:: Module-III ::

FUNCTIONS OF
SEVERAL VARIABLES
Index:
1. Outcomes
2. Introduction to functions of several variables
3. Partial Derivatives and chain rules
4. Partial derivative of Composite Function
5. Partial Derivatives when variables to be treated as constant
6. Total Derivative using Chain Rule
7. Euler’s Theorem on Homogeneous functions
8. Jacobian, properties of Jacobian and its applications
9. Maxima, and Minima of functions of two variables
10. Lagrange’s method of undetermined multipliers
Outcomes:
 Determine the partial derivatives of functions of several
variables.
 Discuss the applications of partial differentiations.
Function of Two Variables :
• A function of two variables 𝑧 = 𝑓 𝑥, 𝑦 maps each ordered pair 𝑥, 𝑦 in a
subset D of the real plane ℝ2 to a unique real number 𝑧. The set D is
called the domain of the function. The range of 𝑓 is the set of all real
numbers of z that has at least one ordered pair 𝑥, 𝑦 ∈ 𝐷 such that
𝑓 𝑥, 𝑦 = 𝑧 as shown in fig.
• The graph of the function 𝑧 = 𝑓 𝑥, 𝑦 consists of ordered triples 𝑥, 𝑦, 𝑧
i.e. 𝑥, 𝑦, 𝑓 𝑥, 𝑦 . The graph of a function 𝑧 = 𝑓 𝑥, 𝑦 of two variables is
called a surface.
Thus if 𝑥, 𝑦 coordinate system laying flat. Then, every point in the
domain of the function 𝑓 has a unique z – value associated with it. If z is
positive, then the graphed point is located above the xy – plane, if z is
negative, then the graphed point is located below the xy – palne. The set of
all the graphed points becomes the two-dimensional surface that is the
graph of the function f.
• For example, consider the function 𝑧 = 𝑓 𝑥, 𝑦 = 𝑥 2 + 𝑦 2
 Function of Several Variables :
• Given a function 𝑓 𝑥, 𝑦, 𝑧 and a number c in the range of 𝑓, a level
surface of an equation of three variables is defined to be the set of points
satisfying the equation 𝑓 𝑥, 𝑦, 𝑧 = 𝑐.
• Likewise, a multivariable function of m-variables is a function 𝑓: 𝐷 → ℝ𝑛 ,
where the domain D is a subset of ℝ𝑚 . So, for each 𝑥1 , 𝑥2 , ⋯ , 𝑥𝑛 in D,
the value of 𝑓 is a vector 𝑓 𝑥1 , 𝑥2 , ⋯ , 𝑥𝑛 ∈ ℝ𝑛 .

Limit :
• The function 𝑓 𝑥, 𝑦 is said to tend to the limit 𝑙 as 𝑥 → 𝑎 and y → 𝑏 if
and only if the limit 𝑙 is independent of the path followed by the point
𝑥, 𝑦 as 𝑥 → 𝑎 and y → 𝑏. Then 𝑥→𝑎
lim 𝑓 𝑥, 𝑦 = 𝑙
y→𝑏
The function 𝑓 𝑥, 𝑦 in region R is said to tend to the limit limit 𝑙 as 𝑥 → 𝑎
and y → 𝑏 if and only if corresponding to a positive number 𝜀, there exists
another positive number 𝛿 such that
𝑓 𝑥, 𝑦 − 𝑙 < 𝜀 for 0 < 𝑥 − 𝑎 2 + 𝑦−𝑏 2 < 𝛿2
for every point 𝑥, 𝑦 in R.

Continuity :
• A function 𝑓 𝑥, 𝑦 is said to be continuous at a point 𝑎, 𝑏 if
lim 𝑓 𝑥, 𝑦 = 𝑓 𝑎, 𝑏
𝑥,𝑦 → 𝑎,𝑏

A function is said to be continuous in a domain if it is continuous at every

point of the domain.
Partial Derivatives and chain
rules
Why do we use partial derivatives?
• To understand how the function changes with respect to each variable
individually while dealing with functions of more than one variable.

• Allows analysis of how the function changes with respect to each

individual variable while holding others constant.

• Provides insights into the rate of change of the function in each direction
separately, essential for understanding its behavior in multidimensional
space.
First Order Partial Derivatives
First order partial derivatives are the rate of change of a function with
respect to one of its variables, while keeping the other variables constant.

The symbol 𝜕 is used to denote a partial derivative, replacing the letter 𝑑

used for a full derivative.
Calculation of first order partial derivative

Let 𝑧 = 𝑓(𝑥, 𝑦) be a function of two variables 𝑥 and 𝑦.

If we keep 𝑦 as constant and vary 𝑥 alone, then 𝑧 is a function of 𝑥 only. The
derivative of 𝑧 with respect to 𝑥, treating 𝑦 as constant, is called the partial
derivative of 𝒛 with respect to 𝒙.

𝜕𝑧 𝜕𝑓
• Denoted by: or or 𝑓𝑥 𝑥, 𝑦 or 𝐷𝑥 𝑓
𝜕𝑥 𝜕𝑥

𝜕𝑧 𝑓 𝑥+𝛿𝑥,𝑦 −𝑓(𝑥,𝑦)
• Definition: = lim
𝜕𝑥 𝛿𝑥→0 𝛿𝑥
Similarly,
If we keep 𝑥 as constant and vary 𝑦 alone, then 𝑧 is a function of 𝑦 only. The
derivative of 𝑧 with respect to 𝑦, treating 𝑥 as constant, is called the partial
derivative of 𝒛 with respect to 𝒚.

𝜕𝑧 𝜕𝑓
• Denoted by: or or 𝑓𝑦 𝑥, 𝑦 or 𝐷𝑦 𝑓
𝜕𝑦 𝜕𝑦

𝜕𝑧 𝑓 𝑥,𝑦+𝛿𝑦 −𝑓(𝑥,𝑦)
• Definition: = lim
𝜕𝑦 𝛿𝑦→0 𝛿𝑦
Graphical Interpretation of First Order Partial
Derivative:

Click here to see an example of partial derivative on graph (by using

GeoGebra).
Second order partial derivative:

In general, 𝑓𝑥 and 𝑓𝑦 are also function of 𝑥 and 𝑦 and so these can be

differentiated further partially with respect to 𝑥 and 𝑦.
Thus,
𝜕 𝜕𝑓 𝜕2𝑓
𝑓𝑥𝑥 = = 2
𝜕𝑥 𝜕𝑥 𝜕𝑥
𝜕 𝜕𝑓 𝜕2𝑓
𝑓𝑥𝑦 = =
𝜕𝑦 𝜕𝑥 𝜕y𝜕𝑥
𝜕 𝜕𝑓 𝜕2𝑓
𝑓𝑦x = =
𝜕𝑥 𝜕𝑦 𝜕𝑥𝜕𝑦
𝜕 𝜕𝑓 𝜕2𝑓
𝑓y𝑦 = =
𝜕𝑦 𝜕𝑦 𝜕y𝜕𝑦
Commutative property of mixed partial derivative

If 𝑧 = 𝑓 𝑥, 𝑦 is
a) continuous and
b) possesses continuous partial derivatives
then second order mixed partial derivative follows the commutative
property.
𝜕2𝑧 𝜕2𝑧
=
𝜕𝑥𝜕𝑦 𝜕𝑦𝜕𝑥
Type 1: Examples on Direct Differentiation
Find the first and second partial derivatives of following function:
𝑧 = 𝑥2 + 𝑥3𝑦2

Solution:

𝜕𝑧 𝜕𝑧
= 2𝑥 + 3𝑥 2 𝑦 2 = 2𝑥 3 𝑦
𝜕𝑥 𝜕𝑦

𝜕2𝑧 2
𝜕2𝑧 3
𝜕2𝑧
= 2 + 6𝑥𝑦 = 2𝑥 = 6𝑥 2 y
𝜕𝑥 2 𝜕𝑦 2 𝜕𝑦𝜕𝑥
 𝑦 𝜕3 u 𝜕3 𝑢
Ex: If 𝑢 = 𝑥 , show that = .
𝜕x2 𝜕y 𝜕𝑥𝜕𝑦𝜕𝑥
Solution:
𝜕𝑢
We have, = 𝑥 𝑦 log 𝑥
𝜕𝑦
Differentiating above with respect to 𝑥,
𝜕2𝑢 𝑥 𝑦
= 𝑦𝑥 𝑦−1 log 𝑥 + = 𝑥 𝑦−1 (𝑦 log 𝑥 + 1)
𝜕𝑥𝜕𝑦 𝑥
𝜕3 u 𝜕
∴ 2 = [𝑥 𝑦−1 (𝑦 log 𝑥 + 1)]
𝜕𝑥 𝜕𝑦 𝜕𝑥

𝜕𝑢 𝜕2 𝑢
Similarly, = 𝑦𝑥 𝑦−1 and = 𝑥 𝑦−1 (𝑦 log 𝑥 + 1)
𝜕𝑥 𝜕y𝜕𝑦𝑥
𝜕3u 𝜕 𝑦−1
∴ 2 = [𝑥 (𝑦 log 𝑥 + 1)]
𝜕𝑥 𝜕𝑦 𝜕𝑥
𝜕3u 𝜕3𝑢
∴ 2 =
𝜕x 𝜕y 𝜕𝑥𝜕𝑦𝜕𝑥
Examples on Direct Differentiation:
1. Find the first and second partial derivatives of following functions:
a) 𝑧 = 𝑥 2 𝑦 − 𝑥 sin 𝑥𝑦
b) 𝑢 = log(𝑥 2 + 𝑦 2 )
c) 𝑥 + 𝑦 = log 𝑧

𝜕3 𝑢
2. If 𝑢 = 𝑒 𝑥𝑦𝑧 , find the value of .
𝜕𝑥𝜕𝑦𝜕𝑧
 𝜕2 𝑧 𝜕2 𝑧
Type 2: Examples on Verification of =
𝜕𝑥𝜕𝑦 𝜕𝑦𝜕𝑥

If 𝑧 = 𝑓 𝑥, 𝑦 is continuous and possesses continuous partial derivatives

then second order mixed partial derivative follows the commutative
property.
𝜕2𝑧 𝜕2𝑧
=
𝜕𝑥𝜕𝑦 𝜕𝑦𝜕𝑥
Example:
𝜕2 𝑧 𝜕2 𝑧
If 𝑧 = 𝑥 2 + 2𝑥𝑦 3 , verify that = .
𝜕𝑥𝜕𝑦 𝜕𝑦𝜕𝑥

Solution:
𝜕𝑧 𝜕𝑧
= 2𝑥 + 2𝑦 and = 6𝑥𝑦 2
3
𝜕𝑥 𝜕𝑦
𝜕2 𝑧 2 𝜕2 𝑧
Therefore, = 6𝑦 and = 6𝑦 2
𝜕𝑦𝜕𝑥 𝜕𝑥𝜕𝑦
𝜕2𝑧 𝜕2𝑧
⇒ =
𝜕𝑥𝜕𝑦 𝜕𝑦𝜕𝑥
Examples on Verification:

𝜕2 𝑧 𝜕2 𝑧
For following functions, verify that =
𝜕𝑥𝜕𝑦 𝜕𝑦𝜕𝑥

1. z = 𝑥 cos 𝑦 + 𝑦 cos 𝑥
−1 𝑥
2. z = tan
𝑦
𝑥3
3. 𝑧 =
𝑥𝑦 2 +𝑦 3
Type 3: Examples on Composite functions
(𝑢 → 𝑟 → 𝑥, 𝑦 or 𝑧 → 𝑟 → 𝑥, 𝑦, 𝑧)
Let 𝑢 = 𝑓 𝑟 , where 𝑟 is again a function of two variables 𝑥 and 𝑦.
Then 𝑢 becomes composite function of 𝑥 and 𝑦.
𝑢
i.e. u → 𝑟 → 𝑥, 𝑦 𝑑𝑢
𝜕𝑢 𝑑𝑟
𝜕𝑢
𝜕𝑢 𝑑𝑢 𝜕𝑟 𝜕𝑢 𝑑𝑢 𝜕𝑟 𝜕𝑥 𝜕𝑦
Then, = . and = . 𝜕𝑟 𝑟 𝜕𝑟
𝜕𝑥 𝑑𝑟 𝜕𝑥 𝜕𝑦 𝑑𝑟 𝜕𝑦
𝜕𝑥 𝜕𝑥

𝑥 𝑦
Let 𝑣 = 𝑓 𝑟 , where 𝑟 is again a function of three variables 𝑥, y and 𝑧 .
Then 𝑣 becomes composite function of 𝑥, y and z.

i.e. v → 𝑟 → 𝑥, , z
𝑣
𝜕𝑣 𝑑v 𝜕𝑟 𝜕𝑣 𝑑𝑣 𝜕𝑟 𝜕𝑣 𝑑𝑣 𝜕𝑟 𝑑𝑣
Then, = . , = . and = . 𝜕𝑣 𝜕𝑣 𝜕𝑣
𝜕𝑥 𝑑𝑟 𝜕𝑥 𝜕𝑦 𝑑𝑟 𝜕𝑦 𝜕z 𝑑𝑟 𝜕𝑧 𝑑𝑟
𝜕𝑥 𝜕𝑦 𝜕𝑧
𝑟
𝜕𝑟 𝜕𝑟
𝜕𝑟
𝜕𝑥 𝜕𝑧
𝜕𝑦

