things, like:
* b = !(a==0); This means if 'a' is exactly 0, then 'a==0' is true, and '!(true)' becomes false, so 'b' becomes false (0). If 'a' is not 0, then 'a==0' is false, and
'!(false)' becomestrue, so'b' becomes true (which is often represented as1).
* If a = 5, b = ? 1: This is like saying, "If 'a' is 5, then 'b' is 1."
* If a = 0, b = ? 0: This is like saying, "If 'a' is 0, then 'b' is 0."
Finally, let's look at the third picture.
* The Question Mark Choice: There's another way to make a choice using a question mark ?. It's like asking a quick question and getting one of two
answers.
* status= (balance == 0) ? 'C' : 'O’ ; Thisislike saying, "Is 'balance' exactly0? If yes(true), then 'status' becomes'C'. If no (false), then 'status' becomes 'O'."
* max = (a> b) ? a : b; (a= 5, b = 3): Here, 'a' is5 and 'b' is 3.The question is, "Is 'a' bigger than 'b'?" (Is5 bigger than 3?).Yes, it is true! So, 'max' becomesthe
value of 'a', which is5.If 'b' was bigger, then 'max' would becomethe value of 'b'.
So, "Control Structure" is all about the computer checking if things are true or false using special signs and words. Based on whether it's true or false, the
computer can then decide what to do next, justlike youmake choices in your games!

Okay, imagine you're at a crossroads on your way to school. You have to decide which way to go! The "if - else" statement in computers is like that
crossroads.Ithelps the computer make achoice based on whether something is true or false, just like we learned before!
The Big Idea: Two Possible Paths
The first point says that the "if - else" statement is like a test. The computer asks a question (the "logical test"), and based on the answer (true or false), it
takesone of two possible actions.
Think of itlike this:
Question: Isitraining?
* If the answer is YES(true), then you will take one action: open your umbrella.
* Else (meaning if the answerisNO or anything other than YES, so false), then you will take a different action: you don't need an umbrella.
So, the "if" part says what to do if the question istrue, and the "else" part says what to do if thequestion is false.
Sometimes You Don't Need the "Else"
The second point saysthat the "else" part isoptional. Sometimes, you only want the computer to do something if the answer is true, and if it's false, you
just want it to continue doing whatever it was doing.
Imagine this:
Question: Did you finish your homework?
* If the answer is YES(true), then you will get a sticker.
* If the answer is NO (false), then nothing special happens rightnow, and you just keep going with your day.
In thiscase, there'sno specific "else" actionmentioned.The computer just doessomething when the condition ("homework finished") is true.
How It Looks in Computer Language
The third point showshow the "if - else" statement looks in asimple wayfor the computer:
if (question)
do this thing;
else
do that other thing;
* The word "if" startsthe whole thing.
* Inside the round brackets() isthequestion (the "expression" it talks about).Thisquestion will be either true or false.
* If the question is true, the computerwill do the thing writtenright after the if.
* The word "else" comesafter.
* If the question is false, the computer will do the thing written right after the else.
The Question Needs Parentheses
The fourth point is just a small rule: the question (the "expression") always needs to be inside these round brackets (). It's like putting the question in a
special box so the computer knowswhat it'schecking.
When the Computer Thinks "True"
The last point says something interesting.It saysthat if the question(the "expression") has a"nonzero value", the computer thinks it's true.
Think of itlike this:
Imagine you're counting your marbles.
* Question: Do you have more than 0marbles?
* If you have 1, 2, 10 marbles (any number that's not zero), the answer to the question "Do you have more than 0 marbles?" isYES (true).
* If you have 0 marbles, the answer is NO(false).
So, for the computer, sometimesa "true" answer isn't just the word "true". If a number in the question isnotzero, the computer mighttreat that as "true"!
A Detailed Example: Deciding on a Coat
Let's put it all together with another example:
Imagine you're going outside to play.
Question: Isthe temperature below15 degrees Celsius?
* If (temperature < 15 istrue):
* Action: You will wear acoat.
* Else (meaning if the temperature is15 degrees or higher, so the questionisfalse):
* Action: You will not wear a coat.
In computer language, this might look something like:
if (temperature<15)
wear coat();
else
dont_wear_coat();
Here:
* If startsthe decision.
* (temperature < 15) is the question(is the temperature less than 15?).
* Wear coat() is whathappens if the question istrue.
* Else tellsus what happensif the question is false.
* Dont_wear_coat() is what happens if the question isfalse.
So, the "if - else" statement is a very useful tool for computers to make choices and do different things based on whether something is true or false, just
like we make choices every day!

Okay, let's look at these pictures too! They give us more examplesof howthe "if - else" works.
Picture1: What Happens When the Question is False?
The firstpoint heresays: If the question hasa value of zero (which meansthe question isfalse), then the computer will ignore the action rightafter the "if".
Imagine you ask your friend: "Do you have zero candies?"
* If your friend has zero candies (the answertothe question istrue), then maybe you say, "Aww, that's okay."
* But if your friend has more than zero candies(the answer to the question is false, meaning it'snot zero), then you might just continue playing without
saying anything special about the candies.The "ignore the statement" part meansthe computer just movesontothe next thing.
More Than One Thing to Do!
The second point says that the action after "if" or "else" can be just one thing, or it can be a group of things put together.This group is called a "compound
statement". We use curlybraces {} to put these groups together.
Think of itlike this:
Question: Isityourbirthday?
* If itisyourbirthday(true):
* Action1: Youget a cake.
* Action2: Youget presents.
* Action3: Everyone sings"Happy Birthday".
* Else (it's not your birthday, false):
* Action: Nothing special birthday-related happens right now.
See how there are multiple actions (cake, presents, singing) when the question is true? The curly braces {} in computer language help group these
actionstogether.
Looking at the Examples:
Let's look at the examples in the picture:
* If (x < 0) print("%f", x);
* Question: Isthenumber x less than 0?
* If YES (true): The computerwill show(print) the value of x.
* If NO (false): The computerwill just do nothing and move on. There'sno else here.
* If (past due > 0) credit = 0;
* Question: Istheamountthat islate (past due) greater than 0?
* If YES (true): The computerwill setyour credit to 0.
* If NO (false): The computerwill do nothing and move on.
* If (x <= 3.0) { y= pow(x, 2); print("%f\n", y); }:
* Question: Isthenumber x less than or equal to 3.0?
* If YES (true):
* Action 1: Calculate y as x multiplied by itself (x^2).
* Action 2: Show(print) the value of y.
The curly braces{} tell the computer todo both of these things if thequestion istrue.
* If NO (false): The computerwill skip everything inside the curly braces{} and move on.
* If ((balance < 1000.0) || (status== 'R')) print("%f", balance);
* Question: Isyourbalance lessthan 1000.0 OR is your statusequal to 'R'? (Remember || means OR, so if either part is true, the whole question is true).
* If YES (true): The computerwill show(print) your balance.
* If NO (false): The computerwill do nothing and move on.
* If ((a> 0) && (b < 5)) { amid = (a + b) / 2; amid = sqrt(amid); }:
* Question: Isa greaterthan 0 AND is b lessthan 5? (Remember && means AND, so both partshave to be true for the whole question to be true).
* If YES (true):
* Action 1: Calculate amid as the average of a and b.
* Action 2: Calculate amid as the square root of amid (that little magic trick we talked about!).
The curly braces{} group these two actions.
* If NO (false): The computerwill skip both calculations inside the curly braces{}.
Picture2: The "Else" Part Again
Thispicture reminds usabout the "else" part.
* It showsthe general form again:
if (question)
do this thing (statement 1);
else
do that other thing (statement 2);

* Then it gives an example with taxes:


if (status == 'S')
tax = 0.20 * pay;
else
tax = 0.14 * pay;

* Question: Isthestatus equal to 'S'? (Maybe 'S' stands for single).


* If YES (true): The computerwill calculate your tax as 20% (0.20) of your pay.
* Else (if your status isnot 'S', maybe it's'M' for married or something else): Thecomputer will calculate your tax as 14% (0.14) of your pay.
* Finally, it showsanotherway to write a simple "if - else" using the question mark ? and colon : that we learned about earlier:
max = (a > b) ? a: b;

Thisis a shortway of saying:


if (a> b)
max = a;
else
max = b;

Question: Isa greater than b?


* If YES (true): Then max will beequal to a.
* Else (false, meaning aisnot greater than b, so a isless than or equal to b): Then max willbe equal to b.
In Simple WordsAgain:
These pictures show us that after the computer asks a "true or false" question with "if", it does something. If the answer is false, it might do nothing or it
might do something else after the "else". We can also tell the computer to do more than one thing if the answer is true or false by using curly braces {} to
group those actionstogether. And sometimes, there's ashorter way to ask a questionand choose between two answers using ? and :.
It's like having different paths to take depending on the answer to a question! You'redoing great learning about how computers make decisions!

Okay, this picture is like a menu of different little problems that computers can solve using the "if - else" decisions we just learned about! Let's think
about each one like alittle story.
1.Even or Odd
Imagine you have abunch of candies, and you want to share them equallywith your friend.
* Question: Can you dividethe number of candies into two equal groupswithno candy left over?
* If YES (true): The number of candies is even (like 2, 4, 6...).
* Else (NO, false): There will be one candy left over, so the number is odd (like 1, 3, 5...).
The computer can do thisby checking if there'sa remainder when you divide by 2. If the remainder is 0, it's even. Otherwise, it's odd!
2.Positive or Negative
Imagine you're thinking about a number.
* Question: Isthe number greater than 0?
* If YES (true): The number is positive (like 1, 5, 100...).
* Else (NO, false): The number is either 0 or lessthan 0, so it's not positive (it could be zero or negative like -1, -3...). We could even have another "if" inside
the "else" to check if it's exactly0 or negative!
3.Max of Three Numbers
Imagine you and two friends havea different number of stickers.You wantto find outwho has the most.
* First, the computer can ask: Is your number of stickersgreater than your first friend'snumber?
* If YES: Then maybe you have the most so far.
* Else: Then your firstfriend has more or the same as you.
* Then, the computer can take the bigger of those two numbers and ask: Is that number greater than your second friend's number?
* If YES: Then that'sthe biggestnumber!
* Else: Then your second friend hasthebiggest number.
So, byasking a series of "if" questions, the computer can find the biggestnumber out of a few numbers.
4.Rootsof Quadratic Equation
Thisone is a bit more like a puzzle with numbers. Imagine you have a special kind of math problem that can have up to two answers (called "roots"). The
computer can look at the numbers in the problem and decide:
* Doesithave two different answers?
* Doesithave just one answer (because the two answers are the same)?
* Doesithave no real number answers?
It uses "if" questions to check different parts of the math problem to figure out which of these is true and then tells you the answer (or says there are no
real answers).Thismight be a bittoo tricky for aclass 2 level, but the ideaisstill about making decisions based on calculations.
5.Grade
Imagine your teacher gives you ascore on a test.They use that score to give you a grade (like A, B, C...).
* Question 1: Is your score 90 or higher?
* If YES: Your grade is 'A'.
* Else (if your score isless than 90):
* Question 2: Is your score 80 or higher?
* If YES: Yourgrade is 'B'.
* Else (if your score isless than 80):
* Question 3: Isyourscore70 or higher?
* If YES: Your grade is'C'.
* Else... and so on for other grades.
See how we can have "if" questions inside"else" answers to make more complex decisions?
6.Leap Year
Imagine we're trying to figure out if a year hasan extradayin February (a leap year).
* Question 1: Is the year divisibleby 4? (Can you divide it by 4 with no remainder?)
* If YES: It might be a leap year.
* Question 2(inside the YES answer): Is the year also divisible by 100?
* If YES: Itmight not be aleap year (unlessit'salso divisible by 400!).
* Else (if it's divisible by 4but not by 100): It IS aleap year!
* Else (if it'snotdivisible by 4): It'sNOT a leap year.
Thisshows how we canuse "if" questionsinside other "if" or "else" answers to make even more detailed decisions!
In Simple Words:
This list shows different ways computers can use "if - else" to solve everyday problems, from figuring out if a number is even or odd to deciding what
grade you get. Each problem involves asking questions and doing different things based on whether the answer is true or false. It's like the computer is
making choices, just like you do everyday! 😊
210- coding
1st: maximum of 3 numbers
#include<stdio.h>
int main() {
int a, b, c;
// Ask the user to enter three numbers
print("Enter three numbers: ");
scan("%d %d %d",&a,&b,&c);
// Compare to find the maximum number
if (a >= b && a >= c)
print("The maximum number is: %d\n", a);
else if (b >= a && b >= c)
print("The maximum number is: %d\n", b);
else
print("The maximum number is: %d\n", c);
return 0;
}

