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OCR A Level Computer Science Your notes

3.2 Databases
Contents
Relational Databases
Data Normalisation
Entity Relationship Diagrams
Capturing, Selecting, Managing & Exchanging Data
SQL
Referential Integrity
Transaction Processing

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Relational Databases
Your notes
Relational Databases
What is a Database?
A Database is an organised collection of data
It allows easy storage, retrieval, and management of information
Electronic databases offer a number of key benefits:
Easier to add, delete, modify and update data
Data can be backed up and copied easier
Multiple users, from multiple locations, can access the same database at the same time

Database Terminology
Term Definition

Field A single piece of data in a record

Record A group of related fields, representing one data entry

Table A collection of records with a similar structure

Primary key A unique identifier for each record in a table. Usually an ID number

Compound primary key A combination of (2 or more) fields that is unique for all records
(sometimes called
composite)

Foreign key A field in a table that refers to the primary key in another table. Used to link
tables and create relationships

Secondary key A field or fields that are indexed for faster searching

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Database Management Software used to manage databases. Examples include MySQL, Oracle,
System Microsoft SQL Server, PostgreSQL
Your notes
(DBMS)

Primary, Foreign & Secondary Keys

Visualising a database

This database has 2 tables : orders and customers

Fields:
In the orders table are order_id, product, total and customer_id
In the customers table are customer_id, first_name, last_name, phone and country

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A record would be 1 complete row in either table

order_id is the primary key for the orders table Your notes
customer_id is the primary key for the customers table
In the orders table customer_id is a foreign key - it links an order back to the customer that made the
order in the customer table
Indexing (Secondary Keys)
Indexing is a technique used to speed up data retrieval in a database
It works in a similar way to the index in a book
If a student had a maths book and wanted to find the section on factorising, they could start at the first
page and look at each page in turn until they found the section they wanted
But this would be slow, so it is better to look in the index to find where the factorising section is and just
go directly to it
Likewise in a database, certain columns can be indexed so that the DBMS does not have to look at
every single record during a search and can just go to the relevant records directly
This can greatly speed up searches
Fields that are indexed are known as secondary keys

Flat File vs Relational Database

A flat file database is one that stores all data in a single table
It is simple and easy to understand but causes data redundancy, inefficient storage and is harder to
maintain
A relational database is one that organises data into multiple tables
It uses keys to connect related data which reduces data redundancy, makes efficient use of storage
and is easier to maintain
Consider this example flat file table of students

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Your notes

This table has redundant data - the tutor and form room information repeats
This is inefficient
If a tutor changed their name we would need to find all instances of that name and change them all
Missing any would mean the table had inconsistent data
A relational database would solve this issue:
A new table could be created to store the tutor information and the tutor information in the student
table could be moved to the new table. Then a foreign key in the student table (TutorID) could link a
student to their tutor

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Your notes

Now the name of each tutor and their form room is stored only once
This means if they change only one piece of data, the data is updated in the entire database and
Inconsistency is avoided

WORKED EXAMPLE
Customers’ details are stored in the flat file database table Customer. An extract of the table is
shown below

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Your notes

Describe one problem that would arise with the flat file database structure if a customer wanted
to insure more than one car at the same time
[2]
Answer:
One mark per pair:
Only one customer entry allowed (because of key field)...
so would not be able to add second entry [1]
Customer data already present/would be repeated...
resulting in redundant data/wasted space/inconsistencies should changes be made [1]

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Data Normalisation
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First Normal Form (1NF)
What is Normalisation?
Normalisation is the process of organising a database to reduce data duplication and improve data
accuracy and consistency
Achieved by applying a set of guidelines (forms), each with specific rules and requirements
Enhances database efficiency and maintainability
Provides consistency within the database

First Normal Form (1NF)

For a table to be in first normal form it must:
Contain atomic values
Each column in a table must contain single, indivisible values
Have no repeating groups
Columns must not contain arrays or lists of values
Have unique column names
Each column must have a unique name within the table
Have a unique identifier (primary key)
Each row must have a unique identifier to distinguish it from other rows
This customers table below has no primary key and the name is stored in one field so is not atomic. This
table is not in first normal form

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Your notes

This customers table below has a primary key and the name is stored in two fields so it is atomic
This table is in first normal form

Second Normal Form (2NF)

Second Normal Form (2NF)
For a table to be in second normal form it must:
Fulfil all 1NF requirements
Only apply to tables with a compound primary key
Have full functional dependency

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All non-prime attributes (attributes not part of the primary key) must be fully dependent on the
primary key
Have no partial dependencies Your notes
Non-prime attributes must not depend on only part of the primary key (in case of a composite
primary key)
Separate tables should be created for partially dependent attributes
In this table below, Course Title only depends on part of the compound primary key (the course code) and
not the Date so this table is not in second normal form

Third Normal Form (3NF)

Third Normal Form (3NF)
For a table to be in third normal form it must:
Fulfil all 2NF requirements
Have no transitive dependencies
Non-prime attributes must not depend on other non-prime attributes
Have each non-prime attribute dependent solely on the primary key, not on other non-prime
attributes
Have separate tables for attributes with transitive dependencies, and the tables should be linked
using a foreign key
In this table below, the certificate depends on the title - this a transitive dependency and so this table is not
in third normal form

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Your notes

EXAM TIP
For a table to be in second normal form it has to be in first normal form.
For a table to be in third normal form it has to be in second normal form.
So if asked for the rules of either second or third normal form make sure you say this.