𝑥 𝑦 𝑧
Which variable to be treated as constant?
Consider, 𝑥 = 𝑟 cos 𝜃 , 𝑦 = 𝑟 sin 𝜃
𝜕𝑟
To find , we need a relation between 𝑟 and 𝑥. Such relation will contain one
𝜕𝑥
more variable, either 𝜃 or 𝑦.
From above relations, we have 𝑟 = 𝑥 sec 𝜃 and 𝑟 = 𝑥 2 + 𝑦 2
𝜕𝑟
Thus, can be found using any one of the relation either by treating 𝜃 as a
𝜕𝑥
constant or 𝑦 as a constant. To be more clarified with our answer, we use
following notations.
𝜕𝑟
Notation: means the partial differentiation of 𝑟 with respect to 𝑥 by
𝜕𝑥 𝜃
treating 𝜃 as constant.
𝜕𝑟
means the partial differentiation of 𝑟 with respect to 𝑥 by treating 𝑦 as
𝜕𝑥 𝑦
constant.
Example:
If 𝑢 = 𝑓 𝑟 , and 𝑥 = 𝑟 cos 𝜃 , 𝑦 = 𝑟 sin 𝜃 ,
𝜕2 𝑢 𝜕2 𝑢 1 ′
prove that + = 𝑓 ′′ 𝑟 + 𝑓 𝑟 .
𝜕𝑥 2 𝜕𝑦 2 𝑟

Solution:
𝜕𝑢 𝑑𝑢 𝜕𝑟 𝜕𝑟
We have = . = 𝑓 ′ 𝑟
𝜕𝑥 𝑑𝑟 𝜕𝑥 𝜕𝑥
2 2
𝜕 𝑢 𝜕𝑟 𝜕2𝑟
∴ 2 = 𝑓 ′′ 𝑟 + 𝑓′(𝑟) 2
𝜕𝑥 𝜕𝑥 𝜕𝑥
𝜕2 𝑢 ′′ 𝜕𝑟 2 𝜕2 𝑟
Similarly, =𝑓 𝑟 + 𝑓′(𝑟) 2
𝜕𝑦 2 𝜕𝑦 𝜕𝑦
From given, 𝑟 = 𝑥2 + 𝑦2

𝜕𝑟 𝑥 𝜕𝑟 𝑦
Thus, = and =
𝜕𝑥 𝑟 𝜕𝑦 𝑟

𝜕2 𝑟 𝑦2 𝜕2 𝑟 𝑥2
∴ = and =
𝜕𝑥 2 𝑟3 𝜕𝑦 2 𝑟3

𝜕2𝑢 𝜕2𝑢 ′′ 𝑟
𝑥 2 𝑦 2
′ 𝑟
𝑦 2 𝑥 2

2
+ 2
= 𝑓 2
+ 2
+ 𝑓 3
+ 3
𝜕𝑥 𝜕𝑦 𝑟 𝑟 𝑟 𝑟
′′
1
= 𝑓 𝑟 + 𝑓′(𝑟)
𝑟
Examples on composite functions:

If 𝑥 = 𝑟 cos 𝜃 , 𝑦 = 𝑟 sin 𝜃 , show that:

2
1. 𝑟𝑥𝑥 𝑟𝑦𝑦 = 𝑟𝑥𝑦
1
2. 𝑢𝑥 𝑥𝑢 =
2
𝜕𝑟 2 𝜕𝑟 2
3. + =1
𝜕𝑥 𝜕𝑦
Total Derivative Using
Chain Rule
 Total Derivative
 Let u = 𝑓(𝑥, 𝑦) be a function of two independent variables 𝑥 and 𝑦 .
Again, let 𝑥 = 𝜙1 (𝑡) and 𝑦 = 𝜙2 (𝑡). Then 𝑢 becomes a composite
function of 𝑡 only.

 In this case, 𝑢 may be expressed as 𝑢 = 𝑓{𝜙1 (𝑡), 𝜙2 (𝑡)} and may possess
𝑑𝑢
an ordinary differential coefficient , which is called as the total
𝑑𝑡
differential coefficient or total derivative of 𝑢 w.r.t. 𝑡 and is defined by
𝑑𝑢 𝜕𝑢 𝑑𝑥 𝜕𝑢 𝑑𝑦
= +
𝑑𝑡 𝜕𝑥 𝑑𝑡 𝜕𝑦 𝑑t
𝜕𝑢 𝜕𝑢
𝑑𝑢 = 𝑑𝑥 + 𝑑𝑦
𝜕𝑥 𝜕𝑦
 Total Derivative
 If 𝑢 = 𝑓(𝑥, 𝑦, 𝑧) is a function of three independent variables 𝑥, 𝑦 and 𝑧,
where 𝑥 = 𝜙1 (𝑡), 𝑦 = 𝜙2 (𝑡) and 𝑧 = 𝜙3 (𝑡), then the total derivative of 𝑢
𝑤.𝑟.𝑡. 𝑡 is denoted and defined by
𝑑𝑢 𝜕𝑢 𝑑𝑥 𝜕𝑢 𝑑𝑦 𝜕𝑢 𝑑𝑧
= + +
𝑑𝑡 𝜕𝑥 𝑑𝑡 𝜕𝑦 𝑑𝑡 𝜕𝑧 𝑑𝑡
𝜕𝑢 𝜕𝑢 𝜕𝑢
𝑑𝑢 = 𝑑𝑥 + 𝑑𝑦 + 𝑑𝑧
𝜕𝑥 𝜕𝑦 𝜕𝑧

 Further, if 𝑢 = 𝑓 𝑥1 , 𝑥2 , 𝑥3 , … , 𝑥𝑛 , where 𝑥1 , 𝑥2 , 𝑥3 , … , 𝑥𝑛 are functions of

𝑑𝑢
independent variable t, then the total derivative of u w.r.t. t is defined by
𝑑𝑡
𝑑𝑢 𝜕𝑢 𝑑𝑥1 𝜕𝑢 𝑑𝑥2 𝜕𝑢 𝑑𝑥3 𝜕𝑢 𝑑𝑥𝑛
= + + +⋯+
𝑑𝑡 𝜕𝑥1 𝑑𝑡 𝜕𝑥2 𝑑𝑡 𝜕𝑥3 𝑑𝑡 𝜕𝑥𝑛 𝑑𝑡
 Example
If 𝑧 = 𝑥 2 − 𝑦 2 , where 𝑥 = 𝑒 𝑡 cos𝑡 and 𝑦 = 𝑒 𝑡 sin 𝑡, then evaluate the
total derivative of 𝑧 w.r.t. 𝑡.
Solution: Given that 𝑧 = 𝑓 𝑥, 𝑦 = 𝑥 2 − 𝑦 2 where 𝑥 = 𝑒 𝑡 cos𝑡 and
𝑡 𝑑𝑧
𝑦 = 𝑒 sin 𝑡. The value of the total derivative is given by
𝑑𝑡

𝑑𝑧 𝜕𝑧 𝑑𝑥 𝜕𝑧 𝑑𝑦
= +
𝑑𝑡 𝜕𝑥 𝑑𝑡 𝜕𝑦 𝑑t
𝜕𝑧 𝑡 𝜕𝑧
= 2𝑥 = 2𝑒 cos𝑡 = −2𝑦 = −2𝑒 𝑡 sin 𝑡
𝜕𝑥 𝜕𝑦
𝑑𝑥 𝑑𝑦
= 𝑒𝑡 cos 𝑡 − sin 𝑡 = 𝑒 𝑡 cos 𝑡 + sin 𝑡
𝑑𝑡 𝑑𝑡
𝑑𝑧 𝜕𝑢 𝑑𝑥 𝜕𝑢 𝑑𝑦
= +
𝑑𝑡 𝜕𝑥 𝑑𝑡 𝜕𝑦 𝑑𝑡

= (2𝑒 𝑡 cost)[𝑒 𝑡 cos 𝑡 − sin 𝑡 ] + (−2𝑒 𝑡 sin 𝑡)[𝑒 𝑡 cos 𝑡 + sin 𝑡 ]

= 2𝑒 𝑡 cos2 𝑡 − 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝑡 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝑡 − sin 𝑡 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝑡 − sin2 𝑡

= 2𝑒 𝑡 {𝑐𝑜𝑠2𝑡 − 𝑠𝑖𝑛2𝑡}
 Example
Find the total derivative of 𝑢 = 𝑥 2 + 𝑦 2 + 𝑧 2 and 𝑥 = 𝑒 2𝑡 , 𝑦 =
𝑒 2𝑡 cos 3𝑡 , and 𝑧 = 𝑒 2𝑡 sin 3𝑡
𝑑𝑢
Solution: The value of the total derivative is given by
𝑑𝑡
𝑑𝑢 𝜕𝑢 𝑑𝑥 𝜕𝑢 𝑑𝑦 𝜕𝑢 𝑑𝑧
= + +
𝑑𝑡 𝜕𝑥 𝑑𝑡 𝜕𝑦 𝑑t 𝜕𝑧 𝑑t
𝜕𝑢 2𝑡
𝜕𝑢 2𝑡
𝜕𝑢
= 2𝑥 = 2𝑒 , = 2𝑦 = 2𝑒 cos 3𝑡 , = 2z = 2𝑒 2𝑡 sin 3𝑡
𝜕𝑥 𝜕𝑦 𝜕𝑧
𝑑𝑥 2𝑡
𝑑𝑦
= 2𝑒 , = 2e2𝑡 cos3t − 3e2t 𝑠in3t ,
𝑑𝑡 𝑑𝑡
𝑑𝑧
= 2e2𝑡 s𝑖𝑛3t + 3e2t 𝑐𝑜𝑠3t
𝑑𝑡
𝑑𝑢
∴ The total derivative of 𝑢 w.r.t. 𝑡 is = 8𝑒 4𝑡
𝑑𝑡
 𝑑𝑧 𝜕𝑢 𝑑𝑥 𝜕𝑢 𝑑𝑦
 = +
𝑑𝑡 𝜕𝑥 𝑑𝑡 𝜕𝑦 𝑑𝑡

= (2𝑒 𝑡 cost)[𝑒 𝑡 cos 𝑡 − sin 𝑡 ] + (−2𝑒 𝑡 sin 𝑡)[𝑒 𝑡 cos 𝑡 + sin 𝑡 ]

= 2𝑒 𝑡 cos2 𝑡 − 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝑡 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝑡 − sin 𝑡 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝑡 − sin2 𝑡

= 2𝑒 𝑡 {𝑐𝑜𝑠2𝑡 − 𝑠𝑖𝑛2𝑡}
 Example
The altitude of a right circular cone is 15 cm and is increasing at 0.2 cm/sec.
The radius of the base is 10 cm and is decreasing at 0.3 cm/sec. How fast is
the volume changing?
Solution: Let 𝑥 be the radius and 𝑦 be the altitude of the cone. So volume V
1
of the right circular cone is V = 𝜋𝑥 2 𝑦.
3
Since 𝑥 and 𝑦 are changing w.r.t. time 𝑡, differentiate 𝑉 w.r.t. 𝑡.
𝑑𝑉 𝜕𝑉 𝑑𝑥 𝜕𝑉 𝑑𝑦
= +
𝑑𝑡 𝜕𝑥 𝑑𝑡 𝜕𝑦 𝑑t
1 𝑑𝑥 2 𝑑𝑦
= 𝜋(2𝑥𝑦 + x )
3 𝑑𝑡 𝑑t
𝑑𝑥 𝑑𝑦
It is given that at x = 10, y = 15, = −0.3 and = 0.2.
𝑑𝑡 𝑑t
Substituting these values,

𝑑𝑉 1
= 𝜋 2.10.15. −0.3 + 102 0.2
𝑑𝑡 3
70
= − 𝜋 𝑐𝑚3 /sec
3
70
i.e., volume is decreasing at the rate of 𝜋
3
 Exercises
 If 𝑢 = sin−1 (𝑥 − 𝑦) , where 𝑥 = 3𝑡 and 𝑦 = 4𝑡 3 , then evaluate the total
1
2 −2
differential coefficient of 𝑢 w.r.t. 𝑡. [Ans: 3 1 − 𝑡 ]
 Find the total derivative of u = 𝑥 3 𝑦𝑒 𝑧 where 𝑥 = 𝑡 , 𝑦 = 𝑡 2 , and 𝑧 = ln 𝑡
at 𝑡 = 2. [Ans: 6𝑡 5 , 192 ]
𝑑𝑢 −1 𝑦
 Find if 𝑢 = ta𝑛 ( ) and 𝑥 = 𝑒 𝑡 − 𝑒 −𝑡 and 𝑦 = 𝑒 𝑡 + 𝑒 −𝑡 .
𝑑𝑡 𝑥
2
[Ans: − 2𝑡 −2𝑡 ]
𝑒 +𝑒
 Find the rate at which the area of a rectangle is increasing at a given
instant when the sides of the rectangle are 4 ft and 3 ft and are increasing
at the rate of 1.5 ft/sec and 0.5 ft/sec respectively. [Ans: 6.5 sq. ft/sec]
 Euler's Theorem on
Homogeneous Functions
 Definition of Homogeneous Functions
A function of the form 𝑓 𝑥, 𝑦 = 𝑎0 𝑥 𝑛 + 𝑎1 𝑥 𝑛−1 𝑦 + 𝑎2 𝑥 𝑛−2 + 𝑎3 𝑥 𝑛−3 +
⋯ + 𝑎𝑛 𝑦 𝑛 in which every term is of the 𝑛𝑡ℎ degree, is called as a
homogeneous function of degree 𝒏.

