CREATIVITY

Creativity
Creativity is a cognitive activity that results in a new or novel way of viewing a
problem or situation

Creativity as the process of producing something that is both original and

worthwhile (Csikszentmihalyi, 1999, 2000; Kozbelt, Beghetto, & Runco, 2010;
Lubart & Mouchiroud, 2003; Sternberg & Lubart, 1996).

Creativity requires finding solutions that are novel, high quality, and useful
(e.g., Boden, 2004; Feist, 2004; Sternberg & Ben-Zeev, 2001)
Torrance’s Theory of Creative Thinking
Torrance’s Theory of Creative Thinking is one of the most influential theory of
creativity. Ellis Paul Torrance, celebrated as the “Father of Modern Creativity,”
transformed the study of creativity through his emphasis on divergent thinking
and by developing the Torrance Tests of Creative Thinking (TTCT).

His model has influenced both educational and psychological fields, offering a
framework for assessing and nurturing creativity across various contexts.
Torrance’s approach is notable for its focus on cognitive flexibility and
originality, suggesting that creativity involves generating numerous, varied, and
original solutions to problems rather than settling on a single, correct answer.
Torrance defines creativity or creative thinking using 5 components, they are-
Fluency- The total number of relevant ideas generated. For example, given a prompt to
list uses for a spoon, a high-fluency individual would produce numerous valid ideas,
indicating a high capacity for idea generation.
Flexibility- The variety in the categories of responses. A response set that includes both
“eating” and “musical instrument” shows flexibility in thought, as the ideas cover
diverse uses and contexts.
Originality- The statistical rarity of ideas. For instance, suggesting a spoon be used as a
tool to plant small seeds would score higher in originality than common responses.
Elaboration- The detail added to ideas. A student might elaborate on using a spoon for
painting by explaining how it could create specific textures or patterns.
Abstractness of Titles and Resistance to Premature Closure- Later additions to the
TTCT, these elements evaluate a person’s ability to think abstractly and remain open to
multiple perspectives before forming conclusions.
Big-C, Little-c, Mini-c, and
Pro-C
Mini-c creativity
Beghetto and Kauffman (2007) introduced Mini-c creativity, which refers to
personally meaningful insights and interpretations of experiences. This type of
creativity is often seen in learning processes, where individuals make sense of
new information in unique ways. For example, a child who sees a rainbow for the
first time and imagines it as a magical bridge for fairies is engaging in mini-c
creativity. While this idea may not have an impact on others, it is meaningful to
the individual and contributes to their personal development.
Little-c creativity
Little-c creativity, in contrast, refers to everyday creativity that most people
demonstrate in their daily lives. This could be something as simple as coming up
with a clever way to organize a cluttered desk or finding a unique way to cook a
meal using leftovers.

For instance, if someone realizes they can use a binder clip to keep their phone
charger from slipping off their desk, they are demonstrating little-c creativity.
While these ideas may not revolutionize an industry, they are still creative in a
practical, personal way.
Pro-C creativity
Kaufman and Beghetto (2009) later proposed a fourth category, Pro-C creativity,
which falls between Little-c and Big-C. Pro-C represents the creativity of
professionals who have developed expertise in a field but may not have reached
the level of worldwide recognition.

For instance, a skilled musician who composes original songs and performs
locally exhibits Pro-C creativity. While they may not be as famous as Beethoven
(Big-C creativity), their work still demonstrates significant creative ability within
their domain. Similarly, a professional chef who innovates new recipes but does
not achieve global fame would fall into this category.
Big-C creativity,
Big-C creativity, also called eminent creativity, refers to groundbreaking
contributions that have a lasting impact on society. This level of creativity is rare
and is typically seen in Nobel Prize winners, influential artists, and revolutionary
inventors.