WORKED EXAMPLE
An airport holds details of flights in a database using the table Flight. An extract of the table is
shown below.

The airline wishes to ensure the database is normalised.

i) Describe why the database can be considered to be in First Normal Form
[2]
ii) Describe why the database can be considered to be in Second Normal Form
[2]

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iii) Describe why the database can not be considered to be in Third Normal form
[2] Your notes
Answer:
No Repeating fields/data. Data is atomic. Has a primary Key [2]
Is in First Normal Form. Every field is dependent on the primary key [2]
Has a transitive relationship. A non-key field depends on another non-key field. DestinationName
depends on DestinationCode [2]

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Entity Relationship Diagrams

Your notes
Entity Relationship Types
What is an Entity?
An entity in something worthy of capturing and storing data about e.g. students, orders, products,
courses, customers
Entities become tables in a relational database
Relational databases store different entities in separate tables. Linking tables depends on the
relationships between entities.
There are 3 types of (sometimes called degrees of) relationships:
One to one
One to many
Many to many
Imagine a company has
A table of products
A table of customers
A table of the orders the customers have made
What is the relationship between a customer and an order?
One customer can make multiple (many) orders
But each order relates to a specific (one) customer
So the relationship between customer and order is one to many
Now consider the relationship between a product and an order
An order could have more than one (many) products on it
A product could be on more than one (many) order
So the relationship between order and product is many to many
One to one relationships also exist but are not very common in databases

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Drawing Entity Relationship Diagrams

Entity Relationship Diagrams (ERDs) are simple diagrams that represent the entities (tables) that will Your notes
be in a database and the relationships between these entities
The entities are drawn as boxes with the entity name in
The relationships are drawn in as what is known as ‘crow’s feet notation’
This is how to draw the relationships in the exam:

The names of the entities would go inside the boxes

EXAM TIP
These diagrams are simple but tell us some important things about the database:
The names of all the tables
Which tables will have a foreign key - when an entity has a ‘many’ relationship against it that
means it will have a foreign key in it that links to the primary key of the connected entity

WORKED EXAMPLE
An insurance company's offices have a large number of black and white printers
The company's technicians keep accurate records of the printers in the building, and the quantity
of toner cartridges in stock, in a flat file database. An extract of the database is shown:

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Printer Location Notes Cartridge Quantity Re-order URL

Model Code in stock
Your notes
LasPrint office 3 LP-7XB 12 www.megacheapprint.com/toner
LP753 / LP-7XB

LasPrint office 6 drum LP-7XB 12 www.megacheapprint.com /

LP710 replaced toner / LP-7XB

Zodiac reception Zod17 4 www.zodiaclaserprinting.com /

ZN217 shop / Z17

Zodiac conference had to Zod17 4 www.megacheapprint.com /

ZN217 Room 2 add RAM toner / LP-7XB

LasPrint office 8 LP-7XB 12 www.megacheapprint.com /

LP753 toner / LP-7XB

A relational database is created with three tables:

PrinterModel: this stores all the data about each model of printer
PrinterInstance: this stores the data about each individual printer in the building
Cartridge: this stores information about the toner cartridges
Draw an entity-relationship diagram to show the relationships between the three tables
[4]
Answer:

Entities and relationships drawn using standard notation [1]

Cartridge linked to PrinterModel, PrinterModel linked to PrinterInstance with no other links [1]
1:M relationship from Cartridge to Printer Model [1]
1:M relationship from PrinterModel to PrinterInstance [1]

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Resolving Many to Many Relationships

Many to many relationships cannot be implemented into an actual database and need to be ‘resolved’ Your notes
This involves creating a new table known as a ‘link’ table that goes between the entities
This new table links the entities that have the many to many relationships together

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Capturing, Selecting, Managing & Exchanging Data

Your notes
Capturing Data
How can Data be Captured?
Forms
OMR (Optical Mark Recognition)
OCR (Optical Character Recognition)
Sensors
Barcodes
Data Mining

Forms
Collect user input
Organise data in structured format
Common in web applications

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Your notes

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A data capture form

OMR (Optical Mark Recognition) Your notes
Detects marked areas on paper by using a special machine to read the marks
Used for exams, surveys, lottery tickets
Automates data collection and entry

An OMR form being filled in

OCR (Optical Character Recognition)
Converts printed or handwritten text into digital format
Useful for digitising documents
Assists in searching and editing text

Sensors
Devices that detect and respond to changes in environment
Convert physical signals into digital data
Facilitates automated data collection and real-time monitoring

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Used in various applications:

