CG Unit-2
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AKASH NAYAKCG Unit-2
Uploaded by
AKASH NAYAK NIT-2
U
AREA FILLING
Seed Fill Algorithm
he Seed Fill Algorithm is a method in computer graphics used to fill a connected area
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starting from a seed pixel (initial point) inside the region. It works by spreading outwards
from the seed and filling neighboring pixels until it reaches a boundary or a different
color.
Types of Seed Fill Algorithms:
1. Flood Fill Algorithm
Fills all connected pixels of the same color as the seed.
2. Boundary Fill Algorithm
Fills pixels until a specific boundary color is encountered.
Boundary Fill Algorithm
● T he boundary filling algorithm is applied for filling an area of connected pixels
with a specific color other than the boundary color. It requires a boundary of the
same color. It fills all the connected areas until it reaches a boundary.
● The algorithm starts from a point (usually inside the area to be filled) and
changes the color of all adjacent pixels that match the starting pixel.
● In polygon filling, the goal is to color the inside of a polygon. It assumes
the boundary color is different and it remains intact.
● TheBoundary-fill Algorithm is Used in Computer Graphicsto fill a Closed Shape
( like a circle or any drawn figure) With Color.
It starts filling from an inside point & spreads outward until it reaches the
●
Boundary Of the Shape.
How does it work ?
. Choose a starting point inside the shape.
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2. Check the neighboring pixels:
● If the neighboring pixel is not a boundary color, fill it with the chosen color.
● Repeat this process for all connected pixels until the whole shape is filled.
et us see the example of how 4-connected boundary filling is working with. Initially we
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have a polygon with a blue boundary.
Now, pick a seed at the center and its color is red.
fter that, it will expand using 4-connected pixels and the nearest 4 pixels are
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turned red.
hen again, the 4 connected pixels of the newly colored pixels will be turned red
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but here all pixels which are colored before will not be affected.
And finally, it will be filled like below −
Types Of Boundary -fill
There are two ways to check & fill neighboring pixels.
1. 4-Connected Fill ( Simple, But may leave Gaps )
● Fills pixels in four directions: Left,Right,Up,Down.
● Might Not Fill Complex Shapes Properly Bcz Diagonal pixels are Ignored.
2. 8-Connected Fill ( More Complete Fill )
● Fills pixels in Eight Directions : Left, Right, Up, Down & The Four Diagonals.
● Better For Complex Shapes Since It Ensures All Areas Get Filled.
Recursive vs Efficient Approach
ecursive Approach:The algorithm Keeps Calling Itselffor Every Neighboring Pixel ,
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Which may Cause too much memory usage .
fficient Approach: Instead of checking each pixelSeparately , the algorithm fills
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Whole Horizontal lines (Spans ) at once, Reducing the no of Recursive Laws.
Algorithm:
oundary (x,y,f,b)
B
{
If (get pixel (x,y)!=b
&&
Get pixel (x,y)!=f)
{
utpixel (x,y,f)
P
Boundary (x+1,y,f,b)
Boundary (x,y+1,f,b)
Boundary (x-1,y,f,b)
Boundary (x,y-1,f,b)
Boundary (x-1,y-1,f,b)
Boundary (x-1,y+1,f,b)
Boundary (x+1,y-1,f,b)
Boundary (x+1,y+1,f,b)
}
}
🔸 Function Signature
Boundary(x, y, f, b)
x, y: Coordinates of the current pixel (seed point).
f: Fill color – the color you want to apply to theregion.
b: Boundary color – the color that acts as the limitfor filling.
🔸 Condition
if (getpixel(x, y) != b && getpixel(x, y) != f)
● This checks whether the current pixel is:
○ Not the boundary color (
b)
○ Not already filled with the fill color (
f)
If both conditions are true, it means the pixel is part of the area to be filled.
Advantages and Disadvantages of Boundary Fill Algorithm
he boundary fill algorithmis easy to understandand simple to implement. It can
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handle polygons with complex and irregular shapes, as long as the boundaries are
well-defined.
n the downside, the boundary fill algorithm can beslow for large polygons, especially
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in the recursive version, which might cause stack overflow. The fill is uncontrolled
beyond the boundary condition, so filling precision is determined by the boundary's
accuracy.
Flood Fill Algorithm
● F lood Fill is a coloring algorithm that starts from one pixel (called the seed) and
fills all the nearby pixels that have the same color as the starting pixel, replacing
them with a new color.