Homogeneous function 𝑓 𝑥, 𝑦 = 𝑎0 𝑥 𝑛 + 𝑎1 𝑥 𝑛−1 𝑦 + 𝑎2 𝑥 𝑛−2 + 𝑎3 𝑥 𝑛−3 +

⋯ + 𝑎𝑛 𝑦 𝑛 can be written as:

𝑦 𝑦 2 𝑦 3 𝑦 𝑛
𝑥 𝑛 𝑎0 + 𝑎1 + 𝑎2 + 𝑎3 + ⋯ + 𝑎𝑛
𝑥 𝑥 𝑥 𝑥
 Homogeneous Function
 A polynomial in 𝑥 and 𝑦 is said to be homogeneous if all its terms are of
the same degree.
E.g.: 3𝑥 2 − 2𝑥𝑦 + 15𝑦 2 is homogeneous of degree 2
 Generalizing this property to include non-polynomials, a function
𝑓(𝑥, 𝑦) in two variables 𝑥 and 𝑦 is said to be a homogeneous function of
degree 𝑛 if for any positive number 𝜆,
𝑓 𝜆𝑥, 𝜆𝑦 = 𝜆𝑛 𝑓 𝑥, 𝑦
𝑥+ 𝑦 1
e.g.: is homogeneous of degree −
𝑥+𝑦 2

 Remark: The degree 𝑛 need not be an integer, 𝑛 could be positive,

negative or zero.
 Homogeneous Function

 A transcendental function 𝑓(𝑥, 𝑦) is said to be homogeneous of degree 𝑛

if it can be expressed as
𝑦 𝑥
𝑥𝑛 𝜙 or 𝑦𝑛 𝜓
𝑥 𝑦
𝑦 −1 𝑥
E.g.: sin + tan is homogeneous of degree 0.
𝑥 𝑦

 Homogeneous function 𝑓(𝑥, 𝑦, 𝑧) of three variables 𝑥, 𝑦, 𝑧 of degree 𝑛

can be expressed as
𝑛
𝑦 𝑧 𝑛
𝑥 𝑧 𝑛
𝑥 𝑦
𝑥 𝜙 , 𝑜𝑟 𝑦 𝜓 , 𝑜𝑟 𝑧 𝜓 ,
𝑥 𝑥 𝑦 𝑦 𝑧 𝑧
 Exercises
 Find the degree of the following homogeneous functions:
3
a) 𝑥2 + 𝑦2 [Ans: 3]
b) log 𝑦 − log 𝑥 [Ans: 0]
1
𝑧2 3 2
c) [Ans: − ]
𝑥 4 +𝑦 4 3
1 4
−3 −1 𝑦
d) 𝑥 𝑦
3 tan [Ans: -1]
𝑥
 Euler’s Theorem on Homogeneous Functions
 Theorem:
If 𝑓 is a homogeneous function of 𝑥, 𝑦 of degree 𝑛 then
𝜕f 𝜕f
𝑥 +𝑦 = 𝑛𝑓
𝜕𝑥 𝜕𝑦
If 𝑓 is a homogeneous function of 𝑥, 𝑦, 𝑧 of degree 𝑛 then
𝜕f 𝜕f 𝜕f
𝑥 +𝑦 +𝑧 = 𝑛𝑓
𝜕𝑥 𝜕𝑦 𝜕𝑧
 Corollary 1:
If 𝑓(𝑥, 𝑦) is a homogeneous function of degree 𝑛, then
𝜕 2f 𝜕 2f 𝜕 2f
𝑥 2 2 + 2𝑥𝑦 + 𝑦2 2 = 𝑛 𝑛 − 1 𝑓
𝜕x 𝜕x𝜕𝑦 𝜕y
 Euler’s Theorem on Homogeneous Functions
 Corollary 2: If z = 𝑓(𝑥, 𝑦) is a homogeneous function of 𝑥, 𝑦 of degree 𝑛 and
𝑧 = 𝑓(𝑢)
𝜕u 𝜕u 𝑓 𝑢
𝑥 +𝑦 =𝑛 ′
𝜕𝑥 𝜕𝑦 𝑓 𝑢
𝜕 2f 𝜕 2f 𝜕 2f
& 𝑥 2 2 + 2𝑥𝑦 + 𝑦 2 2 = g(u)[g ′ u − 1]
𝜕x 𝜕x𝜕𝑦 𝜕y
𝑓 𝑢
𝑤ℎ𝑒𝑟𝑒 𝑔 𝑢 = 𝑛 ′
𝑓 𝑢
 Corollary 3: If u = 𝑓(𝑥, 𝑦, 𝑧) is a homogeneous function of 𝑥, 𝑦, z of degree 𝑛
and u = 𝑓 𝑣 then
𝜕u 𝜕u 𝜕u 𝑓 𝑣
𝑥 +𝑦 +𝑧 =𝑛 ′
𝜕𝑥 𝜕𝑦 𝜕𝑧 𝑓 𝑣
Problems on Euler’s theorem
Examples of Homogeneous Functions:
𝑦2
1. 𝑧 = 𝑥 3 + 𝑦 2 𝑥 = 𝑥 3 1 + Thus, degree: 3
𝑥2

𝑦3 𝑦3
𝑥 3 +𝑦 3 𝑥3 1+ 3 1+ 3
𝑥
2. 𝑧 = = 𝑦 = 𝑥2 𝑥
𝑦 Thus, degree: 2
𝑥+𝑦 𝑥 1+𝑥 1+𝑥

𝑥2 𝑦2 2 1 𝑦2
3. 𝑧 = + =𝑥 + Thus, degree: 2
𝑎2 𝑏2 𝑎2 𝑏2 𝑥 2

𝑞2 𝑞4
4. 𝑢 = 𝑝4 + 𝑞 2 𝑝2 + 𝑞 4 = 𝑝4 1 + + Thus, degree: 4
𝑝2 𝑝4
Euler’s Theorem on Homogeneous functions :

If 𝑧 is a homogeneous function of degree 𝑛 in 𝑥 and 𝑦, then

𝜕𝑧 𝜕𝑧
𝑥 +𝑦 = 𝑛𝑧
𝜕𝑥 𝜕𝑦
Example:
𝝏𝒛 𝝏𝒛 𝒙2 𝒚𝟐 𝒙2 𝒚𝟐
Show that 𝒙 + 𝒚 = + where 𝑧 = + .
𝝏𝒙 𝝏𝒚 y 𝑥 y 𝑥
𝒙2 𝒚𝟐
Solution: Consider 𝑧 = 𝑓 𝑥, 𝑦 = +
y 𝑥
𝒙2 𝒚𝟐 𝑥 𝑦2
Now, 𝑧 = + =𝑥 +
y 𝑥 𝑦 𝑥2

Thus, 𝑓(𝑥, 𝑦) is a homogeneous function of degree 1.Therefore, using

Euler’s formula,
𝜕𝑧 𝜕𝑧
𝑥 +𝑦 = 𝑛𝑧
𝜕𝑥 𝜕𝑦
We get,
𝜕𝑧 𝜕𝑧
𝑥 +𝑦 =𝑧
𝜕𝑥 𝜕𝑦
 𝜕𝑧 𝜕𝑧
Show that: 𝑥 + 𝑦 = 6 𝑥 3𝑦3 + 𝑦2𝑥 4 − 𝑦4𝑥 2 ,
𝜕𝑥 𝜕𝑦
where 𝑧 = 𝑥 3 𝑦 3 + 𝑦 2 𝑥 4 − 𝑦 4 𝑥 2 .

Solution:
Given 𝑧 = 𝑥 3 𝑦 3 + 𝑦 2 𝑥 4 − 𝑦 4 𝑥 2 .
𝑦3 𝑦2 𝑦4
∴ 𝑧 = 𝑥 3𝑦3 + 𝑦2𝑥 4 − 𝑦4𝑥 2 = 𝑥 6 3
+ 2− 4
𝑥 𝑥 𝑥
Therefore, it is a homogeneous function of degree 6.
Now, using Euler’s theorem of homogeneous function,
𝜕𝑧 𝜕𝑧
𝑥 +𝑦 = 𝑛𝑧
𝜕𝑥 𝜕𝑦
We get,
 𝜕𝑧 𝜕𝑧
𝑥 +𝑦 = 6𝑧
𝜕𝑥 𝜕𝑦
𝜕𝑧 𝜕𝑧
𝑥 +𝑦 = 6(𝑥 3 𝑦 3 + 𝑦 2 𝑥 4 − 𝑦 4 𝑥 2 )
𝜕𝑥 𝜕𝑦
Exercise:
𝑥3 𝑧3 𝜕𝑢 𝜕𝑢
1. If 𝑢 = − , find 𝑥 + 𝑧 .
𝑧2 𝑥 2 𝜕𝑥 𝜕𝑧

2. Verify Euler’s theorem for the function 𝑧 = 𝑥 2 + 𝑥𝑦 + 𝑦 2 .

𝜕𝑢 𝜕𝑢 𝜕𝑢 𝑥 2 𝑦+𝑦 2 𝑧+𝑧 2 𝑥
3. Find 𝑥 + 𝑦 +𝑧 , when 𝑢 = .
𝜕𝑥 𝜕𝑦 𝜕𝑧 𝑥+𝑦+𝑧

𝜕𝑢 𝜕𝑢 3 2 3
−1 𝑥 +𝑦 𝑥+𝑦
4. Show that 𝑥 + 𝑦 = −2 tan 𝑢 , when 𝑢 = cos .
𝜕𝑥 𝜕𝑦 𝑥+𝑦
Deductions from Euler’s theorem

1) If 𝑧 is a homogeneous function of degree 𝑛 in 𝑥 and 𝑦, then

2 2 2
2
𝜕 𝑧 𝜕 𝑧 2
𝜕 𝑧
𝑥 2
+ 2𝑥𝑦 +𝑦 2
= 𝑛(𝑛 − 1)𝑧
𝜕𝑥 𝜕𝑥𝜕𝑦 𝜕𝑦
2) If 𝑧 is a homogeneous function of degree 𝑛 in 𝑥 and 𝑦 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑧 = 𝑓 𝑢 then
𝜕𝑢 𝜕𝑢 𝑓(𝑢)
𝑥 + 𝑦 = 𝑛 ′ and
𝜕𝑥 𝜕𝑦 𝑓 (𝑢)
𝜕 2𝑢 𝜕2 𝑢 𝜕 2𝑢 𝑓(𝑢)
𝑥2 2 + 2𝑥𝑦 + 𝑦2 2 = 𝑔(𝑢)[𝑔′ 𝑢 − 1] where 𝑔(𝑢)= 𝑛 ′
𝜕𝑥 𝜕𝑥𝜕𝑦 𝜕𝑦 𝑓 (𝑢)
 Example
−1 𝑥+𝑦
If u = 𝑠𝑖𝑛 ( ) , prove that
𝑥+ 𝑦
2
𝜕 𝑢 𝜕2 𝑢 2
𝜕 𝑢 1
𝑥 2 + 2𝑥𝑦 + 𝑦 2 = (𝑡𝑎𝑛3 𝑢 − tan 𝑢) .
𝜕𝑥 2 𝜕𝑥𝜕𝑦 𝜕𝑦 2 4

Solution:
𝑥+𝑦 1Τ 1+𝑦Τ𝑥 1Τ
Given sin u = ( ) =𝑥 2 [ ]= 𝑥 2 𝜑(𝑦Τ𝑥).
𝑥+ 𝑦 1+ 𝑦Τ𝑥

= a homogeneous function of x,y of degree 1Τ2 .

