11/12/2024

Software Development Fundamentals

Week 16

Dr. Loubna Mekouar

Note:
• Some of the slides of the course are based on the material provided
by the College of Technological Information, Zayed University, UAE.
• The copyrighted material belongs to their respective owners.

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Topics of Discussion
• The Object Oriented Paradigm
• Managing Software Complexity
• The Object and its Class
• Attributes and Behaviors
• Encapsulation & Information Hiding
• Abstraction

The Object Oriented Paradigm

Encapsulation & Abstraction

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Definition of Software
-A software is a collection of interoperable programs
-A program is a logical sequence of instructions to
achieve a certain requirement
-An instruction (command) is a combination of bits
(0s and 1s) which is understood by a device
(computer)

Software Complexity
• Real-World systems are becoming more and more reliant on software.
• Ex: Banking, Transportation, Navigation, Health Care, Education, Security etc.

• For all real-world systems the software has become very complex and
the relative size has increased enormously.
• The need to manage software has become very critical to all areas of life

• The impact of reducing software complexity is paramount in terms of

cost and also reducing the effort of building software.

• Many times, it is even life saving, because these software control real-
world systems.
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Software Complexity -- Problems

- No clear understanding of how all the functionalities of a software fit
together. The programmer keeps writing code and fixes it on the fly.

- Lack of interoperability between software components, which are

many times built by different people and maybe with different design
models.

- Software is not built to be reused. Every time a functionality is

required the software component has to be created from scratch.

Good Model Reduces Software Complexity

• A major reason for software complexity is the difficulty in
understanding the software model which represents a software
system [1].
• Having a good software model helps to translate ideas
(requirements) into working programs (software)
• It also helps to easily change/update software based on new
requirements
• A model that is easy to understand is also easier to use and
maintain, which reduces the likelihood of introducing errors when
creating or updating it.

[1] Evaluating and Mitigating the Impact of Complexity in Software Models, TECHNICAL REPORT, CMU/SEI-2015-TR-013, Carnegie Mellon University
https://resources.sei.cmu.edu/asset_files/TechnicalReport/2015_005_001_448093.pdf

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The Waterfall Approach

The Agile Approach

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Collecting Requirements

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Understanding Requirements
• The challenge of Requirement
Elicitation.
o conflicting requirements
o unspoken requirements
o difficulty in meeting with relevant
stakeholders
o stakeholder resistance to change

• How to reduce the impact of

change on software?

• How to connect the requirements

to the actual implementation?

• How to ensure scalability?

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OO Software Design

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Managing Software Complexity

• An unambiguous representation (modelling notation and
programming language) with precise semantics eases software
creation.
• For this course we use,
• UML Class Diagrams as a notation to model ideas and requirements
• Python programming language to create working programs/software

• The approach to building software can be either:

• Top-Down: The “Divide and Rule” or “Algorithmic Decomposition” concept
looks at breaking down requirements into smaller functions.
• Bottom-Up: The approach pieces together smaller units to give rise to the
larger systems. In a bottom-up approach the smaller parts of the system are
first specified in great detail.
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Object Oriented Programming (OOP)

• Complex scenarios are easily modelled and programmed
using Object Oriented (OO) concepts
• Object Oriented Programing (OOP) uses the Bottom-Up
approach.

• In OOP, small independent units of the software known

as Objects are first created.
• Objects are the building blocks of the software

• A program or software is created by the collection of

interacting Objects.

• Examples of OOP Languages: C++, Python, Java,

Smalltalk, C#

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The Object and its Class

• A Class is the template of an object. It is used to model objects for
implementing a software
• Example: Student, Musical instrument, Fruit, Car

• An Object in a software context, is a uniquely identifiable

representation of a real-world entity. It has attributes and behaviors
• Example: Samir, Guitar, Apple, Toyota Camry

• An Object is an instance of a Class

• Samir is an instance of a Student
• A guitar is an instance of a Musical instrument
• An apple is an instance of a Fruit
• A Toyota Camry is an instance of a Car

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Class Diagram

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UpperCamelCase

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Attributes and Behaviors

• Consider a car, a real-world entity that needs to be represented in a
software.
• Let’s say the car is, a 2017 model Toyota Camry
• For our software let’s call the car, myCar
• Therefore, myCar is a software object that identifies my real-world car

• To use it in a software, we define a class that would represent myCar.

• Let’s call the class, Car
• Therefore, myCar is an instance of Car

• The class Car will provide the template to define any car by defining:
• Attributes and Behaviors common to any Car
• So, we need to identify
• Attributes or data that define a car.
• Behaviors or functions that define a car
• Note: The first alphabet of Class names are written in Upper case. This is a common
convention used by all programmers
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Class - Attributes
• We use generic physical attributes of a car
• Discuss: What are the attributes or data that define a car?
o Manufacturer
o Model
o Year of Manufacture
o Engine Capacity
o Number of Doors
o Color
o Gear (Automatic or Manual)
o Number of Gears
o Drive Position (Left or Right Hand Drive)
o Number of Seats
o Type of Fuel (Petrol, Diesel, Electric, Hybrid)
o Fuel Capacity
o Fuel Consumption
o Max Speed
o Engine State (On/Off)
o Current Speed

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An Object – Instance of a Class

• An instance of the class Car is myCar
• myCar is an object that has at-least these attributes
o Manufacturer - Toyota
o Model - Camry
o Year of Manufacture - 2017
o Engine Capacity - 2.4
o Number of Doors -4
o Color - Blue
o Gear - Automatic
o Number of Gears -6
o Drive Position - Right
o Number of Seats -3+2
o Type of Fuel - Petrol
o Fuel Capacity - 60.0
o Fuel Consumption - 10 (Km/L)
o Max Speed - 200 (Km/Hr)
o Engine State (On/Off) - Off
o Current Speed -0
• What would be the data types of the attributes listed above?