● Flood fill checks a pixel, and if it has the target color, it changes it to a new color
and then checks its neighbors (left, right, top, bottom – or all 8 directions). This
repeats until all connected same-color pixels are filled.
● The Flood-Fill Algorithm is Used to Fill an enclosed area with a Different Color,
just like a paint bucket tool in ms-paint.
How does it work ?
1.Choose a starting pixel.
● Pick a pixel inside the area you want to fill.
2.Check the Pixel’s color.
● If the pixel has the original color (The one wewant to replace),continue.
● If the pixel is a Boundary or Different color, stop.
3. Change the Pixels color.
● Replace it with the new color.
4. Move to Neighboring pixels.
● The algorithm moves left, right, up & down (4-Connected).
● If using 8-connected , it moves diagonally too.
5. Repeat until the Entire Area is Filled .
Now, pick a seed at the center and its color is red.
fter that, it will expand using 4-connected pixels and the nearest 4 pixels are
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turned red.
hen again the 4 connected pixels of the newly colored pixels will be turned red
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but here all pixels which are colored before will not be affected.
And finally, it will be filled like below −
Types Of Flood-fill
There are two ways to check & fill neighboring pixels.
1. 4-Connected Fill ( Simple, But may leave Gaps )
● Fills pixels in four directions: Left,Right,Up,Down.
● Might Not Fill Complex Shapes Properly Bcz Diagonal pixels are Ignored.
2. 8-Connected Fill ( More Complete Fill )
● Fills pixels in Eight Directions : Left, Right, Up, Down & The Four Diagonals.
● Better For Complex Shapes Since It Ensures All Areas Get Filled.
Algorithm:
lood(x,y,n,o)
F
{
If (get pixel (x,y)==0)
{
Putpixel(x,y,n)
lood(x+1,y,n,o);
F
Flood(x,y+1,n,o);
Flood(x-1,y,n,o);
Flood(x,y-1,n,o);
Flood(x-1,y-1,n,o);
Flood(x-1,y+1,n,o);
Flood(x+1,y-1,n,o);
Flood(x+1,y+1,n,o);
}
}
lood(x, y, n, o)
F
Flood
This is a recursive function named .
Parameters:
●
x, y
: Coordinates of the current pixel.
●
n: New color to fill (the color you want to apply).
● o
: Old color (the color to be replaced — usually thecolor of the pixel at the
starting point).
if (getpixel(x, y) == 0)
(x, y)is color
This checks if the pixel at 0.
o.
So that it fills all pixels with the same original color
putpixel(x, y, n);
(x, y)to the new color
Changes the pixel at n.
Advantages and Disadvantages of Flood Fill Algorithm
Advantages:-
1. Simple to implement− The algorithm is easy to codeand understand.
2. Efficient for irregular regions− It can fill irregularshapes where the
boundaries are not clear-cut.
Disadvantages:-
1. Memory intensive −Flood-fill requires significantmemory, especially
hen filling large areas or using a recursive approach.
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2. Slow performance− The algorithm can be slower comparedto other
filling algorithms, especially if the region is large.
Feature Flood-Fill Boundary-Fill
Fills based on Region color Boundary color
Stops when ifferent color pixel is
D Boundary color is reached
reached
Common use eplacing a specific color
R Filling closed shapes
region
isk of
R igher (especially large
H ower (contained by
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overflow areas) boundary)
Requires Background (region) color Boundary color
Scan Line Algorithm
hescanlinealgorithmisanefficientmethodforfillingpolygonswithcolor.This
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algorithmworksbydividingthepolygonintohorizontallines,calledscanlines.
Filling the pixels between pairs of intersections.
Basics of Scanline Polygon Filling
canlinefillingistheprocessofcoloringtheinteriorpixelsofapolygonbyusing
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horizontal lines, known as scanlines. The algorithm operates by moving from
the bottom of the polygon to the top, line by line.
t each scanline, it checks for intersections with the polygon's edges. Whena
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scanline intersects with a polygon edge, the algorithm determines the region
between pairs of intersections and fills it with color.
🖋️ How Scanline Filling Works – Step-by-Step
🧠 Imagine This:
hink of drawing a polygon on paper using a pen that moveshorizontally line by line(like a
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scanner). Each line is called ascanline.
✅ Step-by-Step Procedure:
1. Start from the Top
● B
egin from thetop y-coordinateof the polygon andmovedownwardone row at a time
(y = ymax to ymin).
2. Check Each Scanline
● For each horizontal scanline (y):
○ Find where it crosses the polygon edges(called intersectionpoints).