Also f(u) = sin u
Then by Euler’s theorem ,
 𝜕𝑢 𝜕𝑢 𝑓(𝑢) 1 sin 𝑢 1
𝑥 + 𝑦 = 𝑛 ′ = = tan u = 𝑔(𝑢)
𝜕𝑥 𝜕𝑦 𝑓 (𝑢) 2 cos 𝑢 2
2
𝜕 𝑢 𝜕2 𝑢 2
𝜕 𝑢
∴𝑥 2 + 2𝑥𝑦 +𝑦 2 = 𝑔(𝑢)[𝑔′ 𝑢 − 1]
𝜕𝑥 2 𝜕𝑥𝜕𝑦 𝜕𝑦 2
1 1
= tan u [ 𝑠𝑒𝑐 2 u-1]
2 2
1 1 1
= tan u [ + 𝑡𝑎𝑛2 u-1]
2 2 2
1
= [𝑡𝑎𝑛3 u-tan u] = R.H.S.
4
 Solve :
𝑥 3 +𝑦 3 1 −1 𝑥 2 +𝑦 2
1) If u =( )+ 7 𝑠𝑖𝑛 [ 2 ] then find the value of
𝑦 𝑥 𝑥 𝑥 +2𝑥𝑦

𝜕 2𝑢 𝜕2 𝑢 𝜕 2𝑢 𝜕𝑢 𝜕𝑢
𝑥2 2 + 2𝑥𝑦 + 𝑦2 2 + 𝑥 + 𝑦 at the point (1,2).
𝜕𝑥 𝜕𝑥𝜕𝑦 𝜕𝑦 𝜕𝑥 𝜕𝑦
2
𝜕 𝑢 𝜕2 𝑢 2
𝜕 𝑢
2) Find 𝑥 2 + 2𝑥𝑦 + 𝑦 2 where
𝜕𝑥 2 𝜕𝑥𝜕𝑦 𝜕𝑦 2

i) u = log ( 𝑥 3 + 𝑦 3 − 𝑥 2 y−𝑥𝑦 2 )
2 2 1Τ3
ii) u = (𝑥 + 𝑦 )
Jacobian
If 𝑢 and 𝑣 are functions of two independent variables 𝑥 and 𝑦, then
the Jacobian of 𝑢, 𝑣 with respect to 𝑥, 𝑦 is
𝜕𝑢 𝜕𝑢
𝜕𝑥 𝜕𝑦
𝐽=
𝜕𝑣 𝜕𝑣
𝜕𝑥 𝜕𝑦
𝜕(𝑢,𝑣) 𝑢,𝑣
It is written as or 𝐽 . Remains same for the column
𝜕(𝑥,𝑦) 𝑥,𝑦
Examples on Jacobian
2 2 𝑥 𝜕(𝑢,𝑣)
1) Given 𝑢 = 𝑥 𝑦 + 𝑦 𝑥, and 𝑣 = 𝑒 sin 𝑦 . Find 𝐽, where 𝐽 = .
𝜕(𝑥,𝑦)

2) Given a transformation 𝑇(𝑥, 𝑦) = (3𝑥 2 + 𝑦, 2𝑥𝑦) calculate the

Jacobian.
𝑥 𝑦
3) If 𝑢 = and 𝑣 = , then find the Jacobian of 𝑢, 𝑣 w.r.t. 𝑥, 𝑦.
𝑦 𝑥

4) In a robotic arm with two joints, represented by 𝜃1 and 𝜃2 ​, and an

end-effector position (𝑥, 𝑦) = (3 cos 𝜃1 + 2 cos 𝜃1 + 𝜃2 , 3 sin 𝜃1 +
2 sin 𝜃1 + 𝜃2 ).Calculate the Jacobian matrix for the robotic arm.
Properties of Jacobian
and it’s Applications
 Properties of Jacobians
𝜕 (𝑢,𝑣) 𝜕(𝑥,𝑦) 𝜕 𝑢,𝑣 1 1
1. If 𝐽 = and 𝐽∗ = then 𝐽 𝐽∗ = 1 i.e. 𝐽 = = = 𝜕(𝑥,𝑦)
𝜕(𝑥,𝑦) 𝜕 (𝑢,𝑣) 𝜕 𝑥,𝑦 𝐽∗
𝜕 (𝑢,𝑣)

Proof : Let,
𝑢 = 𝑓(𝑥, 𝑦) and 𝑣 = 𝑔(𝑥, 𝑦) …(1)
be two given functions in terms of 𝑥 and 𝑦, which are transformations
from 𝑢, 𝑣 to 𝑥, 𝑦. Solving (1) for 𝑥 and 𝑦, we get 𝑥 and y as functions in
terms of the two independent variables 𝑢 and 𝑣 as
𝑥 = 𝜑(𝑢, 𝑣) and 𝑦 = 𝜓(𝑢, 𝑣) …(2)
known as inverse transformation from 𝑥, 𝑦 to 𝑢, 𝑣.
Differentiating partially w.r.t. 𝑢 and 𝑣, we get
 𝜕𝑢 𝜕𝑢 𝜕𝑥 𝜕𝑢 𝜕𝑦
1= = + = 𝑢𝑥 𝑥𝑢 + 𝑢𝑦 𝑦𝑢 … (3)
𝜕𝑢 𝜕𝑥 𝜕𝑢 𝜕𝑦 𝜕𝑢
𝜕𝑢 𝜕𝑢 𝜕𝑥 𝜕𝑢 𝜕𝑦
0= = + = 𝑢𝑥 𝑥𝑣 + 𝑢𝑦 𝑦𝑢 … (4)
𝜕𝑣 𝜕𝑥 𝜕𝑣 𝜕𝑦 𝜕𝑣
𝜕𝑣 𝜕𝑣 𝜕𝑥 𝜕𝑣 𝜕𝑦
0= = + = 𝑣𝑥 𝑥𝑢 + 𝑣𝑦 𝑦𝑢 … (5)
𝜕𝑢 𝜕𝑥 𝜕𝑢 𝜕𝑦 𝜕𝑢
𝜕𝑢 𝜕𝑢 𝜕𝑥 𝜕𝑢 𝜕𝑦
1= = + = 𝑣𝑥 𝑥𝑣 + 𝑣𝑦 𝑦𝑣 … (6)
𝜕𝑢 𝜕𝑥 𝜕𝑢 𝜕𝑦 𝜕𝑢
𝑢𝑥 𝑢𝑦 𝑥𝑢 𝑥𝑣
𝐽 𝐽∗ = 𝑣 𝑣𝑦 𝑦𝑢 𝑦𝑣
𝑥
𝑢𝑥 𝑢𝑦 𝑥𝑢 𝑦𝑢
= 𝑣 𝑣𝑦 𝑥𝑣 𝑦𝑣
𝑥

By interchanging rows and columns in the second determinant

Multiplying the determinant row-wise,
∗
𝑢𝑥 𝑥𝑢 + 𝑢𝑦 𝑦𝑢 𝑢𝑥 𝑥𝑣 + 𝑢𝑦 𝑦𝑢
𝐽𝐽 = 𝑣 𝑥 + 𝑣 𝑦 𝑣𝑥 𝑥𝑣 + 𝑣𝑦 𝑦𝑣
𝑥 𝑢 𝑦 𝑢

Substituting (3), (4), (5), (6) above, we get

∗ 1 0
𝐽𝐽 = =1
0 1
2. If 𝑢, 𝑣 are functions of 𝑟, 𝑠 and 𝑟, 𝑠 are themselves functions of 𝑥, 𝑦
then
𝜕 (𝑢,𝑣) 𝜕 𝑢,𝑣 𝜕 (𝑟, 𝑠) 𝑢, 𝑣 𝑢, 𝑣 𝑟, 𝑠
= i.e. J =J J
𝜕(𝑥,𝑦) 𝜕 𝑟,𝑠 𝜕 (𝑥,𝑦) 𝑥, 𝑦 𝑟, 𝑠 𝑥, 𝑦
Proof : Differentiating 𝑢, 𝑣 partially w.r.t. 𝑥, 𝑦
𝜕𝑢 𝜕𝑢 𝜕𝑟 𝜕𝑢 𝜕𝑠
= + …(1)
𝜕𝑥 𝜕𝑟 𝜕𝑥 𝜕𝑠 𝜕𝑥
𝜕𝑢 𝜕𝑢 𝜕𝑟 𝜕𝑢 𝜕𝑠
= + …(2)
𝜕𝑦 𝜕𝑟 𝜕𝑦 𝜕𝑠 𝜕𝑦
𝜕𝑣 𝜕𝑣 𝜕𝑟 𝜕𝑣 𝜕𝑠
= + …(3)
𝜕𝑥 𝜕𝑟 𝜕𝑥 𝜕𝑠 𝜕𝑥
𝜕𝑣 𝜕𝑣 𝜕𝑟 𝜕𝑣 𝜕𝑠
= + …(4)
𝜕𝑦 𝜕𝑟 𝜕𝑦 𝜕𝑠 𝜕𝑦
From definition of Jacobian
𝑢𝑟 𝑢𝑠 𝑟𝑥 𝑟𝑦
𝜕 𝑢,𝑣 𝜕 (𝑟,𝑠)
= 𝑣 𝑣 𝑠 𝑠
𝜕 𝑟,𝑠 𝜕 (𝑥,𝑦)
𝑟 𝑠 𝑥 𝑦
By inter hanging the rows and columns in second determinant
 𝑢𝑟 𝑢𝑠 𝑟𝑥 𝑠𝑥
= 𝑣 𝑣 𝑟 𝑠
𝑟 𝑠 𝑦 𝑦
Multiplying the determinant row-wise,
∗
𝑢𝑟 𝑟𝑥 + 𝑢𝑠 𝑠𝑥 𝑢𝑟 𝑟𝑦 + 𝑢𝑠 𝑠𝑦
𝐽𝐽 = 𝑣 𝑟 + 𝑣 𝑠 𝑣𝑟 𝑟𝑦 + 𝑣𝑠 𝑠𝑦
𝑟 𝑥 𝑠 𝑥
Using (1), (2), (3), (4)
𝜕 𝑢,𝑣 𝜕 (𝑟,𝑠) 𝑢𝑥 𝑢𝑦 𝜕 (𝑢,𝑣)
= 𝑣 𝑣 =
𝜕 𝑟,𝑠 𝜕 (𝑥,𝑦) 𝑥 𝑦 𝜕(𝑥,𝑦)
Thus Jacobians behave in a certain way like derivatives.
Note:
All the above results of Jacobian of two variables an be
extended similarly to 𝑛 (any number of) variables.
 STANDARD JACOBIANS
Jacobians for change of variables from Cartesian Co-ordinates
to
i. polar coordinate 𝑥 = r cos θ , 𝑦 = r sin θ
ii. cylindrical coordinates 𝑥 = r cos θ , 𝑦 = r sin θ , z = z
iii. spherical coordinates 𝑥 = r sin θ cos φ, 𝑦 = r sin θ sin φ and z
= r cos θ
𝑥 = r cos θ , 𝑦 = r sin θ,
so 𝑥𝑟 = cos θ , 𝑥𝜃 = −r sin θ , 𝑦𝑟 = sin θ , 𝑦𝜃 = r cos θ
𝜕(𝑥,𝑦) 𝑥𝑟 𝑥𝜃 cos θ −r sin θ
= 𝑦 𝑦 = = r (𝑐𝑜𝑠 2 𝜃+𝑠𝑖𝑛2 𝜃 ) = r
𝜕(𝑟,𝜃) 𝑟 𝜃 sin θ r cos θ
 −1 𝑦
𝐫= 𝒙𝟐 +𝒚𝟐 , 𝜃 = tan
𝑥
𝑥 𝑦 −𝑦 𝑥
So 𝑟𝑥 = , 𝑟𝑦 = , 𝜃𝑥 = 2 , 𝜃𝑦 = 2
𝑟 𝑟 𝑟 𝑟
𝑥 𝑦
𝜕(𝑟,𝜃) 𝑟𝑥 𝑟𝑦 𝑟 𝑟 𝑥2 𝑦2 𝑟2 1
= 𝜃𝑥 𝜃𝑦 = −𝑦 𝑥 = 𝑟 3 + 𝑟 3 = 𝑟 3 =
𝜕(𝑥,𝑦) 𝑟
𝑟2 𝑟2
ii) 𝑥 = r cos θ , 𝑦 = r sin θ, z = z
so 𝑥𝑟 = cos θ , 𝑥𝜃 = −r sin θ , 𝑥𝑧 = 0, 𝑦𝑟 = sin θ , 𝑦𝜃 = r cos θ, 𝑦𝑧 = 0, 𝑧𝑟
= 0, 𝑧𝜃 = 0, 𝑧𝑧 = 1
𝑥𝑟 𝑥𝜃 𝑥𝑧 cos θ −r sin θ 0
𝜕(𝑥,𝑦)
= 𝑦𝑟 𝑦𝜃 𝑦𝑧 = sin θ r cos θ 0
𝜕(𝑟,𝜃)
𝑧𝑟 𝑧𝜃 𝑧𝑧 0 0 1
= r (cos2 𝜃+sin2 𝜃 ) = r
 𝜕 (𝑟, 𝜃, 𝑧) 1 1
𝐽∗ = = =
𝜕(𝑥,𝑦, 𝑧) 𝐽 𝑟

iii) 𝑥 = r sin θ cos φ, 𝑦 = r sin θ sin φ and z = r cos θ

sin θ cos φ r cos θ cos φ − r sin θ sin φ
𝜕(𝑥,𝑦, 𝑧)
𝜕(𝑟,𝜃, ∅)
= sin θ sin φ r cos θ sin φ r sin θ cos φ
cos θ −r sin θ 0
= 𝑟 2 sin θ cos2 θ + 𝑟 2 sin θ sin2 θ
= 𝑟 2 sin θ
Using property (ii)
𝜕(𝑟,𝜃, ∅) 1 1
𝜕(𝑥,𝑦, 𝑧)
= 𝜕(𝑥,𝑦, 𝑧) = 𝑟 2 sin θ
𝜕(𝑟,𝜃, ∅)
 𝜕 (𝑢,𝑣)
Example 1: Find the Jacobian 𝜕(𝑥,𝑦)
in each of the following:
i. 𝑢 = 𝑥 sin 𝑦, 𝑣 = 𝑦 sin 𝑥
ii. 𝑢 = ex sin 𝑦, 𝑣 = 𝑥 + log sin 𝑦
Solution: By definition,
𝜕 (𝑢,𝑣) 𝑢𝑥 𝑢𝑦
𝜕(𝑥,𝑦)
= 𝑣 𝑣𝑦
𝑥