For example, Albert Einstein’s theory of relativity transformed physics, and

Picasso’s innovative art styles influenced generations of artists. These individuals
exhibit creativity on a grand scale, changing the way people think and shaping
the world in significant ways.
Wallas (1926) Theory of
Creativity
 Wallas (1926) described the creative process as having four sequential stages:

Preparation Incubation Illumination Verification

This stage involves the This is a period of The "aha!" moment The stage where the
accumulation of rest or diversion when a sudden, creative idea is
knowledge, skills, and from the problem, clear solution or tested, refined, and
ideas over a long period, during which the idea emerges validated
often beginning in mind
childhood subconsciously
processes
information
Preparation
This stage involves gathering knowledge, exploring ideas, and attempting
various solutions before arriving at a breakthrough. Henri Poincaré, a
mathematician, spent fifteen days intensely working on a problem, testing
multiple solutions and discarding them. However, his preparation started long
before that—his entire career and even childhood experiences contributed to his
problem-solving ability.
Example: A scientist researching a cure for a disease might spend years studying
biology, chemistry, and past research before actively working on an experiment.
Their early education and experiences play a crucial role in shaping their ability
to solve problems.
Incubation
After an intense period of work, stepping away from the problem can actually
help in finding a solution. This stage allows the mind to unconsciously process
ideas, forget unsuccessful approaches, and reorganize information.

Example: A writer struggling with a novel’s ending might take a break to go for a
walk or watch a movie. Suddenly, while doing something unrelated, the perfect
ending might come to them.
Illumination
This is the "Eureka!" moment when a solution suddenly becomes clear. After the
unconscious mind has worked on the problem during incubation, all the pieces
fall into place, leading to an exciting realization.

Example: Archimedes had his famous "Eureka!" moment in the bathtub when he
realized how to measure an object’s volume through water displacement.
Verification
Once an idea emerges, it must be tested to ensure it is valid. Sometimes, what
seems like a brilliant insight may turn out to be incorrect, requiring further
refinement.

Example: A mathematician might come up with a new theorem, but it needs to be

tested rigorously before it is accepted. Similarly, an inventor must build and
refine a prototype before releasing a product to the public.
Investment Theory of
Creativity
In various fields such as science, art, literature, and music, creative individuals
tend to "buy low and sell high." This means they adopt ideas or concepts in their
early stages, which are often dismissed by others as impractical or unwise. For
example, when Vincent van Gogh experimented with bold colors and expressive
brushstrokes, his work was not well received during his lifetime. However, his art
is now considered revolutionary. If an idea has merit, others may eventually
recognize its value and follow, but those who adopt it later are not necessarily
seen as creative. Instead, the individuals who first take the risk and challenge
conventions are the ones regarded as creative pioneers.
A truly creative person often "sells high," meaning they move on to another novel
challenge once their original idea gains popularity. For instance, Steve Jobs and
Apple initially introduced touchscreen smartphones when physical keypads were
the norm. As touchscreen technology became widespread, Apple continued
innovating rather than relying solely on their past success
Sternberg and Lubart (1996) proposed a multivariate theory of creativity, which consists of six key attributes:

Processes of Intelligence – The ability to think analytically, critically, and divergently. For example,
Albert Einstein's development of the theory of relativity involved unconventional thinking and
problem-solving skills that were not widely accepted at the time.

Intellectual Style – A preference for thinking in novel ways rather than conforming to established norms.
For example, Pablo Picasso’s cubist style broke away from traditional forms of artistic representation.

Knowledge – A strong foundation in a subject that allows creative thinking. For instance, Marie Curie’s
extensive knowledge of chemistry and physics enabled her to discover radioactivity.

Personality – Traits such as perseverance, risk-taking, and openness to new experiences. Thomas
Edison’s persistence in experimenting with thousands of materials before perfecting the electric light
bulb is a prime example of this attribute.

Motivation – The internal drive to pursue creative endeavors. J.K. Rowling’s passion for storytelling led
her to complete the Harry Potter series despite numerous rejections from publishers.