2nd: loop. Of quadratic equation


#include<stdio.h>
#include<math’s>// Needed for sqrt function
int main() {
double a, b, c, discriminant, root1, root2;
// Ask the user to enter coefficients
print("Enter coefficients a, b, and c: ");
scan("%fly %fly %fly",&a,&b,&c);
// Calculate discriminant
discriminant = b * b - 4 * a * c;
// Check if roots are real and different
if (discriminant > 0) {
root1 = (-b + sqrt(discriminant)) / (2 * a);
root2 = (-b - sqrt(discriminant)) / (2 * a);
print("Roots are real and different: %.2lf and %.2lf\n", root1, root2);
}
// Check if roots are real and same
else if (discriminant == 0) {
root1 = -b / (2 * a);
print("Roots are real and equal: %.2lf\n", root1);
}
// If roots are not real
else {
double real Part = -b / (2 * a);
double imaginary Part = sqrt(-discriminant) / (2 * a);
print("Roots are complex: %.2lf + %.2lfi and %.2lf - %.2lfi\n",
real Part, imaginary Part, real Part, imaginary Part);
}

return 0;
}
3rd:check leap year
#include<stdio.h>
int main() {
int year;
// Ask the user to enter a year
print("Enter a year: ");
scan("%d",&year)
// Leap year check rules
if ((year % 4 == 0 && year % 100 != 0) || (year % 400 == 0))
print("%d is a leap year.\n", year);
else
print("%d is not a leap year.\n", year);
return 0;
}

210-another pdf
Okay, imagine your classroom has aspecial helper who can talk to the outside world for yourcomputer programs.These helpers are like messengersfor
information. In computer language, wecall them "input/output functions," butlet'sjust call them"talkers."
Think of itlike this:
* Get char: This talker is like having a friend outside the classroom who whispers one letter or number to your program. Your program listens and
rememberswhat waswhispered. It doesn'tneed you to give it any instructions beforehand (that's why it hasempty parentheses ()).
* Putcher: This talker islike you shouting one letter or number out of the classroom window.Your program tells this talker what to shout.
* Scan: This talker is like your teacher asking you to write down some information (maybe your name and age) on a piece of paper and then handing it to
the program. The teacher (this talker) needs to know what kind of information to expect (like a word or a number), and you tell it where to put that
information in the program.
* Print: This talker is like your teacher reading something out loud from a piece of paper that your program wrote. Your program tellsthis talker exactly
what words and numbersto say.
* Gets: This talkerislike yourfriend outside telling you a whole sentence at once.Your program listensto the entire sentence.
* Puts: This talker islike you shouting a whole sentence outof the classroomwindow. Your programtellsthistalker the entiresentence to shout.
So, these six talkers (get char, putcher, scan, print, gets, and puts) help your computer program get information from you or show information to you.
You just need to call their name and sometimes give them some information in the parentheses () to tell them what to do! They can be used from
anywhere inside your program, just by saying their name.

210
Imagine you have a toy robot that can do some special things when you tell it to.These special things are like "functions" in computer language, which is
what the paperistalking about.
What are these "functions"?
Think of themlike simple commands you give to yourrobot:
* Get char: Imagine your robothas a special ear. When you say "listen," it listens for someone to whisper a secret letter and then tells you what the letter
is. In computerlanguage, get char is like that "listen" command, and it getsa single letter thatsomeone types on the computer.
* Putcher: Now imagine your robot has a special mouth. When you tell it “Speak," and give it a letter, it will say that letter out loud. In computer
language, putcher is like that "speak" command, and it shows asingle letter on the computer screen.
* Scan: This islike your robot having a special way to understand whole words or numbers you say. If you say "tell me your age," and then someone says
"seven," the robot understands"seven" isa number. In computer language, scan is likethat – it readsnumbers orwords thatsomeone types.
* Print: Thisislike yourrobot being ableto say whole sentencesor show numberson a little screen on its chest.If youtell it “Show the number five," it will
display '5'.In computer language, print is like that – it can show words, sentences, and numbers on the computer screen.
* Gets and puts: These are like the robotbeing able to understand and say longer sentences. If you say "What is your favorite color?", and someone types
"blue," gets would read the whole word "blue." Then, if you tell the robot puts and the word "hello," it will say "hello." In computer language, gets reads a
whole line of words, and putsshows a whole line of wordsonthe screen.
Using thesecommands:
The paper saysyou can use these commands fromanywhere in your "program." Think of your program as the set of instructionsyou give to your robot to
do many things one after another. No matter where you are in that list of instructions, you can always tell your robot to "listen" (get char) or "speak"
(putcher), etc.
What about the empty circles?
The paper also mentions that sometimesthese commandsneed extrainformation in the circlesnext to them, but sometimes they don'tneed anything.
* For "speak" (putcher) or "show" (print and puts), you need to tell the robot what to say or show. That's like putting the letter or the sentence inside the
circles.
* For "listen" (get char) or "understand" (scan and gets), the robot just doesitsjob of listening or understanding, so you don't need to put anything special
in the circleswhen you tellit to do that.
So, these "functions" are just like simple commands you can give to your computer to help it take in information (like listening to you type) or show
information (like talking to you onthe screen)

Okay, imagine our toyrobot again! This page shows some of the computerlanguage we use to tell the robot what to do.Let's look at the important parts:
#include<stdio.h>
Think of thisas giving your robot aspecial instruction book at the very beginning. This book tells the robot how todo thingslike "listen" (scan) and "speak"
(print) that we talked about before. You always need to give this instruction book to the robot if you want it to use those special listening and speaking
skills.
main() { ...}
This is like the main set of instructions you give to your robot. Everything inside these curly braces { and } is what the robot will do step by step. It's the
main story of what your robot isgoing to do.
char c;
Imagine giving your robot a small box labeled "letter." This box is for holding just one letter at a time, like 'a' or 'b'. In computer language, char c; means
we're telling the computer to make a little space in its memory (like the robot's brain) to store one letter, and we'recalling that space "c."
int I, j, k;
Now imagine giving your robot three more boxes, but these are labeled "number." These boxes are for holding whole numbers, like 1, 5, or 10. In
computer language, int I, j, k; means we're telling the computer to make three spacesto store wholenumbers, and we'recalling them"I," "j," and "k."
float x, y;
Imagine giving your robot two more boxes, but these are labeled "number with a dot." These boxes are for holding numbers that can have a decimal
point, like 3.5 or 2.1. In computer language, float x, y; means we're making two spaces for numbers with decimal points, and we're calling them "x" and
"y."
c = get char();
Remember get char() was like the robot listening for a secret letter? This line tells the robot to listen for a letter someone types and then put that letter
inside the box we labeled "c."
scan("%c %f %d %d",&c,&x,&I,&j);
Thisisa bit more complicated, but think of it like telling the robot: "Listen carefully! You're going to hear aletter, then a number witha dot, then two whole
numbers. Put the letter in the 'letter' box (c), the first number with a dot in the 'number with a dot' box (x), the first whole number in the 'number' box (I),
and the second whole number in the other 'number' box (j)." The %c, %f, and %d are like little codes that tell the robot what kind of thing to listen for
(letter, number with adot, whole number). The &in front of c, x, I, and j is likesaying "put it in that box."
putcher(d);
Remember putcher() was like the robot speaking a letter? This line tells the robot to take whatever letter is inside a box labeled "d" (we don't see where
'd' gets its value in thispicture, but imagine it has aletter in it) and show that letter on the screen.
print("The numbersare %3d and %7.4f.\n", k, y);
This is like telling the robot to say a sentence. The part inside the quotes " " is what the robot will say. But notice the %3d and %7.4f. These are like
placeholders. The %3d means "put the whole number that's in the 'number' box (k) here, and make sure it takesup at least 3 spaces." The %7.4f means
"put the number with a dot that's in the 'number with a dot' box (y) here, make sure it takes up at least 7 spaces in total, and show 4 numbers after the
dot." The \n at the end islike telling therobot to go to a new line aftersaying the sentence.
So, this whole block of instructions is like a little story for the robot: create some boxes to hold letters and numbers, listen for someone to type some
things and put them in the boxes, and then saysomething using the numbers in the boxes!

Okay, let's talk more about the print() command for our toy robot!
Remember how print() waslike the robot being able to say sentences or shownumbers on its chest? Thispage tells usa little more about how it works.
Moving Information Out:
It saysthat the print function "movesdata from the computer's memory to the standard output device."
Imagine the computer's memoryislike the robot's brain where it keepsall the information it knows, like the numbers in the boxes we talked about.
The "standard output device" is usually the computer screen – it's how the robot "shows" or "says" things to us.
So, print() is like telling the robot to take some information from its brain (the computer's memory) and show it to us on its screen (the standard output
device).
scan() doestheopposite!
The page also mentions scan().Itsays scan() "entersdata from the standard input device and storesitin the computer's memory."
Think of the "standard input device" as the keyboard – it'showwe typeinformation into the computer.
So, scan() is like the robot listening to what we type on the keyboard (standard input) and then putting that information into its brain (computer's
memory), maybeinto one of those boxes we made.
How to tell print() what to say:
The bottom part showshow we usually write the print() command:
print("something to say", something to show);
Think of the partinside thefirst setof quotes " as the message you want the robot to say. It can be wordsor special instructions like%d for a number.
The part after the comma , is the information you want the robot to include in its message. This could be the number that's inside one of the robot's
"number" boxes.
Easy Example:
Let's say our robot has a "number" box named "age" and the number 7 is inside it.
If we write:
print("My age is %d.", age);
It's like telling the robot: "Say the sentence 'My age is' and then, where you see the special code %d, put the number that's in the 'age' box. And then say a
period '.' "
So, the robot would show on the screen:
My age is 7.
See? print() helps the computer take information it knowsand showit to usina way that makes sense!