i. 𝑢 = 𝑥 sin 𝑦, 𝑣 = 𝑦 sin 𝑥
So, 𝑢𝑥 = 𝑠𝑖𝑛 𝑦, 𝑢𝑦 = 𝑥 cos 𝑦, 𝑣𝑥 = 𝑦 cos 𝑥, 𝑣𝑦 = sin 𝑥
sin 𝑦 x cos 𝑦
J= = sin 𝑥 sin 𝑦 − 𝑥𝑦 cos 𝑥 cos 𝑦
y cos 𝑥 sin 𝑥
ii. u = ex sin y, v = x + log sin y
cos 𝑦
So, ux = ex sin y, uy = ex cos y, vx = 1, vy =
sin 𝑦
e x sin y ex cos y
𝜕 (u,v) x x
= 1
cos 𝑦 = e cos y − e cos y = 0
𝜕(x,y)
sin 𝑦
𝜕(𝑥, 𝑦, 𝑧) 2𝑦𝑧 3𝑧𝑥 4𝑥𝑦
Example 2: Calculate if u = ,v = , w= .
𝜕(𝑢, 𝑣, 𝑤) 𝑥 𝑦 𝑧
Solution: −2𝑦𝑧 2𝑧 2𝑦
𝑥𝑢 𝑥𝑣 𝑥𝑤 𝑥2 𝑥 𝑥
𝜕(𝑥, 𝑦, 𝑧) 3𝑧 3𝑧𝑥 3𝑥
= 𝑦𝑢 𝑦𝑣 𝑦𝑤 =
𝑦
− 2
𝑦 𝑦
𝜕(𝑢, 𝑣, 𝑤)
𝑧𝑢 𝑧𝑣 𝑧𝑤 4𝑦 4𝑥 4𝑥𝑦
− 2
𝑧 𝑧 𝑧
Expanding the determinant
−2𝑦𝑧 12𝑥 2 𝑦𝑧 12𝑥 2 2𝑧 −12𝑥𝑦𝑧 12𝑥𝑦 2𝑦 12𝑥𝑧 12𝑥𝑦
= 2 − − − + −
𝑥 𝑦2𝑧 2 𝑦𝑧 𝑥 𝑦𝑧 2 𝑦𝑧 𝑥 𝑦𝑧 𝑧𝑦 2
= 0 + 48 + 48 = 96
 𝜕(𝑢,𝑣)
Example 3: Calculate , if 𝑢 = 2𝑎𝑥𝑦, 𝑣 = 𝑎(𝑥 2 − 𝑦 2 )
𝜕(𝑟,𝜃)

where 𝑥 = 𝑟 cos 𝜃 , 𝑦 = 𝑟 sin 𝜃.

Solution: Since 𝑢, 𝑣 are functions of 𝑥, 𝑦 which are themselves functions of 𝑟,
𝜃, use chain rule for Jacobians. Thus
𝜕(𝑢,𝑣) 𝜕(𝑢,𝑣) 𝜕(𝑥, 𝑦)
=
𝜕(𝑟,𝜃) 𝜕(𝑥, 𝑦) 𝜕(𝑟,𝜃)

Given 𝑢 = 2𝑎𝑥𝑦, 𝑣 = 𝑎(𝑥 2 − 𝑦 2 ), 𝑢𝑥 = 2𝑎𝑦, uy = 2𝑎𝑥, 𝑣𝑥 = 2𝑎𝑥, 𝑣𝑦 = −2𝑎𝑦

𝜕(𝑢,𝑣) ux uy 2𝑎𝑦 2𝑎𝑥
= v v = = −4𝑎2 ( 𝑦 2 + 𝑥 2 ) = −4𝑎2 𝑟 2
𝜕(𝑟,𝜃) x y 2𝑎𝑥 −2𝑎𝑦
Since 𝑥 2 + 𝑦 2 = 𝑟 2 cos 2 𝜃+ 𝑟 2 sin2 𝜃 = 𝑟 2
𝜕(𝑥,𝑦) cos θ −r sin θ
Also = =r
𝜕(𝑟,𝜃) sin θ r cos θ
 𝜕(𝑢,𝑣) 𝜕(𝑢,𝑣) 𝜕(𝑥,𝑦)
Hence = = (−4a2 𝑟 2 )r = −4a2 𝑟 3
𝜕(𝑟,𝜃) 𝜕(𝑥, 𝑦) 𝜕(𝑟,𝜃)

Example 4: Verify the chain rule for Jacobians

if x = u, y = u tan v, z = w.
Solution:
1 0 0
𝜕(𝑥, 𝑦, 𝑧)
J= = tan 𝑣 sec 2 𝑣 0 = u sec 2 𝑣
𝜕(𝑢, 𝑣, 𝑤)
0 0 1
𝑦 𝑦
Solving for u, v, w in terms of x, y, z we have u = x, tan v = = ,
𝑢 𝑥
−1 𝑦
v = tan , w = z.
𝑥
 1 0 0
−𝑦 𝑥 𝑥 1 1
𝐽∗ = 𝑥2 + 𝑦2 𝑥2 + 𝑦2
0 = = 𝑦 2
=
𝑥2 + 𝑦2 𝑥 1+ 𝑢 sec2 𝑣
𝑥
0 0 1
1
𝐽. 𝐽∗ =u sec 2 𝑣 . =1
𝑢 sec2 𝑣
 JACOBIAN OF IMPLICIT FUNCTIONS
If u, v are implicit functions of x, y connected by f1 , f2 such that
f1 (u, v, x, y) = 0 , f2 (u, v, x, y) = 0 then
𝜕f1 𝜕f1 𝜕𝑢 𝜕f1 𝜕𝑣
+ + =0
𝜕𝑥 𝜕𝑢 𝜕𝑥 𝜕𝑣 𝜕𝑥
𝜕f1 𝜕f1 𝜕𝑢 𝜕f1 𝜕𝑣
+ + =0
𝜕𝑦 𝜕𝑢 𝜕𝑦 𝜕𝑣 𝜕𝑦

Similarly,
𝜕f2 𝜕f2 𝜕𝑢 𝜕f2 𝜕𝑣
+ + =0
𝜕𝑥 𝜕𝑢 𝜕𝑥 𝜕𝑣 𝜕𝑥
𝜕f2 𝜕f2 𝜕𝑢 𝜕f2 𝜕𝑣
+ + =0
𝜕𝑦 𝜕𝑢 𝜕𝑦 𝜕𝑣 𝜕𝑦
 𝜕f1 𝜕f1 𝜕𝑢 𝜕𝑢
𝜕 (f1 ,f2 ) 𝜕 (u,v) 𝜕𝑢 𝜕𝑣 𝜕𝑥 𝜕𝑦
= 𝜕f2 𝜕f2 𝜕𝑣 𝜕𝑣
𝜕(u, v) 𝜕(x,y)
𝜕𝑢 𝜕𝑣 𝜕𝑥 𝜕𝑦
𝜕f1 𝜕f1 𝜕𝑢 𝜕𝑣
𝜕𝑢 𝜕𝑣 𝜕𝑥 𝜕𝑥
= 𝜕f2 𝜕f2 𝜕𝑢 𝜕𝑣
𝜕𝑢 𝜕𝑣 𝜕𝑦 𝜕𝑦

[Interchange rows and columns of second determinant]

𝜕f1 𝜕𝑢 𝜕f1 𝜕𝑣 𝜕f1 𝜕𝑢 𝜕f1 𝜕𝑣
+ +
𝜕𝑢 𝜕𝑥 𝜕𝑣 𝜕𝑥 𝜕𝑢 𝜕𝑦 𝜕𝑣 𝜕𝑦
= 𝜕f2 𝜕𝑢 𝜕f2 𝜕𝑣 𝜕f2 𝜕𝑢 𝜕f2 𝜕𝑣
+ +
𝜕𝑢 𝜕𝑥 𝜕𝑣 𝜕𝑥 𝜕𝑢 𝜕𝑦 𝜕𝑣 𝜕𝑦
 𝜕f1 𝜕f1
− −
𝜕𝑥 𝜕𝑦
=
𝜕f2 𝜕f2
− −
𝜕𝑥 𝜕𝑦
2 𝜕 (f1 ,f2 )
= (−1)
𝜕(x, y)
𝛛 (𝒇𝟏 ,𝒇𝟐 )
𝛛 (𝐮, 𝐯) 𝛛(𝐱, 𝐲)
= (−𝟏)𝟐 𝛛 (𝒇𝟏 ,𝒇𝟐 )
𝛛(𝐱,𝐲)
𝛛(𝐮, 𝐯)

Similarly, If u, v, w are implicit functions of x, y, z connected

by f1 , f2 , f3 such that f1 (u, v, w, x, y, z) = 0 , f2 (u, v, w, x, y, z) = 0,
f3 (u, v, w, x, y, z) = 0 then
 𝛛 𝒇𝟏 ,𝒇𝟐 ,𝒇𝟑
𝛛 (𝐮, 𝐯, 𝐰) 𝛛(𝐱, 𝐲, 𝒛)
= (−𝟏)𝟑 𝛛 (𝒇𝟏 ,𝒇𝟐 ,𝒇𝟑 )
𝛛(𝐱, 𝐲, 𝐳)
𝛛(𝐮, 𝐯, 𝐰)

Example 1): If 𝑥 2 + 𝑦 2 + 𝑢2 − 𝑣 2 = 0, 𝑢𝑣 + 𝑥𝑦 = 0, prove that

𝝏 (𝒖,𝒗) 𝑥2 − 𝑦2
= 2
𝝏(𝒙,𝒚) 𝑥 + 𝑦2

Solution: Let f1 = 𝑥 2 + 𝑦 2 + 𝑢2 − 𝑣 2 and f2 = uv + xy

𝜕f1 𝜕f1 𝜕f2 𝜕f2
= 2x , = 2y , = y, =x
𝜕𝑥 𝜕𝑦 𝜕𝑥 𝜕𝑦
𝜕f1 𝜕f1
𝛛 (𝒇𝟏 ,𝒇𝟐 ) 𝜕𝑥 𝜕𝑦 2𝑥 2𝑦
= = = 2𝑥 2 − 2𝑦 2 = 2(𝑥 2 − 𝑦 2 )
𝛛(𝐱, 𝐲) 𝜕f2 𝜕f2 𝑦 𝑥
𝜕𝑥 𝜕𝑦
 𝜕f1 𝜕f1 𝜕f2 𝜕f2
𝜕𝑢
= 2u , 𝜕𝑣 = -2v , 𝜕𝑢 = v , 𝜕𝑣 = u
𝜕f1 𝜕f1
𝛛 (𝒇𝟏 ,𝒇𝟐 ) 𝜕𝑢 𝜕𝑣 2𝑢 −2𝑣 2 + 2𝑣 2 = 2(𝑢 2
= 𝜕f2 𝜕f2
= = 2𝑢 + 𝑣 2)
𝛛(𝐱, 𝐲) 𝑣 𝑢
𝜕𝑢 𝜕𝑣
𝛛 (𝒇𝟏 ,𝒇𝟐 )
𝛛 (𝐮, 𝐯) 𝛛(𝐱, 𝐲) 2(𝑥 2 − 𝑦 2 ) 𝑥2− 𝑦2
= (−𝟏)𝟐 = = 2 2
𝛛(𝐱,𝐲) 𝛛 (𝒇𝟏 ,𝒇𝟐 ) 2(𝑢2 + 𝑣 2 ) 𝑢 +𝑣
𝛛(𝐮, 𝐯)

Example 2) If 𝑢3 + v + w = x + 𝑦 2 + 𝑧 2 , u + 𝑣 3 + w = 𝑥 2 + y +
2 3 2 2 𝛛 (𝐮, 𝐯, 𝐰)
𝑧 , u + v + 𝑤 =𝑥 + 𝑦 + z, find
𝛛(𝐱, 𝐲, 𝐳)
Solution: Let,
𝒇𝟏 = 𝑢3 + v + w - x - 𝑦 2 − 𝑧 2
 𝒇𝟐 = u + 𝑣 3 + w − 𝑥 2 − y − 𝑧 2
𝒇𝟑 = u + v + 𝑤 3 =𝑥 2 + 𝑦 2 + z
𝜕f1 𝜕f2 𝜕f3 𝜕f1 𝜕f2 𝜕f3 𝜕f1
= -1, = -2x, = -2x, = -2y, = -1 = -2y, = -2z
𝜕𝑥 𝜕𝑥 𝜕𝑥 𝜕𝑦 𝜕𝑦 𝜕𝑦 𝜕𝑧
𝜕f2 𝜕f3
= -2z = -1
𝜕𝑧 𝜕𝑧
𝜕f1 𝜕f1 𝜕f1
𝜕𝑥 𝜕𝑦 𝜕𝑧
−1 −2𝑦 −2𝑧
𝛛 𝒇𝟏 ,𝒇𝟐 ,𝒇𝟑 𝜕f2 𝜕f2 𝜕f2
= 𝜕𝑥 𝜕𝑦 𝜕𝑧
= −2𝑥 −1 −2𝑧
𝛛(𝐱, 𝐲, 𝒛)
𝜕f3 𝜕f3 𝜕f3 −2𝑥 −2𝑧 −1
𝜕𝑥 𝜕𝑦 𝜕𝑧
1 2𝑦 2𝑧
= -1 2𝑥 1 2𝑧 = (-1)[1 – 4(xy + yz + zx) + 16xyz]
2𝑥 2𝑧 1
𝜕f1 2 𝜕f2 𝜕f3 𝜕f1 𝜕f2 𝜕f3
= 3𝑢 , =1, =1 , =1, = 3𝑣 2 , =1,
𝜕𝑢 𝜕𝑢 𝜕𝑢 𝜕𝑣 𝜕𝑣 𝜕𝑣
𝜕f1 𝜕f2 𝜕f3
=1 =1 = 3𝑤 2
𝜕𝑤 𝜕𝑤 𝜕𝑤
𝜕f1 𝜕f1 𝜕f1
𝜕𝑢 𝜕𝑣 𝜕𝑤
𝛛 𝒇𝟏 ,𝒇𝟐 ,𝒇𝟑 𝜕f2 𝜕f2 𝜕f2
=
𝛛(𝐮, 𝒗, 𝐰) 𝜕𝑢 𝜕𝑣 𝜕𝑤
𝜕f3 𝜕f3 𝜕f3
𝜕𝑢 𝜕𝑣 𝜕𝑤
2
3𝑢 1 1
= 1 3𝑣 2 1 =27𝑢2 𝑣 2 𝑤 2 - 3(𝑢2 + 𝑣 2 +𝑤 2 ) + 2
1 1 3𝑤 2
 𝜕 𝑓1 ,𝑓2 ,𝑓3
𝜕 (𝑢, 𝑣, 𝑤) 𝜕(𝑥, 𝑦, 𝑧)
= (−1)3 𝜕 (𝑓1 ,𝑓2 ,𝑓3 )
𝜕(𝑥, 𝑦, 𝑧)
𝜕(𝑢, 𝑣, 𝑤)