○ Mark these intersection points (blue dots).
3. Sort Intersection Points
● Sort the x-values of the intersection pointsfromleft to right.
4. Draw Between Pairs
● Group the intersection points intopairs: (x1, x2),(x3, x4), etc.
● For each pair, draw a horizontal linebetween them.
5. Repeat
● Move down to the next scanline (y = y - 1) and repeat the above steps.
⚠️
Special Case: When Scanline Hits a Polygon Corner
(Vertex)
ometimes the scanline goes exactly through acorner pointof the polygon (a red dot). You
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must treat this carefully to avoidextra linesormissing fill.
👇 Here's How to Handle:
📍 Case 1: Same-Side Intersections
● Both edges from the vertex are eitheraboveorbelowthe scanline.
● ✅ Treat the vertex astwo separate intersection points.
📍 Case 2: Opposite-Side Intersections
● One edge goesup, the other goesdownfrom the vertex.
● ✅ Treat the vertex asonly one intersection point.
🔄 Steps in Simple Language:
1. Input number of corners (vertices)
Ask the user how many corners the polygon has (
n ).
2. Input coordinates of all corners
xand
Get the ypositions of all
ncorners. Storethem in two arrays:
x[]
y[]
and .
3. Find top and bottom of the polygon
Find theminimum y(bottom of polygon)(ymin)andmaximum y(top
of polygon)(ymax). These help define the verticalrange of scan lines.
4. Store edge information
For every edge (line between two corners), store:
○ x of the starting point (
x1)
○ y of the upper point (
y1) and lower point (
y2)
○ x-increment value (
Ax
) to move horizontally betweenscan lines
What I meant to say:
" Ax tells us how much the x-position of an edge's intersection point
changes as we go from one scan line to the next downward."
🔁
Make surey1is always greater than
y2by swappingif needed (to make
edge go from top to bottom).
5. Sort edges smartly
Sort all edges using:
y1(top edge comes first)
○ First: bigger
y2
○ Then: bigger
○ T
hen: smaller x2
(This helps in processing scan lines more efficiently)
6. Start from the top (y = ymax)
Begin the scan line from the highest y-value and move downward.
7. Find which edges are currently active (used for filling)
y
For the current scan line , check each edge:
y1and
○ If y lies between y2
, the edge isactive
y > y2 and y ≤ y1
○ Else, ignore it for now
8. Calculate x-intersections with the scan line
For eachactive edge, find where it cuts the scanline (x-intersect):
x1
○ First time: use
x = x + Ax
○ Next times: use formula
Axis calculated from the edge's slope.
here
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x-intersect = x-intersect + Ax (xi+1=xi+
○ Ax)
○ where Ax = 1 / m, and m = (y2 - y1) / (x2 - x1)
9. Handle tricky cases at corners (vertex rule)
If the scan line goes through a vertex (corner), decide whether to count
t hat point once or twice based on the neighboring edges. (Avoid
overfilling or underfilling)
10. Sort all x-intersection points
Arrange all the x-points where scan line cuts the polygon, in increasing
order (left to right).
11. Make pairs from the x-intersect points
Group x-points into pairs: (x1, x2), (x3, x4), etc. Each pair represents
one horizontal line to draw.
12. Draw horizontal lines between each pair
For each pair, draw a straight line from x1 to x2 on the current scan line
y.
13. Move scan line down
Reduce y by 1 to move to the next horizontal scan line(y=y-1).
14. Repeat until you reach the bottom
ymin(bottomof the
Keep doing steps 7 to 13 until you reach
polygon)(y>=ymin).
15. Done! Polygon is filled.
et’s go step-by-step through the Scan Line Polygon Fill Algorithm
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using a simple triangle as an example.
🟢 Example Polygon: Triangle
Let’s say the triangle has 3 corners:
● Point A: (2, 8)
● Point B: (6, 2)
● Point C: (10, 6)
So:
x[] = [2, 6, 10]
y[] = [8, 2, 6]
We’ll go step by step now using this triangle.