C-5
Oh, I'msorry! Let's try explaining loops in a differentway, maybe with agame.
Imagine you're playing a game where you need to collect3 starsto wina prize.
1.while loop: "Keep going until you get all the stars!"
It's like saying to yourself: "Aslong as I haven't collected 3stars, I will keep looking."
* You look, and you find 1 star.You still haven't collected 3, so you keep looking.
* You look again, and you find another star.Now you have 2 stars. You still haven't collected 3, so you keep looking.
* You look one more time, and you find the last star! Now you have 3 stars. The condition "haven't collected 3 stars" is no longer true, so you stop looking
and you winyour prize!
The while loop islike saying, "Keep doing this action (looking for stars) while this is true (you haven't collected 3 stars)."
2.do while loop: "Let's look at least once, and then keep going if we still need stars!"
Imagine you say: "First, I will look for a star. Then, as long as I haven't collected 3 stars, I will keep looking."
* You look, and maybe you find astar (or maybe you don't!). You did the action of looking at least once.
* Now you check: have you collected 3stars? If not, you look again.You keep doing this while you haven'treached 3 stars.
The do while loop is like saying, "First, do this action (look for a star). Then, keep doing it while this is true (you haven't collected 3 stars)." The big
difference from while isthat you do the action at leastone time.
3.forloop: "I will look for stars exactly 3times!"
Imagine you say: "I will look for stars one time. Then I will look again, that's the second time. Then I will look one more time, that's the third time. After
looking three times, I will stop."
The forloop is like saying, "Do thisaction (look for a star) a specific number of times." You know exactly how many timesyou want to repeat the action.
Think of itlike this:
* While: Keep doing something as long as something else istrue.
* Do while: Do something at least once, and then keep doing it aslong assomething else is true.
* For: Do something a certain number of times.
Do these game examples make it a littleclearer how loopshelp the computer do thingsrepeatedly? Let me know if you'd like another example

Okay, imagine our toyrobot can do one dance (like clapping). Now, what if we wanted it to do a special kind of dance where it claps its hands and for each
clap, it also tapsitsfeet acertain numberof times? That's kind of like a "nested loop"!
Loops Inside Loops
The page says "Nested loop" and then "Loops inside another loop." It's like having one set of instructions for the robot inside another set of instructions
that makes it repeat.
Think of itlike this:
Imagine you wantthe robot to:
* Clap its hands.
* For each clap, tap its feet 3 times.
* Do thiswhole thing (clap then 3 taps) 2 times.
See how there are two levels of repeating?
* The outer loop is "do this whole thing 2 times."
* The inner loop is"tap its feet 3 times" and thishappens inside the action of clapping.
Let's break it down like astory:
Outer Loop (Do this 2times):
* First time:
* Robot clapsits hands (once).
* InnerLoop (Tap feet 3 times):
* Robot taps its foot (one).
* Robot taps its foot (two).
* Robot taps its foot (three).
* Second time:
* Robot clapsits hands (once).
* InnerLoop (Tap feet 3 times):
* Robot taps its foot (one).
* Robot taps its foot (two).
* Robot taps its foot (three).
So, the robot claps 2 times, and for each of those claps, it tapsits feet 3 times. That'sa nested loop!
DifferentKindsof LoopsInside Each Other
The page also says, "Youcan define anytype of loop inside another loop; for example, you can define 'while' loop inside a 'for' loop."
It meansyou can mix and match ourdifferent waysof telling the robot to repeat things.
* Maybe the outer instruction is "do this 3times" (for loop).And the "this" inside is"keep wiggling your fingersas long as I haven't said stop" (while loop).
Whyare nested loops useful?
Nested loops are useful when you have atask that has smaller repeating partswithin a larger repeating part.
Think aboutdrawing a grid of squares on a piece of paper:
* You go acrossthe page and draw a square.You do this many times to make arow.That's like one loop.
* Then, you move down a little and do the same thing again to make another row of squares.You do this many times to make all the rows.That's like the
outer loop.
Each time you draw a row (outer loop), you are drawing many squares(inner loop).
So, nested loops help us do more complex and interesting things with our computer programs by repeating actions within other repeated actions! It's
like having adance with steps that also have their own little repeating movesinside them.

210part2
Imagine you have some building blocks and rules about how to put them together. In computers, we also have some special symbols called "operators"
and rulesabouthowthey work.
Precedence is like a bossyrule: It tells you which operator gets to do itsjob first.
Think of it like this: If your teacher says, "First, everyone cleans their desks, then you can all go out to play," cleaning desks has a higher precedence.
Everyone has to do it before playing.
In computer math, multiplication (*) and division (/) are usuallybossier than addition (+) and subtraction (-). So, if you see something like:
5 +2 *3
The computer will do the multiplication first (2 * 3 = 6) and then do the addition (5 + 6 = 11). It's like the multiplication has to be done before the addition
can happen.
Associativity is like a tie-breaker rule: It tells you what to do if you have two operators that are equally bossy. It says whether to go from left to right or
from right to left.
Imagine you have aline of kids waiting for candy, and two teachers say, "The next person getsa candy."
* Left-to-right: The teacher on the left picksfirst, then the next person to their right, and so on.
* Right-to-left: The teacheronthe rightpicks first, then the next person to their left, and so on.
In computer math, for things like addition and subtraction, it usually goes from left to right.So, if you see:
10 -5 - 2
The computer will do it like this: first, 10 minus5 is 5, and then 5 minus 2is3. It goes from left to right.
So, precedence tells you who goes first, and associativity tells you which way to go if there's a tie in who's bossy! It helpsthe computer know exactly how
to calculatethings.

Okay, let's trya different way to think aboutit, like playing with your toys!
Imagine you have afewempty toy bins.
* A variable is like one of your toy bins thatyou give a specialname. For example, you might havea bin and you decide to call it "Cars".
* You can put toys(data) inside the bin.So, in your "Cars" bin, you might put 5toy cars.
* You can change the toys in the bin. Maybe later, you take out some cars and put in some trucksinstead.Now, your "Cars" bin holdstrucks, notjust cars
anymore. The name of the bin("Cars") stayed the same, but what's inside changed.
* You can use the toys in the bin many times. If you want to play with your cars, you just go to the "Cars" bin and take them out. You can do this again and
again whenever you want to play with cars.
Whyisthisuseful?
Imagine if you didn't have names for your bins. You would just have a big pile of toys, and it would be hard to find the carswhen you wanted to play with
them! Giving the bin a name ("Cars") makes it easy to find and use those specific toys.
In the computer:
* The "bins" arelike little placesin the computer'smemory where it can store information.
* The "namesof thebins" are the variable names(likea, b, f).
* The "toys" are the pieces of information (like numbersor letters).
So, variables are just like giving names to your toy bins so you can easily store, change, and use the toys (information) inside them whenever you need!
Doesthat make a little more sense?

Okay, okay! My apologies! I'm really trying to find an example that clicksforyou.Let's try thinking about recipes when you're cooking.
Local Variable: Imagine you're making a special cake.For this cake, you need exactly 2 cups of flour. You take out a measuring cup and put in 2 cups of
flour.Thisamount of flour (2cups) is local to thisspecific cake recipe.
* You use those 2 cups just for this cake.
* Nobody else making a different dish in the kitchen willuse your measured 2 cupsof flour for their recipe.
* Once you've mixed the cake batter, those exact 2 cups of flourhave done theirjob for thiscake and aren't kept separate for later.
Global Variable: Now, imagine you have a big containerof sugar thateveryone in the kitchen can use for anyrecipe they are making.
* If someone ismaking cookies, they can take sugar from the container.
* If someone else is making lemonade, they can also take sugar from the same container.
* The sugar in the containerisavailable for everyone to use for any dish.
Whyare local"amounts" (variables) helpful?
If everyone just grabbed ingredients without measuring specifically for their dish, your cake might end up with too much or too little flour! Having a
specific, measured amount of flour (local variable) just for your cake ensures it turns out right. It keeps the ingredients for different recipes separate and
controlled.
So, a local variable is like a specific amount of an ingredient you measure out just for one particular recipe, while a global variable is like a shared
ingredient that everyone in the kitchen can use for any recipe.
How does this cooking example work for you? I'm reallytrying my best here!

You are absolutely right! That was a silly oversight on my part, and I apologize for not addressing the other types of variables mentioned on the slide.
You're sharp to notice that!
Let's go back to the slide and talk about the other types of variables in a way thathopefullymakessense:
You're right, besides"local" there were these listed:
* Global variable
* Static variable
* Automatic variable
* External variable
We've talked about global variables asbeing likethe shared ingredientseveryone can use.
Now, let'stry to understand the others simply:
* Static Variable: Imagine you're playing a game, and you have a special counter that keeps track of how many times you've won in total across all the
rounds you play. This counter remembers its value even after each round finishes. A static variable inside a "room" (function) is like that counter. It
remembers its value even after you leave the "room" and if you come back later, it will still remember the last count. It's like a local memory that sticks
around.
* Think of it like aspecial score in yourcoloring book that you don'terase after you finish a page. It stays there for the next time you color.
* Automatic Variable: This is actually very similar to a local variable in many ways, and in fact, local variables are often "automatic." Think of it like a
temporary note you write on a piece of scratch paper while you'redoing aquick calculation. Once you're done with the calculation, you might just throw
the paper away. An automatic variable is created when you enter a "room" (function) and it automatically disappears when you leave.
* It's like when you borrow a pencil from a friend just to solve one math problem. Once you're done, you give the pencil back. The pencil was
"automatically" available for that problem and then went awayfor you.
* External Variable: Imagine you and your friend are working on a big puzzletogether. You might each have your own set of pieces, but there might be a
few special pieces that are kept in a common area so both of you can use them as needed. An external variable is like saying, "This piece (this
information) is defined somewhere else (maybe in another part of the computer's memory), but I want to use it here." It's like borrowing information that
wasset up outside of your current "room."
* Think of it like if your teacher wrote the alphabet on the blackboard, and you use that alphabet to help you spell words in your notebook. The alphabet
wasn't written inyour notebook, but you can still use it.
I truly apologize for not including these in the first explanation. I hope these new examples help clarify what these different types of variables are! Please
let me knowif any of these still feel confusing, and I'll try a different approach. Your questionsare helping me learn how toexplain things better!

Imagine you're drawing a picture.Sometimesyou want to writelittle notes on your drawing to remind yourself (or tell someone else) what a certain part
is.
Comments in computer code are like those little notes you write on your drawing.The computer doesn't actually look at these notes when it runs your
program; they are justthere for humans toread and understand.
Whydo we use comments?
* To explain what the code does: Imagine you draw a circle and next to it you write "This is the sun." When someone looks at your drawing, they
immediately know what the circle is supposed to be. Comments in code do the same thing – they explain what a particular line or group of lines is
doing.
* To remember things: Sometimeswhen you're drawing something complicated, youmight write a note to yourself like "Don't forget to add the clouds
here later." Programmers alsouse commentsto remind themselves of thingstheyneed to do orwhy theywrote thecode a certain way.
There are two main waysto write these notes (comments) in the C programming language:
* Single-Line Comments: These are like short little notes that fit on one line. In the computer code, you put two forward slashes // before your note.
Everything after // on that line istreated as a comment.
* Imagine: You draw a flower and next to it on the same line you write // This is ared flower.
* Multi-Line Comments: These are for longer notes that might take up several lines. You start a multi-line comment with a slash and an asterisk /* and
you end it with an asterisk and a slash */. Everything in between /* and */istreated as a comment, even if it goesover many lines.
* Imagine: You draw a whole garden scene, and in acorner, you write:
/*
Thisdrawing showsa garden with
red flowers, blue butterflies, and
a yellow sun.
*/

Think of itthis way:


* //is like a quick little stickynote for one line.
* /* ... */ islike a bigger note that you can write many sentences on.
The computer ignores these notes, but they are super helpful for people who are reading and trying to understand the computer code! They make the
code easier to read and maintain, just like your notes make your drawings easier to understand.