(−1)[1 – 4(xy + yz + zx) + 16xyz]

= (−1)3
27𝑢2 𝑣2 𝑤2 − 3(𝑢2+𝑣2 +𝑤 2 ) + 2
(−1)[1 – 4(xy + yz + zx) + 16xyz]
= (-1)
27𝑢2 𝑣2 𝑤2 − 3(𝑢2 +𝑣2 +𝑤2 ) + 2
1 – 4(xy + yz + zx) + 16xyz
=
27𝑢2 𝑣2 𝑤2 − 3(𝑢2+𝑣2 +𝑤2 ) + 2
𝝏 (𝒖, 𝒗, 𝒘) 1 – 4(xy + yz + zx) + 16xyz
=
𝝏(𝒙, 𝒚, 𝒛) 27𝒖𝟐 𝒗𝟐𝒘𝟐 − 3(𝒖𝟐+𝒗𝟐 +𝒘𝟐) + 2
 PARTIAL DERIVATIVES OF IMPLICIT FUNCTIONS
If u, v are implicit functions of x, y connected by f1 , f2 such that
f1 (u, v, x, y) = 0
f2 (u, v, x, y) = 0
then
𝜕f1 𝜕f1 𝜕𝑢 𝜕f1 𝜕𝑣
+ + =0 …(1)
𝜕𝑥 𝜕𝑢 𝜕𝑥 𝜕𝑣 𝜕𝑥
𝜕f1 𝜕f1 𝜕𝑢 𝜕f1 𝜕𝑣
+ + =0 …(2)
𝜕𝑦 𝜕𝑢 𝜕𝑦 𝜕𝑣 𝜕𝑦
Similarly,
𝜕f2 𝜕f2 𝜕𝑢 𝜕f2 𝜕𝑣
+ + =0 …(3)
𝜕𝑥 𝜕𝑢 𝜕𝑥 𝜕𝑣 𝜕𝑥
𝜕f2 𝜕f2 𝜕𝑢 𝜕f2 𝜕𝑣
+ + =0 …(4)
𝜕𝑦 𝜕𝑢 𝜕𝑦 𝜕𝑣 𝜕𝑦
 𝜕u 𝜕v
Solving equations (1) and (3) for and ,
𝜕𝑥 𝜕𝑥
𝜕f1 𝜕f1
𝜕𝑥 𝜕𝑣
𝜕f2 𝜕f2 𝛛 (𝒇𝟏 ,𝒇𝟐 )
𝜕u 𝜕𝑥 𝜕𝑣 𝛛(𝐱, 𝐯)
=- 𝜕f1 𝜕f1 =- 𝛛 (𝒇𝟏 ,𝒇𝟐 )
𝜕𝑥
𝜕𝑢 𝜕𝑣 𝛛(𝐮, 𝐯)
𝜕f2 𝜕f2
𝜕𝑢 𝜕𝑣
𝜕f1 𝜕f1
𝜕𝑢 𝜕𝑥
𝜕f2 𝜕f2 𝛛 (𝒇𝟏 ,𝒇𝟐 )
𝜕𝑣 𝜕𝑢 𝜕𝑥 𝛛(𝐮, 𝐱)
=- 𝜕f1 𝜕f1 =- 𝛛 (𝒇𝟏 ,𝒇𝟐 )
𝜕𝑥
𝜕𝑢 𝜕𝑣 𝛛(𝐮, 𝐯)
𝜕f2 𝜕f2
𝜕𝑢 𝜕𝑣
 𝜕u 𝜕v
Similarly, Solving equations (2) and (4) for and ,
𝜕𝑦 𝜕𝑦
𝜕f1 𝜕f1
𝜕𝑦 𝜕𝑣
𝜕f2 𝜕f2 𝛛 (𝒇𝟏 ,𝒇𝟐 )
𝜕u 𝜕𝑦 𝜕𝑣 𝛛(𝐲, 𝐯)
=- 𝜕f1 𝜕f1 =- 𝛛 (𝒇𝟏 ,𝒇𝟐 )
𝜕𝑥
𝜕𝑢 𝜕𝑣 𝛛(𝐮, 𝐯)
𝜕f2 𝜕f2
𝜕𝑢 𝜕𝑣
𝜕f1 𝜕f1
𝜕𝑢 𝜕𝑦
𝜕f2 𝜕f2 𝛛 (𝒇𝟏 ,𝒇𝟐 )
𝜕𝑣 𝜕𝑢 𝜕 𝛛(𝐮, 𝐲)
=- 𝜕f1 𝜕f1 =- 𝛛 (𝒇𝟏 ,𝒇𝟐 )
𝜕𝑥
𝜕𝑢 𝜕𝑣 𝛛(𝐮, 𝐯)
𝜕f2 𝜕f2
𝜕𝑢 𝜕𝑣
Similarly, if u, v, w be implicit functions of x, y, z connected by f1 ,
f2 , f3 such that
f1 (u, v, w, x, y, z) = 0
f2 (u, v, w, x, y, z) = 0
f3 (u, v, w, x, y, z) = 0
then
𝛛 (𝒇𝟏 ,𝒇𝟐 ,𝒇𝟑 )
𝜕u 𝛛(𝐱, 𝐯, 𝐰)
=- 𝛛 (𝒇𝟏 ,𝒇𝟐 ,𝒇𝟑 )
𝜕𝑥
𝛛(𝐮, 𝐯, 𝐰)
𝛛 (𝒇𝟏 ,𝒇𝟐 ,𝒇𝟑 )
𝜕𝑣 𝛛(𝐮, 𝐱, 𝐰)
=- 𝛛 (𝒇𝟏 ,𝒇𝟐 ,𝒇𝟑 )
𝜕𝑥
𝛛(𝐮, 𝐯, 𝐰)
 𝛛 (𝒇𝟏 ,𝒇𝟐 ,𝒇𝟑 )
𝜕𝑤 𝛛(𝐮, 𝐯, 𝐱)
=- 𝛛 (𝒇𝟏 ,𝒇𝟐 ,𝒇𝟑 )
𝜕𝑥
𝛛(𝐮, 𝐯, 𝐰)

and so on …
Example 1) If u = xyz, v = 𝑥 2 + 𝑦 2 + 𝑧 2 , w = x + y + z
𝜕𝑥
find
𝜕𝑢
Solution: Let, f1 = u - xyz
f2 = v - 𝑥 2 − 𝑦 2 - 𝑧 2
f3 = w - x - y - z
 𝜕f1 𝜕f1 𝜕f1
𝜕𝑢 𝜕𝑦 𝜕𝑧
𝛛 𝒇𝟏 ,𝒇𝟐 ,𝒇𝟑 𝜕f2 𝜕f2 𝜕f2
1 −𝑥𝑧 −𝑥𝑦
= 𝜕𝑢 𝜕𝑦 𝜕𝑧
= 0 −2𝑦 −2𝑧 = 2y – 2z
𝛛(𝐮, 𝒚, 𝐳)
𝜕f3 𝜕f3 𝜕f3 0 −1 −1
𝜕𝑢 𝜕𝑦 𝜕𝑧
𝛛 𝒇𝟏 ,𝒇𝟐 ,𝒇𝟑
= 2(y – z)
𝛛(𝐮, 𝒚, 𝐳) 𝜕f1 𝜕f1 𝜕f1
𝜕𝑥 𝜕𝑦 𝜕𝑧
𝜕f2 𝜕f2 𝜕f2
−𝑦𝑧 −𝑥𝑧 −𝑥𝑦
𝛛 𝒇𝟏 ,𝒇𝟐 ,𝒇𝟑
= 𝜕𝑥 𝜕𝑦 𝜕𝑧
= −2𝑥 −2𝑦 −2𝑧
𝛛(𝐮, 𝒚, 𝐳)
−1 −1 −1
𝜕f3 𝜕f3 𝜕f3
𝜕𝑥 𝜕𝑦 𝜕𝑧

−𝑦𝑧 −𝑧(𝑦 − 𝑥) −𝑦(𝑧 − 𝑥)

= −2𝑥 2(𝑥 − 𝑦) 2(𝑥 − 𝑧) ( By 𝐶2 − 𝐶1 , 𝐶3 − 𝐶1 )
1 −1 −1
 = 2(x – y)(y-z)(z-x)
𝛛 (𝒇𝟏 ,𝒇𝟐 ,𝒇𝟑 )
𝜕𝑥 𝛛(𝐮, 𝐲, 𝐳) 2(y – z)
=- =-
𝜕𝑢 𝛛 (𝒇𝟏 ,𝒇𝟐 ,𝒇𝟑 ) 2(x – y)(y−z)(z−x)
𝛛(𝐱,𝐲, 𝐳)

𝛛𝒙 1
=-
𝛛𝒖 (x – y)(z−x)
 EXERCISE:
Example 1) If u = x + y + z, v = 𝑥 2 + 𝑦 2 + 𝑧 2 , w = x + y + z= 𝑥 3 +
3 3 𝜕𝑥 (𝑦 −𝑧)
𝑦 + 𝑧 find =
𝜕𝑢 (𝑥 −𝑦)(𝑧 −𝑥)

Example 2) x = u + v, y = 𝑣 2 + 𝑤 2 , z = 𝑤 3 + 𝑢3 , Show that

𝜕𝑢 𝑢𝑣
=
𝜕𝑥 𝑥 −𝑦 (𝑧 −𝑥)
𝜕𝑢
Example 3) u + 𝑣2 =x,v + 𝑤2 =y,w+ 𝑢2 = z , find
𝜕𝑥
−1
Ans:
1+8𝑢𝑣𝑤
 FUNCTIONAL DEPENDENCE
Let u = f (x, y), v = φ(x, y) be two given differentiable functions
of the two independent variables x and y. Suppose these functions u
and v are connected by a relation F(u, v) = 0, where F is differentiable.
Then these functions u and v are said to be functionally dependent on
one another (i.e., one function say u is a function of the second
function v) if the partial derivatives ux , uy , vx and vy are not all zero
simultaneously.
Necessary and sufficient condition for functional dependence an be
expressed in terms of a determinant as follows: Differentiating F(u, v)
= 0 partially w.r.t. x and y, we get,
𝜕𝐹 𝜕𝑢 𝜕𝐹 𝜕𝑣
+ =0
𝜕𝑢 𝜕𝑥 𝜕𝑣 𝜕𝑥
 𝜕𝐹 𝜕𝑢 𝜕𝐹 𝜕𝑣
+ =0
𝜕𝑢 𝜕𝑦 𝜕𝑣 𝜕𝑦
A non-trivial solution 𝐹𝑢 ≠ 0, 𝐹𝑣 ≠ 0 to this system exists if the
coefficient determinant is zero.
𝑢 𝑥 𝑢𝑦 𝑢𝑥 𝑢𝑦
𝑣𝑥 𝑣𝑦 = 𝑣𝑥 𝑣𝑦 = 0
Result:
Two functions u and v are functionally dependent if their Jacobian
𝑢, 𝑣 𝜕(𝑢,𝑣) 𝑢𝑥 𝑢𝑦
J = = 𝑣 𝑣 =0
𝑥, 𝑦 𝜕(𝑥, 𝑦) 𝑥 𝑦