🔄 STEP-BY-STEP WITH EXAMPLE:
1. Input number of corners
● Number of corners = 3
✅
n = 3
2. Input coordinates of all corners
✅
A (2, 8)
B (6, 2)
C (10, 6)
3. Find ymin and ymax
●
ymin = 2(from point B)
●
ymax = 8(from point A)
y = 8down to
We’ll scan from y = 2
4. Store edge information
We create 3 edges:
1. A → B
2. B → C
3. C → A
Let’s process each:
➤ Edge 1: A(2,8) to B(6,2)
● y1 = 8, y2 = 2 → no swap needed
● x1 = 2
● Slope = (y2 - y1) / (x2 - x1) = (2 - 8)/(6 - 2) = -6 / 4 = -1.5
● So Ax = 1 / slope = 1 / -1.5 = -0.666
➤ Edge 2: B(6,2) to C(10,6)
● y1 = 6, y2 = 2 → no swap needed
● x1 = 10
● Slope = (2 - 6)/(10 - 6) = -4 / 4 = -1
● Ax = 1 / slope = -1
➤ Edge 3: C(10,6) to A(2,8)
● y1 = 8, y2 = 6 → no swap needed
● x1 = 10
● Slope = (6 - 8)/(2 - 10) = -2 / -8 = 0.25
● Ax = 1 / 0.25 = 4
✅ So we store:
Edge 1: x=2, y1=8, y2=2, Ax = -0.666
Edge 2: x=10, y1=6, y2=2, Ax = -1
Edge 3: x=10, y1=8, y2=6, Ax = 4
5. Sort the edges
Sort by:
● Highest y1 → then y2 → then lowest x
✅ Already sorted here as:
1. Edge A→B (y1=8)
2. Edge C→A (y1=8)
3. Edge B→C (y1=6)
6. Start fromy = ymax = 8
7. Find active edges for y = 8
Check if 8 is between y1 and y2:
✅
Edge A→B: 8 > 2 and ≤ 8 → active
✅
Edge C→A: 8 > 6 and ≤ 8 → active
❌ Edge B→C: 8 not between 6 and 2 → inactive
8. Calculate x-intersections
For y = 8:
● Edge A→B: x = 2 (initial x)
● Edge C→A: x = 10 (initial x)
✅ So x-intersect points = [2, 10]
9. Vertex rule
No issue for y = 8 since it's the topmost point. No duplicate counting.
10. Sort x-intersections
orted:
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✅
[2, 10]
11. Make pairs
✅ (2, 10)
12. Draw horizontal line
🖌️ Fill between x=2 and x=10 at y=8
13. Move scan line down
y = 7
🔁 Repeat from step 7 for y = 7 to y = 2
Let’s just summarize a few more iterations:
For y = 7:
● Active edges: A→B, C→A
● Update x values:
○ A→B: x = 2 - 0.666 = 1.334
○ C→A: x = 10 + 4 = 14
● x-intersects: [1.334, 14]
● Draw between 1.334 and 14 at y=7
For y = 6:
● Now edge B→C becomes active
● Active edges: A→B, C→A, B→C
● Update x values:
○ A→B: 1.334 - 0.666 = 0.668
○ C→A: 14 + 4 = 18
○ B→C: starting x = 10
● x-intersects: [0.668, 10, 18]
● Sort: [0.668, 10, 18]
● Pairs: (0.668, 10) and (no pair for 18, ignore or check further)
... and continue until y = 2.
✅ Final Output
t the end, you would have filled the triangle line by line from top to bottom
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using horizontal lines between x-intersections.
🔄 Step-by-step in Simple Language:
1. Ask how many corners the polygon has
e ask the user:
W
🗣️
“How many corners does your shape have?”
📥 n.
Save the number as
2. Get the coordinates of each corner
e collect the position of each corner (x and y values).
W
📌 x[]
Store all x-values in one list:
📌 Store all y-values in another list:
y[]
3. Find top and bottom of the polygon
y[]values to find:
We look through all
🔼 The highest y =
ymax(top of the shape)
🔽
The lowest y =ymin(bottom of the shape)
These values show where our filling should start and end.
4. Store information about each edge
Every pair of connected corners makes an edge. For each edge:
● Pick the top point (bigger y) and bottom point (smaller y)
● Save:
○ x at the top (x1)
○ y1 (top y), y2 (bottom y)
○ Calculate how much x changes as we go down (Ax = 1/slope)
📌 Swap points if needed to always go from top to bottom.
5. Sort the edges smartly
To process edges properly, we:
y1first
1.Sort by higher
y2
2.Then by higher
3. Then by smaller x-values
This helps in faster scan-line filling.
6. Start scanning from the top (y = ymax)
Begin at the highest point of the polygon, and move down one line at a time.