210
Okay, imagine C is like a super helpful toy box! It has lots of cool things inside that make it really useful for building other toys and games on the
computer.Let's look atsome of those cool thingsin a simpleway:
* Simple: Think of it like having big, easy-to-grab building blocks.You don't have lots of tiny, confusing pieces.
* Machine Independent or Portable: Thisis like a toy that you can play with on any type of floor – wood, carpet, or even outside! You don't need a special
floorjust for that toy. Computer programsmade withC can often work on different kindsof computers.
* Mid-level programming language: Imagine it's like a toy that's not too simple like a single block, but not super complicated like a whole robot kit with a
million tiny parts. It's somewhere in the middle, giving you good control.
* Structured programming language: Thisislike having instructions to build your toy step-by-step in a clear order.It's not just ajumble of pieces; there's
a plan.
* Rich Library: Think of this as having a big box full of ready-made parts and tools that you can use to build your toysfaster. You don't have to make every
single piece from scratch.
* Memory Management: Imagine you have a special way to keep your toy box tidy. C helps the computer keep its "memory" (where it stores
information) organized.
* Fast Speed: Thisislike a toy car that can go really, reallyfast! Programs made with C can often run quickly on the computer.
* Pointers – memory, arrays: Imagine having special labels that tell you exactly where different toys are in your toy box (memory). "Arrays" are like
having aneat row of identical toy carsall lined up together.
* Recursion: This is a bit like having a set of Russian nesting dolls – a doll inside a doll inside a doll.In C, a part of the instructions can sometimes call itself
to repeatsomething.
* Extensible: Imagine your toy box can have new compartments added to it easily when you get more toys. C can be made to do even more things by
adding newfeatures.
* Few keywords: This is like having a small set of important words that you need to know to use all the building blocks in your toy box. It's not a huge
dictionaryyouhave to learn.
* Structures, unions – compound data types: Imagine being able to put different kinds of toys together in one special box (structure) or having a box
that can hold only one type of toy at a time but you can switch them out (union).These are ways to group information together.
* Case sensitive: This is like how your name is different from someone with a similar name but with a capital letter in a different place. In C, uppercase
and lowercase lettersare treated as different. So, "Toy" is not the same as "toy".
So, C isa powerful but organized "toy box" with lotsof useful thingsthat helpspeople build allsorts of coolcomputer programs! Does that make sense?

Okay, imagine C is like the Mommy of many other computer languages! Lots of other languages learned from C, just like baby animals learn from their
mothers.
Think of it asa tool for building the inside parts of things that make your computer work. Like the engine inside a car that makes it move. We call this a
systemprogramming language.It helpsbuild things like how your mouse and keyboard talk to the computer.
It's also like following a recipe step-by-step to cook something yummy. We call this a procedure-oriented programming language. You tell the
computer exactly what to do in order.
Remember how C waslike having building blocks with a plan? That'sbeing a structured programming language. Ithelps keep everything organized.
And just like wetalked about before, it's not too simple and not too complicated, it'sin the middle – a mid-level programming language. It can talk to the
computer's basic partsbutalso do more complicated things.
So, C is super important because it's like a mother, helps build the insides of your computer, follows clear steps, keeps things organized, and is a good
balance between simple and complex! Easy peas, right?

Okay, let's trythinking about it like learning to talk!


First Generation (1G) - Baby Talk: Imagine when a baby first startsto make sounds. It's just simple noises that only the closest people understand. This is
like the first computer language – very basic and onlythe computer "knew" it.
Second Generation (2G) - Simple Words: Then, the baby starts to say simple words like "mama" or "dada." These are still short and a bit like baby talk, but
a little easier foreveryone to understand.Thisislike the next step in computer languages – a bit easier than just noises.
Third Generation (3G) - Sentences: Now, the child starts to put words together to make sentences like "I want toy." This is much easier to understand!
Languages like C are like these sentences– they use words that are closer to how we talk, so it'seasier for people to tellthe computer what to do.
Fourth Generation (4G) - Asking Questions: Later, the child can ask questions like "Where is my toy?" These questions are even more like how we
naturally communicate when we want information.Some computer languagesare like this– they're reallygood at asking the computer for information
and organizing it, like finding names in a big list.
Fifth Generation (5G) - Telling Stories with Pictures: Finally, imagine the child showing you pictures in a book and telling a story. They're not just using
words; they're using visuals to help you understand. Some computer languages let you build programs by pointing and clicking on pictures and tools,
making it even easierto tell the computerwhat you want.
So, just like learning to talk gets easier and more expressive as we grow, computer languages have also become simpler and more powerful over time!
Doesthisway of explaining it help you understand better?

Okay, let's think about this like giving instructionsto a very helpful robot!
Machine Language (Robot's Secret Code):
* Time to execute (Robot does it): Imagine you speak to the robot in its own super-secret code. It understands you instantly because it's its language.
So, itdoes what you say very, very fast.
* Time to develop (You learn the code): But, learning this secret code is really hard! You need to use lots of strange numbers and symbols, and it takes a
very long time to write even simple instructions.It's like trying to build a tower using only tiny grains of sand – it takes forever!
Assembly Language(Robot'sSimple Words):
* Time to execute (Robot does it): Now imagine you use some simple words with the robot, like "move arm" or "grab block." The robot doesn't
understand these words directly, so it needs a special friend (called an "assembler") to translate these words into its secret code first. This takes a little
bit longer than speaking in the secret code directly.
* Time to develop (You learn the simple words): Learning these simple words is easier than the secret code. You can give instructions a bit faster, like
building a tower with slightly bigger blocks.
High-Level Languages(Talking Normally):
* Time to execute (Robot does it): Now, imagine you talk to the robot just like you talk to your friends: "Please pick up the red block and put it on the blue
one." The robot needs another special friend (called a "compiler" or "interpreter") to translate your normal talking into its secret code. This takes a little
bit longer than using the simple words.
* Time to develop (You talk normally): But this is the easiest way for you to tell the robot what to do! You use words you already know, and you can give
very clear and big instructionsquickly, like building a tower with big, easy-to-handle blocks.You can build amazing things much faster this way!
So, the easiest way for you to tell the robot what to do takes a little bit longer for the robot to understand at first, but you can give much better and faster
instructions overall! It's like choosing between learning a super hard secret code, some simple robot words, or just talking normally to get things done.
Which one soundseasiest for you?

Okay, imagine youhave two toy boxes, a red one and ablue one.
* The red box has5 toysinside (let's say cars).
* The blue box has7 toys inside(let's say dolls).
Now, you want to swap the toys.You want the red box to have the dolls (7 toys) and the blue box to have the cars (5 toys).
Here's how you can do it, step by step, like alittle recipe:
* Get an empty box.Let's call it the "temp" box.Thisbox isemptyat the beginning.
* Put all the toysfromthe red box into the temp box.Now, the red box is empty. The temp box has5 cars.The blue box still has 7 dolls.
* Put all the toysfromthe blue box into the red box.Now, the red box has 7dolls.The temp box still has5 cars.The blue box is empty.
* Finally, put all the toys from the temp box into theblue box. Now, the red box has 7dolls, and the blue box has5 cars.The temp box isempty again.
You did it! You swapped thetoysbetween the red and blue boxes.
That's kind of like what the computer is doing with the numbers.
* It startswith two numbers, let's say'a' islike thered box with 5 toys, and 'b' is likethe blue box with 7 toys.
* It uses atemporaryspace (like our empty "temp" box) tohold the value of 'a' for alittle bit.
* Then it puts the value of 'b' into 'a'.
* Finally, it puts the value it saved in the temporary space (which wasthe original value of 'a') into 'b'.
So, inthe end, thevaluesof 'a' and 'b' are swapped! 'a' becomes 7, and 'b' becomes 5.
The computer algorithm is just a set of these simple steps to solve a problem, like swapping the toys or the numbers. It has to have a clear start and a
clear end, and each step has to be something the computer knowshow to do.

Lecture :02
Imagine you have different kinds of boxes to keep your toys.
* Some boxes are for whole toys, like carsordolls.You can't put half a car in there.These are like "int" data typesforwhole numbers.
* Some boxes are for thingsthat might have parts, like if you cut a cake into pieces.These are like "float" or "double" data types for numberswith decimal
points (like 3.5 or 2.75).
* Some boxes are only for single lettersor symbols, like a box just for the letter 'A' or the symbol '?'.These are like "char" datatypesforsingle characters.
These first kinds of boxes – for whole numbers, numbers with parts, and single letters – are like the "Basic" data types. They are the simplest kinds of
boxes.
Now, what if youwant to keep many of the same kind of toy together?
* Imagine a long box with many sections inside, where you can put a line of cars. This is like an "array". It's a way to keep many of the same type of data
(like many whole numbersor many letters) in one place.
* Imagine a special label that tells you where to find a specific toy in another box. This label doesn't hold the toy itself, but it points to it. This is like a
"pointer". It helps the computer find information easily.
* Imagine a big box that has different compartments inside for different kinds of toys – maybe a section for cars, a section for dolls, and a section for
blocks, all within the same big box. Thisis like a "structure" or "union".It lets you group different kindsof information together.
These kinds of boxes – for groups of the same toys, special labels, and groups of different toys– are like "Derived" data types. They are made from the
basic types.
Then, imagine you have a special list of things, like the colors of a rainbow (red, orange, yellow, green, blue, indigo, violet). You can only pick from this list.
Thisislike an "Enumeration" data type. It's a set of named values.
Finally, imagine an emptybox.It doesn't hold anything at all.Thisislike the "void" data type. It meansthere isno value or no type of information.
So, just like you have different kindsof boxesto keep different kinds of toys, the computer hasdifferent datatypes to store different kinds of information,
like numbers, letters, and groups of these things!

Okay, let's think about the "int" boxes (for whole numbers) and the "float" or "double" boxes (for numbers with parts) again. These are the basic kinds of
boxesthe computer usesfor numbers.
Imagine you're writing numberson a piece of paper to put in these boxes.
* For the "int" box, you write whole numbers like 1, 10, or 100. You can also put a plus sign in front if you want to (+5), or a minus sign if it's a number you
owe (-3). These are signed numbers.
* Sometimes, you might only want to put in numbers that are zero or bigger, like when you're counting how many candies you have. You can't have a
negative number of candies. In that case, you can think of using a special "unsigned" way of writing numbersfor the "int" box, where you only write 0, 1, 2,
3, and so on – no minus signs allowed!
Now, for the "float" or "double" boxes, you write numbers that can have a dot in them, like 3.5(maybe for three and a half cookies) or 2.75 (maybe for the
price of a toy). These arenumbers with parts.
The slide says that the computer language "C" (which islike a set of rules for the computer) understandsboth these kinds of numbers– the whole ones
(that can besigned orunsigned) and the ones with parts. It's like the computerknows how to read both kindsof numbers you mightwrite on your paper
for the different boxes.
Then, it talks about the size of the boxes again. Remember how I said some boxes can be bigger than others and hold more toys? It's similar with the
computer's memory. The amount of space the computer sets aside for each "int" box or "float" box can be a little different depending on how the
computer is made (whether it'sa "32-bit" or"64-bit" system). Think of it like having slightlydifferent sizes of shelvesin two different toy rooms.
Finally, it says, "Let's see the basic data types. Its size is given according to 32-bit architecture." This just means that when we start looking at how big
these "int" and "float" boxesare, we'll talk about the size they usually have in one common type of computer setup (the "32-bit" one). It's like saying, "Let's
look athowmany toys fit inthese standard-sized boxes."