Environmental Context – The influence of surroundings, such as education and culture, on creativity.
Silicon Valley, for example, fosters an innovative environment that has helped numerous tech
entrepreneurs bring new ideas to life.
True creative performance is rare not because individuals lack any single attribute but
because it is challenging to align all six attributes simultaneously. Much like an
investment portfolio in business, creativity relies on balancing and integrating these
six facets to generate truly original work. The intellectual environment, including
schools and homes, plays a crucial role in fostering early creativity.
Sternberg and Lubart’s work is significant because it offers a comprehensive framework
for studying creativity through specific attributes that can be analyzed over time.
Creativity is not a singular skill or trait; rather, it is a dynamic interaction of multiple
factors. Moreover, assessing creativity is not simply about measuring individual
attributes and adding them together. Instead, the interplay between these attributes
creates a complex network of interactions. This complexity may seem daunting or even
unnecessary to some researchers, leading them to dismiss the theory as overly intricate.
However, just as in financial investments, Sternberg and Lubart appear to have "bought
low" by proposing a framework that may seem risky but has the potential to shape our
understanding of creativity in groundbreaking ways.
The Four P’s Framework by
Rhodes (1961/1987)
Person: The Role of Personality in Creativity

Creativity is often linked to personality traits that foster innovation and

originality. Creative individuals tend to exhibit characteristics such as broad
interests, appreciation of complexity, tolerance for ambiguity, self-confidence,
independence, and a willingness to take sensible risks (Barron & Harrington,
1981; Feist, 1999). Furthermore, intrinsic motivation plays a crucial role in creative
endeavors (Amabile, 1990).

Example: A scientist like Marie Curie, who exhibited perseverance and a strong
intrinsic motivation to explore radioactivity, made groundbreaking discoveries
despite societal and institutional challenges.
Flexibility and reactivity are also vital characteristics of creative individuals
(Runco, 2004). Being adaptable allows them to respond effectively to changes in
technology, circumstances, and opportunities.

Example: Steve Jobs demonstrated flexibility and reactivity when he transformed

Apple from a struggling company into a leader in technology by introducing
innovative products like the iPhone.

Simonton (2000) suggests that creativity is not an inborn static trait but rather
a developing ability shaped by life experiences. Challenging experiences often
enhance creativity by encouraging individuals to take new perspectives and
develop perseverance (Simonton, 1994).

Example: Vincent van Gogh faced numerous hardships, but his struggles fueled
his artistic expression, leading to the creation of masterpieces like The Starry
Night.
Process: Cognitive Mechanisms Behind Creativity
Creativity is also viewed as a process involving cognitive functions such as problem
restructuring, memory, and attentional deployment. There are two competing views regarding
creative cognition: one asserts that creativity relies on special cognitive abilities, while the other
claims it is a result of general cognitive processes such as attention and memory (Smith, 2003;
Smith, Ward, & Finke, 1994).
Example: A mathematician solving a complex equation may use both general cognitive abilities
like logical reasoning and creative cognition by restructuring the problem in a novel way.
Selective encoding, combination, and comparison play crucial roles in creative thinking
(Sternberg & Davidson, 1983; Davidson, 1995). Selective encoding helps distinguish relevant
from irrelevant information, selective combination allows the synthesis of new ideas, and
selective comparison enables the application of past knowledge to new problems.
Example: Albert Einstein’s formulation of the theory of relativity involved selective comparison,
as he related concepts from classical mechanics to novel ideas about space-time.
Press: The Influence of Environment on Creativity
The environment plays a crucial role in fostering or inhibiting creativity. Creativity does not occur in
isolation; it is influenced by interpersonal, disciplinary, and sociocultural factors (Simonton, 2000).

Interpersonal Factors: Evaluations and social expectations can either encourage or stifle creativity.
Research indicates that excessive evaluation may reduce creativity (Amabile, 1996).

Example: A student who feels pressured to conform in art class may produce less original work than one
encouraged to explore freely.

Disciplinary Environment: Experts define what is considered creative within their field.

Example: In academia, a groundbreaking theory may only be recognized as creative if it aligns with
established methodologies.