7. Find active edges for the current scan line
y:
Check which edges are active (used) for current scan line
✅ yis between y1 and y2, include the edge
If
❌
If not, ignore it (it's not touching this line)
. Calculate where the scan line cuts the edges
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(x-intersections)
For each active edge:
● First time: use starting x (x1)
● Next times: use
x = x + Ax
where Ax = horizontal change based on edge slope
9. Handle tricky corner cases (vertex rule)
I f the scan line exactly passes through a corner (vertex), decide if it should
be counted once or skipped, based on neighboring edges. This avoids
double-filling.
10. Sort the x-intersection points
ll the x-values where the scan line hits the polygon are sorted from left to
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right.
11. Make x-intersect pairs
roup them like this:
G
👉
(x1, x2), (x3, x4), ...
Each pair is one line to draw.
12. Draw lines between each pair
or each pair:
F
🖌️ y
Draw a horizontal line from the first x to the second x at the current .
13. Move scan line down
yby 1:
ecrease
D
🔽
Go to the next lower scan line.
14. Repeat until bottom
Repeat the steps until you reach the bottom of the polygon (
ymin
).
✅ Done! The shape is filled.
Attributes Of Output Primitive
1.Point:-
point is the most basic element in computer graphics. It is defined by a coordinate pair
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(x,y) in 2d or (x,y,z) in 3d . The appearance of a point in the screen is connected by its
attributes , which include its size, shape & color.
Key Attributes of a Point:-
A.Point size:-
● Define how large the point appears on the screen.
● In vector Graphics, points are typically single-pixel dots.
● In Raster Graphics, we can increase the point size to make it more visible.
● Ex= A small point appears as a single pixel, while a large point may be drawn as
a square or circle.
.Point shape:-
B
A point can be represented by a different maker symbol, Such as
● DOT
● CROSS
● SQUARE
● TRIANGLE
● STAR
EX= In Scatter Plot, Different maker types are used to differentiate Data points.
C.Point Color:-
● Define the color of the point.
● Specified using RGB (RED,GREEN,BLUE) Values or Hex Codes.
● Some systems allow grayscale points for Black & White Display.
● EX= A Blue Point in RGB would be (0,0,255),while Red is (255,0,0).
2.Lines:-
lines is a Fundamental Graphics Primitive Used to Connect Points, Create Shapes
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And Define Object Boundaries, The Appearance Of a Line is Controlled by Various Line
Attributes, Such as
A. Line type
B. Line Width
C. Line color
A. Line type:-
The Line-Type Determines the Pattern Of the Line, Weather it is Solid, Dashed, Dotted.
Line Type Example Use Case
Solid Line __________ Default, General use.
Dashed Line __ __ __ __ Used in construction Drawing, Invisible Boundaries.
Dotted Line . . . . . . . . . . Used in Hidden Object Representation.
Dash-Dot Line _ . _ . _ . _ . _ Used in Engineering Diagrams.
Double Line II II Used For Bold borders.
B. Line Width:-
● efine how thick or thin a line appears on the screen.
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● Expressed in pixels or Real world units.
● Thicker lines are used for emphasis, while thin lines are used for finer details.
● EX= In the roadmap, highways are Drawn with thicker lines, while small streets
use thin lines.
C. Line Color:-
● etermines the color of the line using RGB values, CMYK, or Predefined Colors.
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● In Monochrome Displays, Colors Are Limited to Black and white.
● In Grayscale Graphics, Different shades of gray represent varying intersities.
● EX=In Bar charts,Different Colored lines represent Different categories.
3.Curve:-
Curve is a smooth flowing line that connects points without sharp angles in computer
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graphics, curves are widely used in
.
1 omputer-Aided Design( CAD )
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2. Data Visualization ( Graph & Chart )
3. Animation & Game Development
4. Font Design ( Bezier Curve in Typography )
The Appearance of Curves is controlled by various curve attributes, Such as
1. Curve type ( Representation )
2. Curve thickness ( width )
3. Curve color
1. Curve Types:-
Curve Type Definition Example
Explicit Curves D
efined by a Function of x ! y = imple Graphs like
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F(x) parabolas
Implicit Curves Defined by an Equation F(x,y)=0 Circles ( x2+
y2- r2=
0)
arametric
P efined as x(t),y(t) using a
D Bezier and B-spin curves
Curves Parameter ‘t’
X= In Vector Graphics, Parametric Curves Are Widely Used Bcz They allow
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smooth scalling without pixelation.
2. Curve Thickness:-
D
● efine How Thick or Thin a Curve Appears .
● Expressed In Pixels or Real World Units(mm,inches,etc).
● Thicker Curves are Used to Highlight Important Data, While Thin Curves
Are Used For Delicate Details.