Okay, remember our tiny"char" box, the one that can hold single letters or symbols? Thisslide tells usmore about what can go inside that box!
Think of all the letters in the alphabet (A, B, C, and so on), all the punctuation marks we use when we write (like commas, periods, question marks), all the
digits(0, 1, 2, up to 9), and even other symbols(like $, #, @).All of these can fit into a"char" box!
It's like each of these letters, numbers, and symbols has its own secret code. The computer uses a special code called "ASCII" to know which number
represents which letter or symbol. Imagine it's like a secret map where 'A' is number 65, 'B' is 66, and so on. Because the "char" box has a size of 1 byte, it
has enough space tohold all the codesfor 256 different letters, numbers, and symbols!
Now, the bottom part of the slide showsus how we can put these letters and symbols into our"char" boxeswhen we're talking to the computer in the "C"
language (remember, that's likea set of rules for the computer).
* Charachar= 'a'; Thisis like saying, "Hey computer, make a 'char' box named 'achar' and putthe letter 'a' inside it." Notice the single quotesaround the 'a'
– that's how wetell the computer it's asingle character.
* Char newline char = '\n'; This looks a bit strange, right? But \n isn't really two letters. It's a special code that tells the computer to start a new line, like
when you press the 'Enter' key on a typewriter or computer. So, we're making a "char" box called 'newline char' and putting this "new line" command
inside it. The backslash \ tells the computer thatthenext letterhas a special meaning.
* Char tab char = '\t'; Similarly, \t is another special code. It tells the computer to make a 'tab' space, like when you press the 'Tab' key on a keyboard to
make some extraspace.So, we're putting this "tab space" command into a "char" box called 'tab char'.
* Char backslash char = '\\'; Now, what if we actually want to store the backslash symbol itself? Because the backslash is used for special codes like \n
and \t, we need to put two backslashes \\to tell the computer, "No, I really mean the backslash symbol itself!" So, we're putting the backslash symbol into
a "char" box called 'backslash char'.
So, the "char" box is for holding single letters, numbers that are treated as symbols (like if you just want to store the digit '5' as a character, not as the
number five to do math with), punctuation, and even special commands like starting a new line or making a tab space.Each of these has a secret code
that fits inside the 1-byte "char" box!

Okay, remember how we said each letter and symbol in the "char" box has a secret number code? This slide is telling us something really cool:
charactersare just numbers!
Think of it like this: the computer doesn't really understand the letter 'A' the way we do.Instead, it sees a number that represents 'A' (like our secret code
65 from before).It sees 'B' asanother number (like 66), and so on.
The top of the slide asks, "What does this function do?" A function islike a little machine that takes something in and does something with it.Let's look at
thismachine called Char fun.
It takesone "char" box as an input. Let'ssay you put a letter into this machine. We're calling this inputbox just c.
Inside the machine, it first creates a new empty "char" box called neck.Thisislike a temporary holding space insidethe machine.
Then, there'san if part.Think of this as a question: "Is the letter in the input box can uppercase letter from 'A' to 'Z'?" The && means "and". So, it's asking if
it'sgreater than or equal to 'A' and lessthan or equal to 'Z'.
* If the answer isYES, meaning the letter in box c is an uppercase letter, then the machine does this: neck = c + 'a' - 'A’ ; This lookslike math with letters,
but remember, letters are just numbers in secret code! What this is actually doing is taking the secret number for the uppercase letter, adding the
secret number for 'a', and then subtracting the secret number for 'A'. This clever trick actually changes the uppercase letter to itslowercase version! For
example, if c was 'B' (secret code 66), it would do something like: 66 + 97(code for 'a') - 65(code for 'A') which equals98, and 98 is the secret code for 'b'! So,
'B' becomes 'b'.
* If the answer to the question is NO(meaning theletter in box c is not an uppercase letter), then the machine does the part after else: neck = c - 'a' + 'A’ ;
This does the opposite! It takes the letter in c and tries to change it to uppercase (if it waslowercase). For example, if c was 'g' (secret code 103), it would
do something like: 103 -97 (code for 'a') + 65 (code for 'A') which equals 71, and 71isthe secret code for'G'! So, 'g' becomes 'G'.
Finally, the machine return(neck); Thismeans the machine spitsouttheletter that's now in the new_c box.
So, this little machine Char fun takes a letter. If it's uppercase, it gives you back the lowercase version. If it's not uppercase (it might be lowercase or
something else), it tries to give you back the uppercase version. It can do this because the computer sees letters as numbers and can-do math with
those secret number codes!

Okay, imagine you're learning anewgamewith special wordsyou have to use. These words are like the tokensin the "C" language.
There are different kinds of these special words:
* Keywords: These are like the rule words of the game. They already have a specific meaning and tell you to do certain things. For example, the word
"JUMP" might alwaysmean your game character jumps.You can't use the word "JUMP" to nameyour character or anything else because it alreadyhas a
rule attached to it. The "C" language hasa set of these rule words (keywords) that it already understands.
* Identifiers: These are the names you give to things in your game. For example, you might name your character "Hero" or your score "Points". In "C",
identifiers are the names you choose for your variables (like our toy boxes a and b), functions (like our Char fun machine), and other things. You get to
make up these names (as long as you follow some simple rules).
* Constants: These are like numbers or letters in the game that never change. For example, if the game always starts with 10 lives, then "10" is a
constant. In "C", constantsare values that stay the same throughout your program, like the number 7 or the letter 'X'.
* Strings: Imagine a message in the game, like "GAME OVER!". This whole message is a string. In "C", a string is a sequence of characters (letters,
numbers, symbols) put together inside quotation marks.
* Special Symbols: These are like the punctuation marksor little symbols in the game rules that tell you something specific. For example, a plus sign +
might mean "add points", or an equal’ s sign = might mean "isequalto". In "C", special symbols like +, -, =, ;, {, } have their own special jobs.
* Operators: These are like the actions you can take in the game. For example, "add to score", "subtract health", "compare levels". In "C", operators are
symbols that tell the computer to performactions on values, like adding numbersor checking if one number isbigger than another.
Now, focusing on Keywords:
* Think of keywords as words that the game already has rules for. The game designers decided what these words mean, and you can't change their
meaning.
* Because they already have a meaning, you can't use them as namesfor your own things in the game. You can't name your character "JUMP" if "JUMP"
is a rule word that makes your characterjump.It would be confusing!
* The "C" language has its own setof these rule words (keywords).You have to use themcorrectly according to the rules of "C".
So, just remember that when you're writing a program in "C", you're using different kinds of special words (tokens). Some are rule words that the
computer already knows (keywords), and some are names you make up for things in your program (identifiers), and there are also words that represent
unchanging values (constants), messages (strings), special symbols, and actions (operators). You have to use each type correctly according to the "C"
language rules!

Okay, let's talk about Strings in the "C" language. Remember how we said a string is like a message, a sequence of letters, numbers, or symbols put
together?
Think of it like writing words on a piece of paper. A single letter is like our "char" box. But when you write a whole word, like "apple", that's a string – a
bunch of characterstogether in a row.
Here's something special about strings in "C": the computer needs to know where the word ends. Imagine you have a long line of letters, and the
computer needsto know if it'sread the whole word or if there aremore letterscoming.
In "C", strings always have a special invisible character at the very end, called the "null character", which is written as \0. It'slike putting a special stop sign
at the end of your word on the paper, so the computer knows, "Okay, thisisthe end of the string!"
The slide says, "Strings in C are always represented as an array of characters having null character '\0' at the end of the string." An array is just a fancy
word for a row or a list of things. So, a string is like a row of "char" boxes (one for each letter or symbol), and the very last box in the row has this special '\0'
stop sign.
It also says, "Strings in C are enclosed within double quotes, while charactersare enclosed withinsingle quotes." Remember when we puta single letter
in a'char' box, we used single quotes like 'a'? When we write a whole word (a string), we use double quotes, like "java point". Thistellsthe computer, "Hey,
thisis a whole string of characters!"
The size of a string is just how many characters (letters, numbers, symbols) are in it. The computer also counts the special '\0' stop sign as part of the
space itneeds to store the string.
Now, look at the exampleson the slide:
* Chara[10] = "javapoint";
Imagine you have a row of 10 empty "char" boxes labeled 'a'. This line of code tells the computer to put the word "java point" into these boxes. Each
letter of "javapoint" goes intoone box, and the computer automaticallyadds the special '\0' stop signat the end.Even though "java point" has 10letters,
the computer needs 11 boxes in total to store it (10 for the letters and 1 for the '\0'). However, this line tells it to reserve 10 boxes. The comment says "//
The compiler allocates the 10 bytes to the 'a' array." It seems there might be a slight confusion in the example or comment regarding the exact space
needed for the null terminator within adeclared array size. The keyisthat the string itself conceptuallyends with \0.
* Chara[] = "java point";
Here, we just say we want to store "java point" in a row of 'char' boxes called 'a', but we don't say how many boxes. The computer is smart enough to
count the letters in "java point" (which is 10) and then add one more box for the '\0' stop sign. So, it will automatically create a row of 11 "char" boxes. The
comment says "// The compiler allocates the memory at the run time." This means the computer figures out how much space it needs when the
program isrunning.
* Chara[10] = { 'j', 'a', 'v', 'a', 't', 'p', 'o', 'I', 'n', 't', '\0' };
Thisis another way to put the word "java point" into a row of 10 "char" boxes.Here, we are listing each characterone by one inside single quotes, and we
even explicitly put the special '\0' stop sign at the very end in the 11th position (though the array is declared to hold 10). Again, there's a slight mismatch
between the declared size and the elementsincluding the null terminator in thisexample. The important thing tosee isthe '\0' at the end. The comment
says"// String isrepresented inthe form of characters." Thisjust meanswe're seeing thestring asa list of individual characters.
So, the main things to remember about strings in "C" are: they are wordsor messages, they are put inside double quotes, and they always have a secret
'\0' stop sign at the end so the computer knowswhere they finish!