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Attributes of Class - Car

• manufacturer :String • Toyota
• model : String • Camry
• yearOfManufacture :Date • 2017
• bodyType : String • Sedan
• engineNumber :String • AX1839930S8920
• engineCapacity :float • 2.4
• numberOfDoors :int • 4
• color : String • White
• gear : String • Automatic
• numberOfGears :int • 6
• drivePosition : String • Right
• numberOfSeats :String • 3+2
• typeOfFuel : String • Petrol
• fuelCapacity :float • 60.0
• fuelConsumption :String • 10 Km/L
• maxSpeed :float • 200
• engineState :Boolean • False (Off)
• currentSpeed :float • 0.0

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Note that:
- The attributes of an object are closely related to the application of the
software that the object is part of.
- For example, the attributes of a car is different in “Car Rental Software”
when compared to a “Car Sales Software” or a “Car Gaming Software”.
- The attributes are named as variables are named in a program
- The attributes are also mapped to data structures supported by a
programming language
- The first alphabet of Class names are written in Upper case. This is a
common convention used by all programmers.
- The first alphabet of Objects and Class members (attributes and behavior)
are written in Lower case. This is a common convention used by all
programmers.
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State of an Object
• An object’s state is defined by the value of its attributes.

• For Example:
• The state of myCar changes depending on the following attributes:
• engineState :Boolean
• currentSpeed :float
• myCar could be in a state that the engine is On and speed is 0
• myCar could be in a state that the engine is On and speed is 40
• myCar could be in a state that the engine is Off and speed is 0
• myCar CANNOT be in a state that the engine is Off and speed is 40

• The state myCar is determined by the changes to the attributes.

• The value of the attributes are modified using the behaviors of the object

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State of an Object
• An object’s state is defined by the value of its attributes.

- Note: State can be of two types.

• Passive state refers to state which does not change.
• Active state refers to the state which changes the behavior of the
object
- For example, attributes like Model and Manufacturer does not change
and hence does not change the behavior of myCar object. These
contribute to passive state.
- While, changes to attributes like Current Speed, and Engine State
changes the behavior of myCar.

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Class Activity
• Students can work in groups.

• Discuss and write the attributes of the class: Student

• Identify at-least 20 attributes
• Include the data types that represent the attributes
• Use proper notations, e.g.
• name: string,
• age: int

• Consider universityStudent to be an object of the above class

• Notations:
• Classes start with capital letters
• Attributes and Behavior start with small letters
• Objects (class instances) start with small letters

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Class Behaviors
• A behavior is an action that retrieves or changes the state of an object.
• A behavior provides the means for interaction with the object
• A behavior is also called a function or method.
• Example: Some behaviors of myCar
• getManufacturer() returns a String
• getNumberOfDoors() returns an int
• getEngineState() returns a Boolean
• getCurrentSpeed() returns a float

• setEngineState(Boolean) starts myCar

• setCurrentSpeed(float) sets the speed of myCar to 45 Km/Hr.
• setColor(String) sets the color of myCar to Black

• Setter Methods or Mutator Methods

• Getter Methods or the Accessor Methods
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Behavior, Functions, or Methods

• Other than the setter and getter methods, the object will also have
other functions, to represent real-world actions.
• Example, for myCar, we could have functions like:
• checkRemainDistance(float, float): float
• Calculate remaining distance based on remaining fuel, and current speed. The function
returns the distance which is a float value
• turnLeft(float) : Boolean
• the car turns left at a certain angle, and the function returns True or False
• turnRight(float) : Boolean
• the car turns right at a certain angle, and the function returns True or False
• stopCar() : Boolean
• the car stops and the function returns True or False
• accelerate(float) : Boolean
• the car increases speed at a certain value, and returns True or False

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Example

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Class Activity
• Students can work in groups.

• Discuss and write down the behaviors of the class: Student

• For all the attributes identified earlier, write down the associated setter methods
(mutator) and getter methods (accessor)
• Include the data types that represent the attributes
• Use proper notations

• Consider universityStudent to be an object of the above class

• Notations:
• Classes start with capital letters.
• Attributes and Behavior start with small letters.
• Objects (class instances) start with small letters.

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Encapsulation
• “enclosing something in” or “as if in a
capsule”. get
or() Eng
C ol ine
set Sta
te()
• An object encapsulates the attributes,

setC
)
behaviors, and the state of a real- Manufacturer

or (
world entity. Toyota

C ol

urre
get

ntSp
Number of Gears Model

• The state of an object represented by 5 Camry

ee
…
the attributes or data are hidden

d()
inside the object and is accessible via Doors
Current Speed
the behaviors or functions.
get
45.5

rs()
4

Ma

oo
Type of Fuel
nu

D
Color
• This concept is also understood as

No
Petrol
fac White
Information Hiding.

get
tu
rer
()
- In other words, the data is accessible get
Ge a pC ar()
only through the functions. r() sto

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Data Hiding

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Abstraction
• It is the concept of removing certain attributes from something in
order to reduce it to only essential characteristics.

• Abstraction simplifies the understanding and use of complex systems

by hiding information that is not relevant to context of the software.
• It reduces complexity and increases efficiency

• For example:
• The myCar object does not describe all the details of a real-world car.
• Functions like the engine’s working or the shifting of gears are not included.
• The object abstracts only those functions and attributes that are required for the context
of the software being built.

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Abstraction

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In Summary
• The Object Oriented (OO) Paradigm
• Managing Software Complexity
• The Object and its Class
• Attributes and Behaviors
• Encapsulation & Information Hiding
• Abstraction

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