● EX= In Scientific charts, Thicker Curves Represent Major Trends, While
Thinner Curves Represent Secondary Trends.
3. Curve Color:-
D
● etermine the color of the curve using RGB, CMYK or predefined color models.
● Helps in Distinguishing between multiple curves in data visualization & design
application .
● E
X=In a multiple-line graph,each curve is assigned a different color to
differentiate database.
4. Special Curves in Graphics:-
Curve Type Definition Application
Bezier-Curve Defined Using Control Points sed in Typography,
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Vector Graphics.
B-Spline Curve S
mooth, Flexible Curve sed in Animation &
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Approximation Modeling.
Hermite Curve D
efined By Endpoints & sed in motion Path
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Tangents Planning.
Cardinal Spline A Smooth Interpolation Curve sed in Graphs Drawing,
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Physics & Gaming.
Fill Area Attributes
In Computer Graphics, A Fill Area Refers to Closed Shape ( Polygon or Region ) that is
Filled With a Specific Colors, Pattern or Shading Effect. The Attributes of a Filled Area
Determines its Appearance and Rendering Style.
Fill Areas Are Widely Used In:
.
1 D & 3D Object Rendering.
2
2. Graphical User Interfaces (GUI).
3. Data Visualization (Chart,Graph,Maps).
4. Game Design & animation.
Types Of Fill Areas:
Fill Areas Can be Applied to Different Geometric Shape, Such as:
. P
1 olygones
2. Circles & Ellipse
3. Irregular Regions
he Shapes Can Be Filled Using Different Attributes, Such as Solid Colors, Patterns,
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Gradients and Textures.
1. Fill Colors:-
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● he Most Basic Attribute is SolidColor Filling.
● Colors are Defined Using RGB (Red-Green-Blue),
CMYK(Cyan-Magenta-Yellow-Black) or indexed Colors Models.
● EX= In Data Visualization, Bar Charts Use Different Fill Colors For Each
Category.
2. Pattern Fill:-
attern Fill is a Method Used in Computer Graphics to Fill a Shape or Area with a
P
Repeated Design or Texture Instead of a Solid Color.
Key Concept:
1. Pattern Table:-
● A Table Where Different Fill Patterns Are Stored.
● Each Pattern is Assigned a Number.
2. Applying a Pattern:-
● To Use a Pattern, We Select it By Its Index & Apply It to An Area.
● This Will Fill The Selected Shape With The Second Pattern From
The Table.
3. Hatchfill vs Patternfill:-
● Hatch filluses parallel or crisscrossed lines tofill an area.
● P
attern filluses a repeated Design or Texture ( like checkers or
stripes )
4. C
ustom Patterns:-
We can create our own patterns using a colors array ( a small grid with
different colors ).
5. Pattern Size & Positioning :-
● The Pattern’s Size can be adjusted using ; C=
Setpatternsize(dx,dy);
● The Starting Position for filling can be set with : C=
Setpatternreferencepoint(position);
● This makes sure the pattern starts filling from a specific point & is
repeated correctly.
6. Tiling:-
● When patterns are repeated to fill an area, it's called tiling (like floor
tiles)
● The Pattern keeps Repeating horizontally & vertically to cover the
shape.
7. Background & Transparency:-
● Pattern can be Combined With Background colors using Boolean
Operation ( And,Or,Not).
● Transparent areas in patterns allow the background to show
through.
he Odd-Even Test(also called the Ray Casting Algorithm)is a classic algorithm used
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in computer graphics and computational geometry to determine whether a point lies
inside or outside a polygon.
🔍 Core Idea:
ast a horizontal ray (or any straight line) from the point in question to infinity and count
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how many times it intersects the edges of the polygon.
● If the number of intersections is odd, the point is inside the polygon.
● If the number is even, the point is outside the polygon.
✅ Steps of the Odd-Even Test:
1. Input:
P(x, y)to test.
○ A point
○ A polygon defined by its vertices in order.
2. Process:
P(x, y)to the right.
○ Cast a horizontal ray from
○ For each edge of the polygon, check if the ray intersects it.
○ Count how many edges the ray crosses.
3. Decision:
○ If the count is odd, return "Inside".
○ If the count is even, return "Outside".
🧠 Important Considerations:
● E
dge on the ray:If the ray passes exactly througha vertex, it should not be
double-counted. A common technique is to treat the edge as intersected only if
the edge goes upward (i.e., one endpoint is below the ray and the other is at or
above it).
● H
orizontal edges:Should be ignored or handled carefullyto avoid false
intersections.
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