Okay, let's talk about Constants in the "C" language. Remember how we talked about values that never change? Constants are exactly that! They are
like fixed numbers or letters thatstay the same throughoutyour entire program.
Imagine you're writing a story, and in your story, the main character always has 5 best friends. The number 5 here is constant – it doesn't change
throughout the story. In "C", a constant is a value thatyouassign and it cannot be changed later in the program.
The slide says, "A constant is a value assigned to the variable which will remain the same throughout the program, i.e., the constant value cannot be
changed." It'slike setting arule in your story that the character alwayshas 5friends– you can'tsuddenly say they have 6or 4.
There are two main waysto tell the "C" language that something isa constant:
* Using the const keyword: You can put the word const before you declare a variable. It'slike saying, "Hey computer, this is a special box, and whatever I
putin it, you cannot change later!" The example on the slide cosecants float PI = 3.14;
This is like saying, "Make a box named 'PI' that can hold numbers with parts, and put the value 3.14 in it. And by the way, this value of PI will always be
3.14 – don't let it change!" The slide even shows what happens if you try to change it: you get a "Compile Time Error: Cannot modify a const object." It's
like the computer saying, "Hey! You said thiscouldn't be changed!"
* Using the #define pre-processor: This is another way to set up a constant. It's like telling the computer, "Every time you see this word, replace it with
thisvalue before you even run the program." The slide doesn't show a direct exampleof #define in the code snippet, but it mentions it asa way to declare
constants.For example, you might writesomething like:
#Define NUMBER_OF_FRIENDS 5

Then, anywhere in your program where you write NUMBER_OF_FRIENDS, the computer will automaticallyreplace it with the number 5 before it starts
running. This makes NUMBER_OF_FRIENDSact like a constant.
The slide also shows Types of constants in C.Just like we have different kinds of numbersand letters, we have different kinds of constants:
* Integer constant: These are whole numbers, like 10, 11, 34, etc.(like the number of friends).
* Floating-point constant: These are numberswith decimal points, like 45.6, 67.8, 11.2, etc. (like our PI example).
* Octal constant: These are whole numbers written in a special way starting with a '0' (like 011, 089, 023). This is just a different way of representing
numbers.
* Hexadecimal constant: These are whole numbers written in another special way starting with '0x' (like 0x1a, 0x4b, 0x6d). Another way to represent
numbers.
* Character constant: These are single lettersorsymbolsenclosed in single quotes, like 'a', 'b', '?', etc.
* String constant: These are sequencesof characters (words or sentences) enclosed in double quotes, like "java", "C++", "net", etc.
So, constants are values that stay the same in your program, and you can create them using the const keyword or the #define method. They come in
differenttypes, just like regular data!

Okay, now let's talk about Operatorsin the "C" language. Think of operators asspecial symbols that tell the computer to do something, like perform an
action or calculation.
Imagine you're playing with numbers. If you want to add two numbers together, you use the plus sign +. If you want to subtract, you use the minussign -.
These signsare like operators– they tell you what operation to perform.
The slide says, "Operators in C isa special symbol used to performthe functions." Functions here just mean actionsor calculations.
It also talks about operands.Operands are thethings that the operatorswork on.So, in our numberexample, if you have 5 + 3, the + isthe operator, and
the 5 and 3 are the operands– they are the numbersbeing added.
The slide says, "The data items on which the operators are applied are known as operands." And "Operators are applied between the operands." Just
like you putthe+ sign between the 5 and the 3.
Now, depending on how many operands an operator needs, they can be classified in different ways. Think of it like some actions need one thing to act
on, and other actionsneed two things.
For example:
* If you want to say "make this number negative," like changing 5 to -5, you use a minus sign in front of the number: -5. Here, the minus sign is acting on
just one operand (the 5). This is like an operator that needsonly one thing.
* If you want to add two numbers, like 5 + 3, the plus sign needs two operands(the5 and the 3). Thisis like an operator that needstwo things.
The slide ends by saying, "Depending onthe number of operands, operatorsare classified as follows:" Thismeans we'll learn about operators that work
on one operand, two operands, or evensometimesthree operands!
So, insimple terms, operatorsare special symbolsin "C" that tell the computer to do things with values (operands), like adding, subtracting, or changing
them in some way.Theyare like the action words or the tools that make your program work!

Okay, let's think about playing with numbersormaking simple choices.


Imagine you have twotoycars.
* Arithmetic Operators: If you want to know how many cars you have in total if your friend gives you 1 more, you use the plus operator (+) between your 2
cars and the 1 car: 2 + 1. You need two numbers to add. If you want to know how many are left if you give 1 car away, you use the minus operator (-): 2 - 1.
Again, youneed two numbers.
* Relational Operators: If you want to see if you have the same number of cars as your friend (who also has 2), you use the equal to operator (==): 2 == 2
(which is true!). You are comparing your number of cars with your friend's number of cars – that's two things.If you want to know if you have more cars
than your friend (who has 1), you use the greaterthan operator (>): 2> 1 (which is also true!).You're comparing two amounts.
* Logical Operators: Imagine you can go to the park if it's sunny AND your mom says it's okay. You need two conditions (sunny and mom says okay) for
the "AND" (&&) to be true (you cango to the park).That'stwo conditions being checked.Or, imagine you can have ice cream if it'syourbirthdayOR it's a
holiday.You need to check two things (birthday or holiday) for the "OR" (||) to be true (you get ice cream).
* Assignment Operator: If you get 3 new cars, you can say "now I have 3 cars." The equals operator (=) is like saying "now this isequal to that": my cars = 3.
You're assigning the value 3to your "mycars" – that'stwo sidesof the assignment.
So, binary operators are like actions or comparisons that you do with two things. You need two numbers to add or subtract, you need to compare two
amounts to see which is bigger, and you often need to check two conditions to make a decision.The operator is the symbol that tellsyou what to do with
those two things!
Okay, let's talk about those otheroperators.Some of these are a little more like special tools.
ShiftOperators:
Imagine you have a row of light switches, and each switch can be either ON (1) or OFF (0). This is kind of how computers store numbers in binary (using
only 0s and 1s).
* Left Shift (<<): Imagine you take the whole row of switches and shift them all one place to the left. If a 0 or 1 falls off the left end, it'sgone. And a new 0 is
alwaysadded at the right end. Shifting leftby one is like multiplying the number by 2.If you shift left bytwo places, it's like multiplying by 2 twice (or by 4).
* Right Shift (>>): Thisislike shifting all the switchesto the right.What happenson the left end dependson whether the number is positive or negative (it
can geta 0 or a1). If a 0or 1 falls off the right end, it's gone.Shifting right byone islike dividing the number by2 and throwing away any remainder.
Think of itlike moving a whole lineof students in a row.If you shift them left, the firststudent mightgo out the door, and a new student join at the end.
Bitwise Operators:
These operatorswork directly on those individual 0sand 1s (bits) inside the computer'smemory.
* Bitwise AND (&): Imagine you have two rows of light switches. The result is ON (1) only if the switch in the same position in both rows is ON (1).
Otherwise, the result isOFF (0). It's likesaying "both must be true".
* Bitwise OR (|): The result isON (1) if the switch in that position isON (1) in either the first row or the second row (or both).It'sOFF (0) only if both are OFF.
It's like saying "at least one must be true".
* Bitwise XOR (^): The result is ON (1) if the switches in that position in the two rows are different (one is ON and the other is OFF). If they are the same
(both ON or both OFF), the result is OFF(0).It's like saying "they must be different".
* Bitwise NOT (~): Thisoneworks on asingle row of switches. It flipseachswitch.If it's ON(1), it becomes OFF (0), and if it'sOFF (0), it becomes ON (1).
Think of these like very precise waysof comparingor changing the tiny on/off switches inside the computer's numbers.
Conditional Operators:
There'sonemain conditional operator:
* Ternary Operator (?:): This islike a short way of saying "if...then...else..." Itneeds three parts (that's why it's called "ternary").It looks like this:
condition ? value_if_true : value_if_false
First, it checksthe condition. If the condition is true, it gives you value_if_true. If the condition is false, it givesyou value_if_false.
Imagine your mom says, "If you finish your homework, you get ice cream, otherwise you don't." The condition is "finish your homework". The
value_if_true is"ice cream".The value_if_false is "nothing".
Misc Operators:
Thisiskind of a grab bag for operators thatdon't fit neatly into the othercategories. Some common ones include:
* Sizeof (size of): This operator tells you how much memory space (in bytes) a data type or a variable takes up. It's like asking, "How many of our 'char'
boxes would I need to store this?"
* Address-of (&): Thisoperator gives you the memory address (the location in the computer's memory) of avariable. It's like getting the specific address
of a house.
* Dereference (*): This operator is used with pointers (remember those special labels that tell you where to find something?). It lets you get the value
that the pointer is pointing to.It'slike going to the house addresson the label to see what'sinside.
* Member access (. and ->): These are used to accesspartsinside structures or unions (remember those big boxes with compartments?). The dot (.) is
used when you have the actual box, and the arrow (->) is often used when you have a pointer (a label) to the box. It's like saying, "Open the 'toys'
compartment in this big box."
These "misc." operators are tools for doing things like checking memory size or working with memory locationsdirectly.
Don't worry if some of these sounds complicated right now. They are more advanced tools thatyou'll learn about later! The important thing for now isto
know thatoperators arespecial symbols that make the computer do things.

210
Okay, imagine C is like a super helpful toy box! It has lots of cool things inside that make it really useful for building other toys and games on the
computer.Let's look atsome of those cool thingsin a simpleway:
* Simple: Think of it like having big, easy-to-grab building blocks.You don't have lots of tiny, confusing pieces.
* Machine Independent or Portable: Thisis like a toy that you can play with on any type of floor – wood, carpet, or even outside! You don't need a special
floorjust for that toy. Computer programsmade withC can often work on different kindsof computers.
* Mid-level programming language: Imagine it's like a toy that's not too simple like a single block, but not super complicated like a whole robot kit with a
million tiny parts. It's somewhere in the middle, giving you good control.
* Structured programming language: Thisislike having instructions to build your toy step-by-step in a clear order.It's not just ajumble of pieces; there's
a plan.
* Rich Library: Think of this as having a big box full of ready-made parts and tools that you can use to build your toysfaster. You don't have to make every
single piece from scratch.
* Memory Management: Imagine you have a special way to keep your toy box tidy. C helps the computer keep its "memory" (where it stores
information) organized.
* Fast Speed: Thisislike a toy car that can go really, reallyfast! Programs made with C can often run quickly on the computer.
* Pointers – memory, arrays: Imagine having special labels that tell you exactly where different toys are in your toy box (memory). "Arrays" are like
having aneat row of identical toy carsall lined up together.
* Recursion: This is a bit like having a set of Russian nesting dolls – a doll inside a doll inside a doll.In C, a part of the instructions can sometimes call itself
to repeatsomething.
* Extensible: Imagine your toy box can have new compartments added to it easily when you get more toys. C can be made to do even more things by
adding newfeatures.
* Few keywords: This is like having a small set of important words that you need to know to use all the building blocks in your toy box. It's not a huge
dictionaryyouhave to learn.
* Structures, unions – compound data types: Imagine being able to put different kinds of toys together in one special box (structure) or having a box
that can hold only one type of toy at a time but you can switch them out (union).These are ways to group information together.
* Case sensitive: This is like how your name is different from someone with a similar name but with a capital letter in a different place. In C, uppercase
and lowercase lettersare treated as different. So, "Toy" is not the same as "toy".
So, C isa powerful but organized "toy box" with lotsof useful thingsthat helpspeople build allsorts of coolcomputer programs! Does that make sense?

Okay, imagine C is like the Mommy of many other computer languages! Lots of other languages learned from C, just like baby animals learn from their
mothers.
Think of it asa tool for building the inside parts of things that make your computer work. Like the engine inside a car that makes it move. We call this a
systemprogramming language.It helpsbuild things like how your mouse and keyboard talk to the computer.
It's also like following a recipe step-by-step to cook something yummy. We call this a procedure-oriented programming language. You tell the
computer exactly what to do in order.
Remember how C waslike having building blocks with a plan? That'sbeing a structured programming language. Ithelps keep everything organized.
And just like wetalked about before, it's not too simple and not too complicated, it'sin the middle – a mid-level programming language. It can talk to the
computer's basic partsbutalso do more complicated things.
So, C is super important because it's like a mother, helps build the insides of your computer, follows clear steps, keeps things organized, and is a good
balance between simple and complex! Easy peas, right?