Sociocultural Milieu: Cultural diversity fosters creativity by exposing individuals to diverse perspectives
and ideas.

Example: A filmmaker drawing inspiration from global cinema to create a unique storytelling style.
Product: The Creative Outcome
Creativity is often evaluated based on its tangible results, whether in art, literature,
science, or technology. Case studies of highly creative individuals, such as Picasso,
Freud, Einstein, or da Vinci, provide insights into the creative process (Simonton, 1994).
However, evaluating creativity purely through productivity can be problematic, as high
output does not necessarily equate to high creativity.
Example: A prolific writer producing numerous novels may not necessarily be more
creative than one who writes fewer but highly original books.
While famous creative individuals provide valuable case studies, their unique
circumstances limit the generalizability of their creative processes. Creativity exists on
different levels—from everyday creativity (little-c) to professional creativity (Pro-C) and
groundbreaking innovation (Big-C).
Measures of creativity
Divergent Production Approach
J. P. Guilford (1967) proposed that creativity can be measured by divergent production, which
refers to the ability to generate multiple different responses to a given problem. Unlike
traditional intelligence tests, which focus on a single correct answer, divergent thinking
encourages multiple solutions.
Creativity dimensions: Fluency, flexibility, originality, and elaboration
Overcoming Functional Fixedness: Functional fixedness refers to the tendency to see objects
only in their conventional use. Creativity requires overcoming this limitation.
Limitations of Divergent Production
● Although divergent thinking is a key aspect of creativity, it has limitations:
● Simply generating many ideas does not guarantee that they are novel, high-quality, or
useful.
● Some research has found only moderate correlations between divergent production test
scores and real-world creativity (Nickerson et al., 1985).
Multiple Components Approach
A more contemporary approach suggests that creativity requires multiple components
rather than just generating many ideas. According to researchers like Lubart &
Guignard (2004) and Sternberg & Lubart (1995), creativity must meet three criteria:
● Novelty – The idea should be original and unique.
● High Quality – The idea should be well-developed and effective.
● Usefulness – The idea should be practical and applicable in real-life situations.
Example: Consider the invention of the Post-it Note:
● Novelty: The adhesive used was unique because it was reusable.
● High Quality: The product was well-designed to stick and peel off without damage.
● Usefulness: It became widely used in offices, homes, and schools.
Unlike Guilford’s approach, which focuses on quantity, the multiple components
approach ensures that creativity results in meaningful and valuable outcomes.
Barriers to Creativity
Socio-Cultural Barriers
a) Education and Socialization

As children grow, the emphasis on conformity in education limits creative thinking. Schools often
prioritize structured learning and discourage unconventional ideas. Example:A child who draws a blue
sun instead of a yellow one might be corrected rather than encouraged to explore different perspectives.
This stifles their creative confidence.

b) Lack of Encouragement from Teachers

Torrance (1965) emphasized that teachers should nurture creativity by respecting imaginative ideas and
encouraging learning without fear of evaluation. However, many educational systems fail to implement
these principles, making students hesitant to express unique ideas. Example:If a student suggests a novel
way to solve a math problem but is told to strictly follow the textbook method, their willingness to think
creatively may decrease over time.