If Jacobian is not equal to zero, then u and v are said to be functionally

independent. Extending this concept, three given functions u(x, y, z), v(x, y,
z), w(x, y, z) of three independent variables x, y, z, connected by the relation
F(u, v, w) are functionally dependent if first order derivatives of u, v, w w.r.t.
x, y, z are not all zero simultaneously or if
 𝑢𝑥 𝑢𝑦 𝑢𝑧
𝑢, 𝑣,𝑤 𝜕(𝑢,𝑣, 𝑤)
J = = 𝑣𝑥 𝑣𝑦 𝑣𝑧 = 0
𝑥, 𝑦, 𝑧 𝜕(𝑥, 𝑦, 𝑧)
𝑤𝑥 𝑤𝑦 𝑤𝑧
If Jacobian is non-zero, the functions u, v, w are said to be
functionally independent.
Note: m functions of n variables are always functionally
dependent when m > n.
EXAMPLE : Determine which of the following functions are
functionally dependent. Find a functional relation between them
in case they are functionally dependent.
1) u = ex sin y , v = ex cos y
𝑢, 𝑣 𝜕(𝑢,𝑣) 𝑢𝑥 𝑢𝑦
Solution: J = = 𝑣 𝑣𝑦
𝑥, 𝑦 𝜕(𝑥, 𝑦) 𝑥
ex sin y ex cos y
= x
e cos y −ex sin y
= ex (−sin2 𝑦 − cos2 𝑦) = −ex ≠ 0
∴ u, v are functionally independent.
2) u = 𝑥 2 𝑒 −𝑦 cos ℎ 𝑧 , v = 𝑥 2 𝑒 −𝑦 sin ℎ 𝑧 , 𝑤 = 3𝑥 4 𝑒 −2𝑦
𝑢𝑥 𝑢 𝑦 𝑢𝑧
𝑢, 𝑣, 𝑤 𝜕(𝑢,𝑣, 𝑤)
Solutions: J = = 𝑣𝑥 𝑣𝑦 𝑣𝑧
𝑥, 𝑦, 𝑧 𝜕(𝑥, 𝑦, 𝑧)
𝑤𝑥 𝑤𝑦 𝑤𝑧
2𝑥𝑒 −𝑦 cos ℎ 𝑧 −𝑥 2 𝑒 −𝑦 cos ℎ 𝑧 𝑥 2 𝑒 −𝑦 sin ℎ 𝑧
= 2𝑥𝑒 −𝑦 sin ℎ 𝑧𝑥 −𝑥 2 𝑒 −𝑦 sin ℎ 𝑧 𝑥 2 𝑒 −𝑦 cos ℎ 𝑧
12𝑥 3 𝑒 −2𝑦 −6𝑥 4 𝑒 −2𝑦 0
= 12𝑥 7 𝑒 −4𝑦 (cosh2 𝑧 − sinh2 𝑧) − 12𝑥 7 𝑒 −4𝑦 (cosh2 𝑧 − sinh2 𝑧)
=0
∴ u, v, w are functionally dependent
3𝑢2 − 3𝑣 2 = 3(𝑥 4 𝑒 −2𝑦 cosh2 𝑧 − 𝑥 4 𝑒 −2𝑦 sinh2 𝑧) = 3 𝑥 4 𝑒 −2𝑦 = w
 EXERCISE:
Determine which of the following functions are functionally
dependent. Find a functional relation between them in case they
are functionally dependent.
𝑥2 − 𝑦2 2𝑥𝑦 2 + 𝑣2 = 1
1. u = 2 , v = Ans: Dependent: 𝑢
𝑥 + 𝑦2 𝑥2 + 𝑦2
2. u = sin x + sin y; v = sin(x + y) Ans: Independent
3. u = 𝑥 2 + 𝑦 2 + 2xy + 2x + 2y, v = 𝑒 𝑥 𝑒 𝑦
Ans: Dependent, u = (log 𝑣)2 + 2 log v
4. u = 4𝑥 2 + 9𝑦 2 + 16𝑧 2 , v = 2x + 3y + 4z, w = 12xy + 16xz + 24yz
Ans: Dependent, 𝑦 2 − u − w = 0
 ERRORS AND APPROXIMATIONS
If z = f (x, y), then the total differential of z, denoted by dz , is
given by
𝜕𝑓 𝜕𝑓
dz = 𝜕𝑥
𝑑𝑥 + 𝑑𝑦
𝜕𝑦
… (1)
If x increases by an increment ∆x and y increases by an
increment ∆y, then the total increment in z, denoted by ∆z, is
∆z = 𝑓(𝑥 + ∆𝑥, y+ ∆y) − f(x, y)
𝑓(𝑥 + ∆𝑥, y+ ∆y) = f(x, y) − ∆z
But ∆z ≈ dz. Replacing dz by (1), we have the approximate formula
 𝝏𝒇(𝒙, 𝒚) 𝝏𝒇(𝒙, 𝒚)
𝒇(𝒙 + ∆𝒙, y+ ∆𝒚) ≈ f(x, y) + 𝒅𝒙 + … (𝟐)
𝝏𝒙 𝝏𝒚

Thus the value of a function at a point an be obtained approximately if the

value of the function and its derivatives at a neighbouring point are known. Errors in
measured data will result in error in the estimated value. For example, small error in
the measurement of radius of a sphere will introduce a corresponding error in the
𝟒𝝅
volume of the sphere V = 𝒓𝟑 . Absolute error, denoted by ∆𝑥, is the error in x. Error
𝟑
∆𝑥 𝑑𝑥
may be positive or negative. Relative or proportional error in x is or since ∆𝑥 =
𝑥 𝑥
𝑑𝑥
dx. Percentage error in x is given by 100 .
𝑥
Example: If the error is 0.05 m in measuring a dimension of length of 2 m, then the
0.05
absolute error is 0.05 m, the relative error is = 0.025 m and the percentage error
2
is 100 × 0.025 = 2.5.
For a function z = f (x, y), the actual error z in z an be calculated
approximately by using the differential 𝑑z, for given errors ∆𝑥 , ∆𝑦 in x and y
respectively.
Example 1: Using differentials, calculate approximately the value
of f (0.999) where f (x) = 2𝑥 4 + 7𝑥 3 − 8𝑥 2 + 3x + 1.
Solution: Choose x = 1 and ∆𝑥 = −0.001 so that
x + ∆𝑥 = 1 + (−0.001) = 0.999.
Thus to calculate, f (0.999) = f (x + ∆𝑥 ) = f (x) + ∆f
≈ f (x) + f (x) x ≈ f (1) + f (1)(−0.001).
Here f (1) = 2.1 + 7.1 − 8.1 + 3.1 + 1 = 5 and
f (x) =8𝑥 3 + 21𝑥 2 + 16x + 3 so
f’(1) = 8.1 + 21.1 + 16.1 + 3 = 16.
Thus the approximate value of
f (0.999) ≈ 5 + 16(−0.001) = 5 − 0.016 = 4.984.
Example 2: The diameter and height of a right circular cylinder are
measured to be 5 and 8 inches respectively. If each of these
dimensions may be in error by ±0.1 inch, find the relative
percentage error in volume of the cylinder.
Solution:
Let x be the diameter and y be the height of the cylinder then
𝑥 2
V = volume of cylinder = π y
2
1 𝑥
= π 𝑥 2y ( Since radius = )
4 2
1 1
Differential : dV = π. 2x. y + π 𝑥 2 dy
4 4
𝑑𝑣 𝑑𝑥 𝑑𝑦
100 × = 2 × 100 + × 100
𝑣 𝑥 𝑦
Given x = diameter = 5 inches, height = y = 8 inches, error
dx = dy = ± 0.1. So
𝑑𝑣 0.1 0.1
100 × =± 2 × 100 + × 100 = ± 0.0525
𝑣 5 8
Thus the percentage error in volume is ±0.0525.
 EXERCISE:
Example 1) Using differential al ulate approximately (a) 2.983 (b)
1
1
4.05 (c) (d) (83.7)4 (e) y(1.997) where y(x)=𝑥 4 − 2𝑥 3 + 9x
2.1
+7
Hint: Choose y = f (x), x and ∆x as follows
(a) 𝑥 3 , x = 3, ∆x = −0.02 (b) y = 𝑥, x = 4, ∆x = 0.5
1
1
c. y = , x = 2, ∆x = 0.1 (d) y = 𝑥 , x = 81, ∆x = 2.7
4
𝑥
Ans: (a) 26.46 (b) 2.13 (c) 0.475 (d) 3.025 (e) 24.949
 Example 2) If the radius of a sphere is measured as 5 inches with
a possible error of 0.02 inches, find approximately the greatest
Possible error and per entage error in the omputed value of the volume.
𝟒𝝅 𝟑 𝟐 𝟓𝟎𝟎𝝅
Hint: V = 𝒓 ,dv = 4π𝒓 dr, r = 5, dr = 0.02, dV = ±2π, V = .
𝟑 𝟑
Ans: ±0.012, ±1.2%
Example 3) Find the possible error in (a) surface area (b) volume of a sphere
of radius r if r is measured as 18.5 inches with a possible error of 0.1 inch.
Ans. (a) 14.8π sq. in (b) 136.9π cubic inch
Example 4) Considering the area of a circular ring as an increment of area of
a circle, find approximately the area of a ring whose inner and outer radii are
3 in and 3.02 in respectively.
Hint: A = π𝑟 2 , Area of circular ring =A(3.02) − A(3) = 2πr dr with r = 3,
dr = 0.02 Ans. 0.12π
 Maxima and Minima of
functions of two variables
 INTRODUCTION
To optimize something means to maximize or minimize
some aspects of it. An important application of multivariable
differential calculus is finding the maximum and minimum values
of functions of several variables and determining where they
occur. In the study of stability of the equilibrium states of
mechanical and physical systems, determination of extrema is of
greatest importance. Lagrange multipliers method developed by
Lagrange in 1755 is a powerful method for finding extreme values
of constrained functions in economics, in designing multistage
rockets in engineering, in geometry etc.
 MAXIMA AND MINIMA
Let u = f(x, y) be a continuous function of x and y. Thenu will
be maximum at x = a, y = b if f(a, b) > f (a+h, b+k) and will be
minimum at x = a , y = b, if f(a, b) < f (a+h, b+k) for small positive
or negative values of h and k.
The point at which function f(x, y) is either maximum or
minimum is known as stationary point. The value of the function at
stationary point is known as extreme (maximum or minimum)
value of function f (x, y).
 WORKING RULE
To determine the maxima and minima (extreme values) of a
function f(x, y)
𝜕𝑓 𝜕𝑓
Step I: Solve = 0 and = 0 simultaneously for x and y
𝜕𝑥 𝜕𝑦
𝜕2 𝑓 𝜕2 𝑓 𝜕2 𝑓
Step II: Obtain the values of r= 2 , s= ,t = 2
𝜕 𝑥 𝜕𝑥 𝜕𝑦 𝜕 𝑦

Step III:
(i) If 𝒓𝒕 − 𝒔𝟐 > 0 and r < 0 (or t < 0) at (a, b) then f(x, y) is
máximum at (a, b) and the máximum value of the functions is
f(a, b)
(ii) If 𝒓𝒕 − 𝒔𝟐 > 0 and r > 0 (or t > 0) at (a, b) then f(x, y) is
minimum at (a, b) and the minimum value of the functions is
f(a, b)
(iii) If 𝒓𝒕 − 𝒔𝟐 < 0 at (a, b) then f(x, y) is neither máximum nor
minimum at (a, b) such a point is known as saddle point.
(iv) If 𝒓𝒕 − 𝒔𝟐 = 0 at (a, b) then no conclusion can be made about
the extreme values of f(x, y) and further investigation is required.
Example 1 : Discuss the maxima and minima of the function
𝑥 2 + 𝑦 2 +6𝑥 + 12
Solution: Let, f(x, y) = 𝑥 2 + 𝑦 2 +6𝑥 + 12
Step I : For extreme values,
𝜕𝑓
= 0 ⇒ 2x + 6 = 0 ⇒ 2(x + 3) = 0 ⇒ x + 3 = 0 ⇒ x = - 3
𝜕𝑥
⇒x=-3
𝜕𝑓
= 0 ⇒ 2y = 0 ⇒ y = 0
𝜕𝑦

⇒y=0
Stationary point is (−3, 0)
 𝜕2 𝑓 𝜕2 𝑓 𝜕2 𝑓
Step II: r = 𝜕2 𝑥
=2,s=
𝜕𝑥 𝜕𝑦
= 0, t = 2
𝜕 𝑦
= 2.
Step III: At (-3, 0)
𝐫𝐭 − 𝐬𝟐 = 2(2) – 0 = 4 > 0 and r > 0
Hence, f(x, y) is minimum at (-3, 0)
𝑓𝑚𝑖𝑛 = (−3)2 + 0 + 6 −3 + 12 = 3
Example 2)Find the extreme values of sin x + sin y + sin (x + y)
Solution: f(x, y) = sin x + sin y + sin (x + y)
: Let, f(x, y) = 𝑥 2 + 𝑦 2 +6𝑥 + 12
Step I : For extreme values,
𝜕𝑓
= 0 ⇒ cos x + cos (x + y) = 0 … (1)
𝜕𝑥
 𝜕𝑓
𝜕𝑦
=0
⇒ cos y + cos (x + y)= 0 … (2)
Equating Eqs (1) and (2)
cos x + cos (x + y) = cos y + cos (x + y)
cos x = cos y
x=y
Substituting y = x in equation (1)
cos x + cos 2x = 0
cos x = - cos 2x
cos x = cos (𝜋 - 2x) or cos (𝜋 + 2x)
x = 𝜋 - 2x or 𝜋 + 2x
𝜋 𝜋
x=3,- 𝜋 and y= 3,- 𝜋
𝜋 𝜋
Stationary points are ,
3 3
, − 𝜋 ,− 𝜋
 𝜕2 𝑓
Step II: r = 2 = - sin x – sin (x + y)
𝜕 𝑥
,
𝜕2 𝑓
s= = - sin (x + y),
𝜕𝑥 𝜕𝑦
𝜕2 𝑓
t= 2
𝜕 𝑦
= - sin y - sin (x + y)
Step III:

(x, y) r s t 𝐫𝐭 − 𝐬 𝟐 Conclusion
𝜋 𝜋 − 3 − 3 − 3 9 Maximum
, > 0 and r < 0
3 3 2 4
− 𝜋 ,− 𝜋 0 0 0 0 No Conclusion
π π
Hence f (x, y) is máximum at ,
3 3
π π 2π 3 3 3 3 3
𝑓𝑚𝑎𝑥 = sin +sin + sin = + + =
3 3 3 2 2 2 2
 EXERCISE:
Example 1) Find the maximum and minimum values of
f (𝑥, 𝑦) = 𝑥 3 + 3𝑥𝑦 2 − 15𝑥 2 − 15𝑦 2 +72𝑥.
Stationary points are (6, 0),(4, 0),(5, 1),(5, −1)
Example 2) Find the extrema of
2
f (𝑥, 𝑦) = (𝑥 2 2
+ 𝑦 )𝑒 6𝑥+ 2𝑥

Ans. minima at (0,0) (minimum value 0) and at(−1, 0) (minimum

−4 −1
value 𝑒 ). Saddle point at ,0
2
Example 3) Test the functions for maxima, minima and saddle
points: 𝑥 4 + 𝑦 4 − 𝑥 2 − 𝑦 2 + 1
Ans: maximum at (0,0). maximum value is 1. minima at four
1 1 1
points (± , ± ). minimum value at these 4 points is .
2 2 2
1 1
Saddle points at four points (0, ± ), (± , 0)
2 2
 Lagrange’s Method of
Undetermined Multipliers
Introduction:
This method is used to find “stationary values” or “extreme values” or
“terminal values” of a function of several variables (both dependent
and independent variables) which are connected by some given
relations or conditions known as constraint.
Here we shall consider a function of three variables with either one or
two conditions are given.
Note: The drawback of this method is that we can not determine
the nature of the stationary values that means whether they are
maximum or minimum.
If 𝑓(𝑥, 𝑦, 𝑧) is a function of three independent variables,
where x, y, z are related by known constraint g 𝑥, 𝑦, 𝑧 = 0, then
the problem of constrained extrema consists of finding the
Extrema of 𝑢 = 𝑓(𝑥, 𝑦, 𝑧) …………….(1)
subject to g 𝑥, 𝑦, 𝑧 = 0 .……………(2)
This problem can be solved by three methods
1. Elimination method
2. Implicit differentiation method
3. Lagrange’s multiplier’s method
Lagrange’s multiplier’s method :
The very useful Lagrange’s method of undetermined multiplier’s
introduces an additional unknown constant 𝜆 known as Lagrange’s
multiplier. Since the stationary values occur when
𝑓𝑥 = 𝑓𝑦 = 𝑓𝑧 =0 so the total differential
𝑑𝑓 = 𝑓𝑥 𝑑𝑥 + 𝑓𝑦 𝑑𝑦 + 𝑓𝑧 𝑑𝑧 = 0 ………(3)
total differential of constraint (2) is
𝑑𝑔 = 𝑔𝑥 𝑑𝑥 + 𝑔𝑦 𝑑𝑦+ 𝑔𝑧 𝑑𝑧 = 0 ………(4)
Multiply (4) by 𝜆 and adding to (3) we get
𝑓𝑥 + 𝜆𝑔𝑥 𝑑𝑥 + 𝑓𝑦 + 𝜆𝑔𝑦 𝑑𝑦 + 𝑓𝑧 + 𝜆𝑔𝑧 𝑑𝑧 = 0 ……..(5)
Since x, y, z are independent variables (5) implies that
𝑓𝑥 + 𝜆𝑔𝑥 = 0 ……….(6)
𝑓𝑥 + 𝜆𝑔𝑥 = 0 ……….(7)
𝑓𝑥 + 𝜆𝑔𝑥 = 0 ……….(8)
Solving the four equations (2), (6), (7) and (8) for the four
unknowns x, y, z and 𝜆. We get the required stationary points of
𝑓 𝑥, 𝑦, 𝑧 subject to the constraint (2).
Computational approach:
Following are the steps involved
Step-I: Form the auxiliary equation
𝐹 𝑥, 𝑦, 𝑧 = 𝑢 𝑥, 𝑦, 𝑧 + 𝜆𝜙(𝑥, 𝑦, 𝑧) ….(1)
Step-II: Partially differentiate (1) w. r. t. x, y, z respectively and
equate it to zero 𝐹𝑥 = 0, 𝐹𝑦 = 0, 𝐹𝑧 = 0
Step-III: Solve above three equations and constraint equation for
Lagrange’s multiplier 𝜆 and stationary values x, y, z.
Advantages:

1. The stationary values can be determined even without determining

x, y, z explicitly.
2. This method can be extended to a function of several variables and
subject to many more constraints/conditions by forming auxiliary
equation. 𝐹 = 𝑓 + σ𝑛𝑖=1 𝜆𝑖 𝜙𝑖
The stationary values are obtained by solving (n + m) equations
for n variables and m Lagrange's multipliers.
Examples:
Ex.1. Divide 24 into three parts such that the continued product of the
first, square of the second and cube of the third may be maximum.
Solution: Divide 24 into three parts as
First part = x, Second part = y, Third part = z
let u = f(x, y, z)= x𝑦 2 𝑧 3 _________(1)
under the condition 𝜙 = 𝑥 + 𝑦 + 𝑧 − 24 = 0 _________(2)
Construct the function F = 𝑢 + 𝜆𝜙
F = x𝑦 2 𝑧 3 + 𝜆(𝑥 + 𝑦 + 𝑧 − 24)
Form the equation:
 𝜕𝐹
= 0 ⟹ 𝑦 2 𝑧 3 + 𝜆 = 0 _________(3)
𝜕𝑥
𝜕𝐹
= 0 ⟹ 2x𝑦𝑧 3 + 𝜆 = 0 _________(4)
𝜕𝑦
𝜕𝐹
= 0 ⟹ 3x𝑦 2 𝑧 2 + 𝜆 = 0 _________(5)
𝜕𝑧
we eliminate x, y, z and 𝜆 using equations (1) to (5)
From (3) (4) and (5)
𝑦 2 𝑧 3 = 2x𝑦𝑧 3 = 3x𝑦 2 𝑧 2
Dividing by x𝑦 2 𝑧 3 we get
1 2 3
= = = 𝑘(𝑠𝑎𝑦)
𝑥 𝑦 𝑧
1 2 3
⟹ 𝑥= ,𝑦 = ,𝑧 =
𝑘 𝑘 𝑘
 Substituting in (2) we get
1 2 3
+ + = 24 ⟹ 6 = 24k
𝑘 𝑘 𝑘
1
⟹ 𝑘= ⟹ 𝑥 = 4, 𝑦 = 8, 𝑧 = 12
4
∴ We divide 24 into three parts as 4, 8 and 12.

Ex.2. Use Lagrange’s method to find the minimum distance from origin
to the plane 3𝑥 + 2𝑦 + 𝑧 = 12.
Solution: Let 𝑃(𝑥, 𝑦, 𝑧) be any point on the plane 3𝑥 + 2𝑦 + 𝑧 = 12
distance between origin O and point P is
𝑑 𝑂𝑃 = 𝑥 2 + 𝑦 2 + 𝑧 2 ⟹ [𝑑 𝑂𝑃 ]2 = 𝑥 2 + 𝑦 2 + 𝑧 2
Let 𝑢 = 𝑓 𝑥, 𝑦, 𝑧 = 𝑥 2 + 𝑦 2 + 𝑧 2 _________(1)
under the condition 𝜙 = 3𝑥 + 2𝑦 + 𝑧 − 12 = 0 _________(2)
Construct the function 𝐹 = 𝑢 + 𝜆𝜙
𝐹 = 𝑥 2 + 𝑦 2 + 𝑧 2 + 𝜆 (3𝑥 + 2𝑦 + 𝑧 − 12)
Form the equation:
𝜕𝐹
= 0 ⟹ 2x + 3𝜆 = 0 _________(3)
𝜕𝑥
𝜕𝐹
= 0 ⟹ 2𝑦 + 2𝜆 = 0 _________(4)
𝜕𝑦
𝜕𝐹
= 0 ⟹ 2z + 𝜆 = 0 _________(5)
𝜕𝑧
we eliminate x, y, z and 𝜆 using equations (1) to (5)
From (3) (4) and (5)
2𝑥 3𝑘 𝑘
= 𝑦 = 2𝑧 = k (say) ⟹ 𝑥 = ,𝑦 = 𝑘, 𝑧 =
3 2 2
 Substituting in (2) we get
3𝑘 𝑘 12
+ 2𝑘 + = 12 ⟹ 𝑘 =
2 2 7
18 12 6
⟹ 𝑥= ,𝑦 = ,𝑧 =
7 7 7

18 2 12 2 6 2 504
⟹ 𝑑 𝑂𝑃 = + + =
7 7 7 7

Ex.3. Find the points on the surface 𝑧 2 = 𝑥𝑦 + 1 nearest to the origin,

by using Lagrange’s method.
Solution: Let 𝑃(𝑥, 𝑦, 𝑧) be any point on the surface 𝑧 2 = 𝑥𝑦 + 1
distance between origin O and point P is
𝑑 𝑂𝑃 = 𝑥 2 + 𝑦 2 + 𝑧 2 ⟹ [𝑑 𝑂𝑃 ]2 = 𝑥 2 + 𝑦 2 + 𝑧 2
Let 𝑢 = 𝑓 𝑥, 𝑦, 𝑧 = 𝑥 2 + 𝑦 2 + 𝑧 2 _________(1)
under the condition 𝜙 = 𝑧 2 − 𝑥𝑦 − 1 = 0 _________(2)
Construct the function 𝐹 = 𝑢 + 𝜆𝜙
𝐹 = 𝑥 2 + 𝑦 2 + 𝑧 2 + 𝜆 (𝑧 2 − 𝑥𝑦 − 1)
Form the equation:
𝜕𝐹
= 0 ⟹ 2x − 𝜆𝑦 = 0 _________(3)
𝜕𝑥
𝜕𝐹
= 0 ⟹ 2𝑦 − 𝜆𝑥 = 0 _________(4)
𝜕𝑦
𝜕𝐹
= 0 ⟹ 2𝑧 + 2𝜆𝑧 = 0 _________(5)
𝜕𝑧
we eliminate x, y, z and 𝜆 using equations (1) to (5)
From (5) 𝑧 1 + 𝜆 = 0 ⟹ 𝜆 = −1
 Put in (3) and (4)
2𝑥 + 𝑦 = 0, 2𝑦 + 𝑥 = 0
⟹ 𝑥 = 0, 𝑦 = 0 substituting in (2) 𝑧 2 = 1 ⟹ 𝑧 = ±1
∴ (0, 0, ±1) are the nearest points on the surface from origin.
Examples for Practice:
Ex.1. Prove that the stationary value of 𝑥 𝑚 𝑦 𝑛 𝑧 𝑝 under the condition
𝑎 𝑚+𝑛+𝑝
𝑚 𝑛 𝑝
𝑥 + 𝑦 + 𝑧 = 𝑎 𝑖𝑠 𝑚 𝑛 𝑝
𝑚+𝑛+𝑝

Ex.2. As the dimensions of triangle ABC are varied show that the
maximum value of cos 𝐴 cos 𝐵 cos 𝐶 is obtained when the
triangle is equilateral.
 𝑥2 𝑦2 𝑧2
Ex.3. If 𝑢 = + + , where 𝑥 + 𝑦 + 𝑧 = 1
𝑎3 𝑏3 𝑐3
then Prove that the stationary values of u is given by
𝑎3 𝑏3 𝑐3
𝑥= ,𝑦 = ,𝑧
= 3 3 3
𝑎3 +𝑏 3 +𝑐 3 𝑎3 +𝑏 3 +𝑐 3 𝑎 +𝑏 +𝑐
Ex.4. Show that the stationary value of 𝑎3 𝑥 2 + 𝑏 3 𝑦 2 + 𝑐 3 𝑧 2 , where
1 1 1 𝑎+𝑏+𝑐 𝑎+𝑏+𝑐 𝑎+𝑏+𝑐
+ + = 1 is given by 𝑥 = ,𝑦 = ,𝑧 =
𝑥 𝑦 𝑧 𝑎 𝑏 𝑐

Ex.5. A space probe in the shape of the ellipsoid 4𝑥 2 + 𝑦 2 + 4𝑧 2 = 16

enters the earth’s atmosphere and its surface begins to heat after
one hour, the temperature at the point (𝑥, 𝑦, 𝑧) on the surface of the
probe is 𝑇 𝑥, 𝑦, 𝑧 = 8𝑥 2 + 4𝑦𝑧 − 16𝑧 + 600. Find the hottest point
on the probe.