Okay, let's trythinking about it like learning to talk!


First Generation (1G) - Baby Talk: Imagine when a baby first startsto make sounds. It's just simple noises that only the closest people understand. This is
like the first computer language – very basic and onlythe computer "knew" it.
Second Generation (2G) - Simple Words: Then, the baby starts to say simple words like "mama" or "dada." These are still short and a bit like baby talk, but
a little easier foreveryone to understand.Thisislike the next step in computer languages – a bit easier than just noises.
Third Generation (3G) - Sentences: Now, the child starts to put words together to make sentences like "I want toy." This is much easier to understand!
Languages like C are like these sentences– they use words that are closer to how we talk, so it'seasier for people to tellthe computer what to do.
Fourth Generation (4G) - Asking Questions: Later, the child can ask questions like "Where is my toy?" These questions are even more like how we
naturally communicate when we want information.Some computer languagesare like this– they're reallygood at asking the computer for information
and organizing it, like finding names in a big list.
Fifth Generation (5G) - Telling Stories with Pictures: Finally, imagine the child showing you pictures in a book and telling a story. They're not just using
words; they're using visuals to help you understand. Some computer languages let you build programs by pointing and clicking on pictures and tools,
making it even easierto tell the computerwhat you want.
So, just like learning to talk gets easier and more expressive as we grow, computer languages have also become simpler and more powerful over time!
Doesthisway of explaining it help you understand better?

Okay, let's think about this like giving instructionsto a very helpful robot!
Machine Language (Robot's Secret Code):
* Time to execute (Robot does it): Imagine you speak to the robot in its own super-secret code. It understands you instantly because it's its language.
So, itdoes what you say very, very fast.
* Time to develop (You learn the code): But, learning this secret code is really hard! You need to use lots of strange numbers and symbols, and it takes a
very long time to write even simple instructions.It's like trying to build a tower using only tiny grains of sand – it takes forever!
Assembly Language(Robot'sSimple Words):
* Time to execute (Robot does it): Now imagine you use some simple words with the robot, like "move arm" or "grab block." The robot doesn't
understand these words directly, so it needs a special friend (called an "assembler") to translate these words into its secret code first. This takes a little
bit longer than speaking in the secret code directly.
* Time to develop (You learn the simple words): Learning these simple words is easier than the secret code. You can give instructions a bit faster, like
building a tower with slightly bigger blocks.
High-Level Languages(Talking Normally):
* Time to execute (Robot does it): Now, imagine you talk to the robot just like you talk to your friends: "Please pick up the red block and put it on the blue
one." The robot needs another special friend (called a "compiler" or "interpreter") to translate your normal talking into its secret code. This takes a little
bit longer than using the simple words.
* Time to develop (You talk normally): But this is the easiest way for you to tell the robot what to do! You use words you already know, and you can give
very clear and big instructionsquickly, like building a tower with big, easy-to-handle blocks.You can build amazing things much faster this way!
So, the easiest way for you to tell the robot what to do takes a little bit longer for the robot to understand at first, but you can give much better and faster
instructions overall! It's like choosing between learning a super hard secret code, some simple robot words, or just talking normally to get things done.
Which one soundseasiest for you?

Okay, imagine youhave two toy boxes, a red one and ablue one.
* The red box has5 toysinside (let's say cars).
* The blue box has7 toys inside(let's say dolls).
Now, you want to swap the toys.You want the red box to have the dolls (7 toys) and the blue box to have the cars (5 toys).
Here's how you can do it, step by step, like alittle recipe:
* Get an empty box.Let's call it the "temp" box.Thisbox isemptyat the beginning.
* Put all the toysfromthe red box into the temp box.Now, the red box is empty. The temp box has5 cars.The blue box still has 7 dolls.
* Put all the toysfromthe blue box into the red box.Now, the red box has 7dolls.The temp box still has5 cars.The blue box is empty.
* Finally, put all the toys from the temp box into theblue box. Now, the red box has 7dolls, and the blue box has5 cars.The temp box isempty again.
You did it! You swapped thetoysbetween the red and blue boxes.
That's kind of like what the computer is doing with the numbers.
* It startswith two numbers, let's say'a' islike thered box with 5 toys, and 'b' is likethe blue box with 7 toys.
* It uses atemporaryspace (like our empty "temp" box) tohold the value of 'a' for alittle bit.
* Then it puts the value of 'b' into 'a'.
* Finally, it puts the value it saved in the temporary space (which wasthe original value of 'a') into 'b'.
So, inthe end, thevaluesof 'a' and 'b' are swapped! 'a' becomes 7, and 'b' becomes 5.
The computer algorithm is just a set of these simple steps to solve a problem, like swapping the toys or the numbers. It has to have a clear start and a
clear end, and each step has to be something the computer knowshow to do.

Lecture :02
Imagine you have different kinds of boxes to keep your toys.
* Some boxes are for whole toys, like carsordolls.You can't put half a car in there.These are like "int" data typesforwhole numbers.
* Some boxes are for thingsthat might have parts, like if you cut a cake into pieces.These are like "float" or "double" data types for numberswith decimal
points (like 3.5 or 2.75).
* Some boxes are only for single lettersor symbols, like a box just for the letter 'A' or the symbol '?'.These are like "char" datatypesforsingle characters.
These first kinds of boxes – for whole numbers, numbers with parts, and single letters – are like the "Basic" data types. They are the simplest kinds of
boxes.
Now, what if youwant to keep many of the same kind of toy together?
* Imagine a long box with many sections inside, where you can put a line of cars. This is like an "array". It's a way to keep many of the same type of data
(like many whole numbersor many letters) in one place.
* Imagine a special label that tells you where to find a specific toy in another box. This label doesn't hold the toy itself, but it points to it. This is like a
"pointer". It helps the computer find information easily.
* Imagine a big box that has different compartments inside for different kinds of toys – maybe a section for cars, a section for dolls, and a section for
blocks, all within the same big box. Thisis like a "structure" or "union".It lets you group different kindsof information together.
These kinds of boxes – for groups of the same toys, special labels, and groups of different toys– are like "Derived" data types. They are made from the
basic types.
Then, imagine you have a special list of things, like the colors of a rainbow (red, orange, yellow, green, blue, indigo, violet). You can only pick from this list.
Thisislike an "Enumeration" data type. It's a set of named values.
Finally, imagine an emptybox.It doesn't hold anything at all.Thisislike the "void" data type. It meansthere isno value or no type of information.
So, just like you have different kindsof boxesto keep different kinds of toys, the computer hasdifferent datatypes to store different kinds of information,
like numbers, letters, and groups of these things!

Okay, let's think about the "int" boxes (for whole numbers) and the "float" or "double" boxes (for numbers with parts) again. These are the basic kinds of
boxes the computer usesfor numbers.
Imagine you're writing numberson a piece of paper to put in these boxes.
* For the "int" box, you write whole numbers like 1, 10, or 100. You can also put a plus sign in front if you want to (+5), or a minus sign if it's a number you
owe (-3). These are signed numbers.
* Sometimes, you might only want to put in numbers that are zero or bigger, like when you're counting how many candies you have. You can't have a
negative number of candies. In that case, you can think of using a special "unsigned" way of writing numbersfor the "int" box, where you only write 0, 1, 2,
3, and so on – no minus signs allowed!
Now, for the "float" or "double" boxes, you write numbers that can have a dot in them, like 3.5(maybe for three and a half cookies) or 2.75 (maybe for the
price of a toy). These arenumbers with parts.
The slide says that the computer language "C" (which islike a set of rules for the computer) understandsboth these kinds of numbers– the whole ones
(that can besigned orunsigned) and the ones with parts. It's like the computerknows how to read both kindsof numbers you mightwrite on your paper
for the different boxes.
Then, it talks about the size of the boxes again. Remember how I said some boxes can be bigger than others and hold more toys? It's similar with the
computer's memory. The amount of space the computer sets aside for each "int" box or "float" box can be a little different depending on how the
computer is made (whether it'sa "32-bit" or"64-bit" system). Think of it like having slightlydifferent sizes of shelvesin two different toy rooms.
Finally, it says, "Let's see the basic data types. Its size is given according to 32-bit architecture." This just means that when we start looking at how big
these "int" and "float" boxesare, we'll talk about the size they usually have in one common type of computer setup (the "32-bit" one). It's like saying, "Let's
look athowmany toys fit inthese standard-sized boxes."

Okay, remember our tiny"char" box, the one that can hold single letters or symbols? Thisslide tells usmore about what can go inside that box!
Think of all the letters in the alphabet (A, B, C, and so on), all the punctuation marks we use when we write (like commas, periods, question marks), all the
digits(0, 1, 2, up to 9), and even other symbols(like $, #, @).All of these can fit into a"char" box!
It's like each of these letters, numbers, and symbols has its own secret code. The computer uses a special code called "ASCII" to know which number
represents which letter or symbol. Imagine it's like a secret map where 'A' is number 65, 'B' is 66, and so on. Because the "char" box has a size of 1 byte, it
has enough space tohold all the codesfor 256 different letters, numbers, and symbols!
Now, the bottom part of the slide showsus how we can put these letters and symbols into our"char" boxeswhen we're talking to the computer in the "C"
language (remember, that's likea set of rules for the computer).
* Charachar= 'a'; Thisis like saying, "Hey computer, make a 'char' box named 'achar' and putthe letter 'a' inside it." Notice the single quotesaround the 'a'
– that's how wetell the computer it's asingle character.
* Char newline char = '\n'; This looks a bit strange, right? But \n isn't really two letters. It's a special code that tells the computer to start a new line, like
when you press the 'Enter' key on a typewriter or computer. So, we're making a "char" box called 'newline char' and putting this "new line" command
inside it. The backslash \ tells the computer thatthenext letterhas a special meaning.
* Char tab char = '\t'; Similarly, \t is another special code. It tells the computer to make a 'tab' space, like when you press the 'Tab' key on a keyboard to
make some extraspace.So, we're putting this "tab space" command into a "char" box called 'tab char'.
* Char backslash char = '\\'; Now, what if we actually want to store the backslash symbol itself? Because the backslash is used for special codes like \n
and \t, we need to put two backslashes \\to tell the computer, "No, I really mean the backslash symbol itself!" So, we're putting the backslash symbol into
a "char" box called 'backslash char'.
So, the "char" box is for holding single letters, numbers that are treated as symbols (like if you just want to store the digit '5' as a character, not as the
number five to do math with), punctuation, and even special commands like starting a new line or making a tab space.Each of these has a secret code
that fits inside the 1-byte "char" box!