c) Societal Influence on Creativity

Arieti (1976) proposed that a society's values can either promote or inhibit creativity. A "creativogenic
society" encourages open expression, access to diverse ideas, and tolerance for different viewpoints.
When these factors are absent, creativity is suppressed. Example:A country that heavily censors artistic
expression may prevent its citizens from exploring and sharing innovative ideas, limiting creative
progress.
Psychological and Cognitive Barriers
a) Fear of Failure
One of the most common psychological barriers to creativity is the fear of failure.
People often avoid taking risks due to a desire for security, leading them to follow
conventional methods rather than exploring new possibilities.
Example: An employee may hesitate to propose a new marketing strategy at work due to
fear that it might not be successful, even if it has potential.
b) Rigidity of Thinking
Rigid thought patterns prevent individuals from approaching problems in innovative
ways. This includes difficulty in seeing remote associations, lack of curiosity, and
reluctance to experiment with different perspectives.
Example: A musician who only sticks to one genre and refuses to experiment with new
styles may limit their creative growth.
c) Mental Set
A mental set refers to the tendency to approach problems in a fixed, routine manner.
While this can save cognitive effort, it often prevents people from finding more effective
solutions.
Example: If someone always fixes a leaking pipe with tape instead of considering other
long-term solutions like sealing it with a more durable material, they might be stuck in a
mental set.
d) Functional Fixedness
Functional fixedness is a specific type of mental set where people see objects only in
terms of their usual function, limiting creative problem-solving.
Example: A person needing a phone stand might not realize they can use a pair of
sunglasses as a makeshift holder because they only see the glasses for wearing.
Techniques to enhance
creativity
Several fundamental principles help in promoting creativity.

First, the use of varied instructional materials allows individuals to explore multiple modes of
expression, such as writing, music, art, and problem-solving. For example, a teacher using role-playing,
debates, and art-based assignments instead of just lectures encourages students to think differently.

Second, fostering a positive attitude towards creativity is essential, as it enhances individuals'

willingness to engage in innovative thinking. A workplace that rewards employees for proposing new
ideas, even if they fail, helps build confidence in creative risk-taking.

Encouraging creative expression is another key principle. Individuals should be given the freedom to
express their ideas without fear of criticism. A parent who supports a child’s unconventional storytelling
ideas rather than correcting them fosters originality.

Additionally, providing constructive feedback ensures that creative efforts are valued. Instead of
rejecting a student's abstract painting, a teacher can appreciate its uniqueness and offer suggestions for
refinement.

Moreover, reinforcing creative efforts through recognition and rewards motivates individuals to
continue engaging in creative work. A school organizing an "Innovative Thinking Award" inspires
students to think outside the box.

Lastly, creating a supportive environment at home and school nurtures self-confidence, independence,
and unconventional thinking. A family that encourages curiosity and experimentation fosters lifelong
creative skills in children.
Divergent Thinking
Encourages individuals to explore multiple ideas instead of converging on a single correct
answer.
Involves fluency, originality, and flexibility in thought.
Example: A child asked to list different uses for a paperclip might suggest:
Holding papers
Creating jewelry
Opening a SIM card tray
Picking a lock
Expression through writing, music, or art fosters divergent thinking.
Brainstorming (Osborn, 1957)
A group technique that encourages generating ideas freely without immediate
evaluation.
Follows four key principles:
● Postpone judgment – No criticism during the session.
● Encourage wild ideas – Unusual ideas can lead to innovative solutions.
● Quantity over quality – The more ideas, the better.
● Combine and build upon ideas – One idea can inspire another.
Example: A marketing team brainstorming ad campaign ideas may generate
creative and unconventional strategies.
Synectics (Gordon, 1961)
Uses analogies and metaphors to solve problems creatively.
Helps individuals see connections between unrelated concepts.
Four types of analogies:
● Personal Analogy – Placing oneself in the situation. Example: "If I were a battery in
a remote control, how would I feel when the power is low?"
● Direct Analogy – Comparing the problem to another known solution. Example:
Solving a transportation problem by studying how ants navigate efficiently.
● Symbolic Analogy – Using poetic or symbolic descriptions to frame a problem.
Example: Describing internet speed as "a flowing river with obstacles."
● Fantasy Analogy – Imagining a world without restrictions to generate solutions.
Example: "What if gravity didn’t exist? How would we design buildings?"
Six Thinking Hats (De Bono, 1985)
Encourages considering problems from multiple perspectives by mentally
"wearing" different colored hats.

Each hat represents a distinct thinking approach:

● White Hat – Focuses on facts and data.

● Red Hat – Considers emotions and intuition.
● Black Hat – Identifies potential risks.
● Yellow Hat – Highlights benefits and positive aspects.
● Green Hat – Explores creativity and new ideas.
● Blue Hat – Organizes the thinking process.