Okay, remember how we said each letter and symbol in the "char" box has a secret number code? This slide is telling us something really cool:
charactersare just numbers!
Think of it like this: the computer doesn't really understand the letter 'A' the way we do.Instead, it sees a number that represents 'A' (like our secret code
65 from before).It sees 'B' asanother number (like 66), and so on.
The top of the slide asks, "What does this function do?" A function islike a little machine that takes something in and does something with it.Let's look at
thismachine called Char fun.
It takesone "char" box as an input. Let'ssay you put a letter into this machine. We're calling this inputbox just c.
Inside the machine, it first creates a new empty "char" box called neck.Thisislike a temporary holding space insidethe machine.
Then, there'san if part.Think of this as a question: "Is the letter in the input box can uppercase letter from 'A' to 'Z'?" The && means "and". So, it's asking if
it'sgreater than or equal to 'A' and lessthan or equal to 'Z'.
* If the answer isYES, meaning the letter in box c is an uppercase letter, then the machine does this: neck = c + 'a' - 'A’ ; This lookslike math with letters,
but remember, letters are just numbers in secret code! What this is actually doing is taking the secret number for the uppercase letter, adding the
secret number for 'a', and then subtracting the secret number for 'A'. This clever trick actually changes the uppercase letter to itslowercase version! For
example, if c was 'B' (secret code 66), it would do something like: 66 + 97(code for 'a') - 65(code for 'A') which equals98, and 98 is the secret code for 'b'! So,
'B' becomes 'b'.
* If the answer to the question is NO(meaning theletter in box c is not an uppercase letter), then the machine does the part after else: neck = c - 'a' + 'A’ ;
This does the opposite! It takes the letter in c and tries to change it to uppercase (if it waslowercase). For example, if c was 'g' (secret code 103), it would
do something like: 103 -97 (code for 'a') + 65 (code for 'A') which equals 71, and 71isthe secret code for'G'! So, 'g' becomes 'G'.
Finally, the machine return(neck); Thismeans the machine spitsouttheletter that's now in the new_c box.
So, this little machine Char fun takes a letter. If it's uppercase, it gives you back the lowercase version. If it's not uppercase (it might be lowercase or
something else), it tries to give you back the uppercase version. It can do this because the computer sees letters as numbers and can-do math with
those secret number codes!

Okay, imagine you're learning anewgamewith special wordsyou have to use. These words are like the tokensin the "C" language.
There are different kinds of these special words:
* Keywords: These are like the rule words of the game. They already have a specific meaning and tell you to do certain things. For example, the word
"JUMP" might alwaysmean your game character jumps.You can't use the word "JUMP" to nameyour character or anything else because it alreadyhas a
rule attached to it. The "C" language hasa set of these rule words (keywords) that it already understands.
* Identifiers: These are the names you give to things in your game. For example, you might name your character "Hero" or your score "Points". In "C",
identifiers are the names you choose for your variables (like our toy boxes a and b), functions (like our Char fun machine), and other things. You get to
make up these names (as long as you follow some simple rules).
* Constants: These are like numbers or letters in the game that never change. For example, if the game always starts with 10 lives, then "10" is a
constant. In "C", constantsare values that stay the same throughout your program, like the number 7 or the letter 'X'.
* Strings: Imagine a message in the game, like "GAME OVER!". This whole message is a string. In "C", a string is a sequence of characters (letters,
numbers, symbols) put together inside quotation marks.
* Special Symbols: These are like the punctuation marksor little symbols in the game rules that tell you something specific. For example, a plus sign +
might mean "add points", or an equal’ s sign = might mean "isequalto". In "C", special symbols like +, -, =, ;, {, } have their own special jobs.
* Operators: These are like the actions you can take in the game. For example, "add to score", "subtract health", "compare levels". In "C", operators are
symbols that tell the computer to performactions on values, like adding numbersor checking if one number isbigger than another.
Now, focusing on Keywords:
* Think of keywords as words that the game already has rules for. The game designers decided what these words mean, and you can't change their
meaning.
* Because they already have a meaning, you can't use them as namesfor your own things in the game. You can't name your character "JUMP" if "JUMP"
is a rule word that makes your characterjump.It would be confusing!
* The "C" language has its own setof these rule words (keywords).You have to use themcorrectly according to the rules of "C".
So, just remember that when you're writing a program in "C", you're using different kinds of special words (tokens). Some are rule words that the
computer already knows (keywords), and some are names you make up for things in your program (identifiers), and there are also words that represent
unchanging values (constants), messages (strings), special symbols, and actions (operators). You have to use each type correctly according to the "C"
language rules!
Okay, let's talk about Strings in the "C" language. Remember how we said a string is like a message, a sequence of letters, numbers, or symbols put
together?
Think of it like writing words on a piece of paper. A single letter is like our "char" box. But when you write a whole word, like "apple", that's a string – a
bunch of characterstogether in a row.
Here's something special about strings in "C": the computer needs to know where the word ends. Imagine you have a long line of letters, and the
computer needsto know if it'sread the whole word or if there aremore letterscoming.
In "C", strings always have a special invisible character at the very end, called the "null character", which is written as \0. It'slike putting a special stop sign
at the end of your word on the paper, so the computer knows, "Okay, thisisthe end of the string!"
The slide says, "Strings in C are always representedas an array of characters having null character '\0' at the end of the string." An array is just a fancy
word for a row or a list of things. So, a string is like a row of "char" boxes (one for each letter or symbol), and the very last box in the row has this special '\0'
stop sign.
It also says, "Strings in C are enclosed within double quotes, while charactersare enclosed withinsingle quotes." Remember when we puta single letter
in a'char' box, we used single quotes like 'a'? When we write a whole word (a string), we use double quotes, like "java point". Thistellsthe computer, "Hey,
thisis a whole string of characters!"
The size of a string is just how many characters (letters, numbers, symbols) are in it. The computer also counts the special '\0' stop sign as part of the
space itneeds to store the string.
Now, look at the exampleson the slide:
* Chara[10] = "javapoint";
Imagine you have a row of 10 empty "char" boxes labeled 'a'. This line of code tells the computer to put the word "java point" into these boxes. Each
letter of "javapoint" goes intoone box, and the computer automaticallyadds the special '\0' stop signat the end.Even though "java point" has 10letters,
the computer needs 11 boxes in total to store it (10 for the letters and 1 for the '\0'). However, this line tells it to reserve 10 boxes. The comment says "//
The compiler allocates the 10 bytes to the 'a' array." It seems there might be a slight confusion in the example or comment regarding the exact space
needed for the null terminator within adeclared array size. The keyisthat the string itself conceptuallyends with \0.
* Chara[] = "java point";
Here, we just say we want to store "java point" in a row of 'char' boxes called 'a', but we don't say how many boxes. The computer is smart enough to
count the letters in "java point" (which is 10) and then add one more box for the '\0' stop sign. So, it will automatically create a row of 11 "char" boxes. The
comment says "// The compiler allocates the memory at the run time." This means the computer figures out how much space it needs when the
program isrunning.
* Chara[10] = { 'j', 'a', 'v', 'a', 't', 'p', 'o', 'I', 'n', 't', '\0' };
Thisis another way to put the word "java point" into a row of 10 "char" boxes.Here, we are listing each characterone by one inside single quotes, and we
even explicitly put the special '\0' stop sign at the very end in the 11th position (though the array is declared to hold 10). Again, there's a slight mismatch
between the declared size and the elementsincluding the null terminator in thisexample. The important thing tosee isthe '\0' at the end. The comment
says"// String isrepresented inthe form of characters." Thisjust meanswe're seeing thestring asa list of individual characters.
So, the main things to remember about strings in "C" are: they are wordsor messages, they are put inside double quotes, and they always have a secret
'\0' stop sign at the end so the computer knowswhere they finish!

Okay, let's talk about Constants in the "C" language. Remember how we talked about values that never change? Constants are exactly that! They are
like fixed numbers or letters thatstay the same throughoutyour entire program.
Imagine you're writing a story, and in your story, the main character always has 5 best friends. The number 5 here is constant – it doesn't change
throughout the story. In "C", a constant is a value thatyouassign and it cannot be changed later in the program.
The slide says, "A constant is a value assigned to the variable which will remain the same throughout the program, i.e., the constant value cannot be
changed." It'slike setting arule in your story that the character alwayshas 5friends– you can'tsuddenly say they have 6or 4.
There are two main waysto tell the "C" language that something isa constant:
* Using the const keyword: You can put the word const before you declare a variable. It'slike saying, "Hey computer, this is a special box, and whatever I
putin it, you cannot change later!" The example on the slide shows: constfloatPI = 3.14;
This is like saying, "Make a box named 'PI' that can hold numbers with parts, and put the value 3.14 in it. And by the way, this value of PI will always be
3.14 – don't let it change!" The slide even shows what happens if you try to change it: you get a "Compile Time Error: Cannot modify a const object." It's
like the computer saying, "Hey! You said thiscouldn't be changed!"
* Using the #define pre-processor: This is another way to set up a constant. It's like telling the computer, "Every time you see this word, replace it with
thisvalue before you even run the program." The slide doesn't show a direct exampleof #define in the code snippet, but it mentions it asa way to declare
constants.For example, you might writesomething like:
#Define NUMBER_OF_FRIENDS 5
Then, anywhere in your program where you write NUMBER_OF_FRIENDS, the computer will automaticallyreplace it with the number 5 before it starts
running. This makes NUMBER_OF_FRIENDSact like a constant.
The slide also shows Types of constants in C.Just like we have different kinds of numbersand letters, we have different kinds of constants:
* Integer constant: These are whole numbers, like 10, 11, 34, etc.(like the number of friends).
* Floating-point constant: These are numberswith decimal points, like 45.6, 67.8, 11.2, etc. (like our PI example).
* Octal constant: These are whole numbers written in a special way starting with a '0' (like 011, 089, 023). This is just a different way of representing
numbers.
* Hexadecimal constant: These are whole numbers written in another special way starting with '0x' (like 0x1a, 0x4b, 0x6d). Another way to represent
numbers.
* Character constant: These are single lettersorsymbolsenclosed in single quotes, like 'a', 'b', '?', etc.
* String constant: These are sequencesof characters (words or sentences) enclosed in double quotes, like "java", "C++", "net", etc.
So, constants are values that stay the same in your program, and you can create them using the const keyword or the #define method. They come in
differenttypes, just like regular data!

Okay, now let's talk about Operatorsin the "C" language. Think of operators asspecial symbols that tell the computer to do something, like perform an
action or calculation.
Imagine you're playing with numbers. If you want to add two numbers together, you use the plus sign +. If you want to subtract, you use the minussign -.
These signsare like operators– they tell you what operation to perform.
The slide says, "Operators in C isa special symbol used to performthe functions." Functions here just mean actionsor calculations.
It also talks about operands.Operands are thethings that the operatorswork on.So, in our numberexample, if you have 5 + 3, the + isthe operator, and
the 5 and 3 are the operands– they are the numbersbeing added.
The slide says, "The data items on which the operators are applied are known as operands." And "Operators are applied between the operands." Just
like you putthe+ sign between the 5 and the 3.
Now, depending on how many operands an operator needs, they can be classified in different ways. Think of it like some actions need one thing to act
on, and other actionsneed two things.
For example:
* If you want to say "make this number negative," like changing 5 to -5, you use a minus sign in front of the number: -5. Here, the minus sign is acting on
just one operand (the 5). This is like an operator that needsonly one thing.
* If you want to add two numbers, like 5 + 3, the plus sign needs two operands(the5 and the 3). Thisis like an operator that needstwo things.
The slide ends by saying, "Depending onthe number of operands, operatorsare classified as follows:" Thismeans we'll learn about operators that work
on one operand, two operands, or evensometimesthree operands!
So, insimple terms, operatorsare special symbolsin "C" that tell the computer to do things with values (operands), like adding, subtracting, or changing
them in some way.Theyare like the action words or the tools that make your program work!

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