Temperature sensors Your notes
Pressure sensors
Proximity sensors
Light sensors
Motion sensors
Humidity sensors
Gas sensors
Force sensors
Acoustic sensors
Magnetic sensors

Different Types of Sensor

Barcodes
Machine-readable representation of data using parallel lines of varying widths and spacings
Commonly used for tracking items, inventory management, and point-of-sale systems

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Two main types:

1D (One-dimensional) barcodes: represent data using parallel lines (e.g. on products in shops) Your notes
2D (Two-dimensional) barcodes: use geometric patterns like squares, dots, or hexagons to store
data (e.g. QR code)
Advantages of Barcodes
Fast and accurate data entry
Reduces human error

A Typical Barcode Scanner

Data Mining
Process of discovering hidden patterns, correlations, and insights from large datasets

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Involves techniques and algorithms from fields like machine learning, statistics, and artificial
intelligence
Your notes
Supports decision-making by transforming raw data into valuable information
Applications of data mining
Marketing: Customer segmentation, market basket analysis, and targeted advertising
Finance: Fraud detection, credit scoring, and portfolio management
Healthcare: Disease prediction, patient clustering, and drug discovery
Manufacturing: Quality control, predictive maintenance, and supply chain optimisation
Telecommunications: Network monitoring, customer analysis, and service improvement
Selecting Data
Query By Example (QBE)
User-friendly method for constructing database queries using a visual interface
Allows users to search for data by providing an example of the desired output
Key Features
Visual representation: QBE uses a grid or form-based interface, where users can enter criteria in
columns representing database fields
Intuitive: Users don't need to learn complex query syntax, making it accessible for non-technical
users
Flexible: Allows for simple to complex queries, including filtering, sorting, and joining multiple
tables
How QBE Works
Users enter criteria in the appropriate columns or fields in the QBE grid or form
The QBE system translates the user's input into an equivalent SQL query or other query language
The query is executed against the database, and the results are displayed to the user
Common Query Operations
Filtering: Users can specify conditions or criteria in the QBE grid to retrieve specific records (e.g., all
customers from a particular city)

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Sorting: Users can indicate the desired sorting order for the results (e.g., ascending or descending by
last name)
Your notes
Joining: Users can combine data from multiple related tables by specifying relationships between the
tables in the QBE grid
Aggregation: Users can perform calculations or summaries on the data (e.g., counting the number of
records, calculating averages, or summing values)
Benefits and Drawbacks of Query By Example (QBE)

Drawbacks
Benefits

Easy to learn and use, even for non-technical users Less powerful and flexible than SQL for complex
queries and data manipulation

Visual interface makes it simple to understand and May not support advanced database features,
modify queries such as stored procedures or triggers

Provides a more accessible way to perform database Can be slower than SQL queries for large
searches compared to writing SQL queries datasets or complex operations

Managing & Exchanging Data

Managing Data
After a database has been created, there must be easy ways of being able to manage the data, this
includes:
Add new data
Edit/modify existing data
Delete data
This can be achieved by:
A database manipulation language (DML) such as SQL
Built in facilities of a Database Management System (DBMS)

Exchanging Data

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CSV (Comma Separated Values)

Simple data exchange format Your notes
Stores tabular data in plain text
Uses commas to separate values
Widely supported and easy to parse

JSON (JavaScript Object Notation)

Lightweight data interchange format
Human-readable and easy to analyse
Uses Key-value pairs
Common in web applications

EDI (Electronic Data Interchange)

Standardised electronic communication method
Transfers documents and data between businesses

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Reduces paper usage and manual processes

Streamlines transactions and increases efficiency Your notes
APIs (Application Programming Interfaces)
A set of protocols that allow different software applications to communicate with each other
Enables developers to integrate different services and functionalities into their applications
Facilitates data exchange between applications and platforms
Can be RESTful (Representational State Transfer), SOAP (Simple Object Access Protocol), or other
types
Advantages of APIs
Encourages code reuse and modular programming
Simplifies application development by providing pre-built functionalities
Facilitates seamless integration of different services
Promotes innovation by enabling developers to build upon existing technologies

Memory Sticks
Portable storage devices, also known as USB flash drives or thumb drives
Use flash memory to store and transfer data between computers and other devices
Connect to devices via USB (Universal Serial Bus) port
Benefits and Drawbacks of Memory Sticks

Benefits Drawbacks

Easy to use: Plug-and-play functionality with no need for Limited storage capacity compared to
additional software external hard drives

Portable: Compact size allows for easy transport and Data loss risk due to physical damage, loss,
storage or theft

Durable: No moving parts, making them resistant to Slower transfer speeds compared to other
physical damage storage solutions

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Compatible: Widely supported across different

operating systems and devices
Your notes

Email
Electronic communication system used for exchanging messages and files between users
Requires internet access and an email account with an email service provider
Benefits and Drawbacks of Email

Benefits Drawbacks

Fast: Allows for near-instant communication Limited file size: Most email service providers impose
across the world restrictions on attachment sizes

Convenient: Accessible on various devices, Security risks: Vulnerable to phishing attacks, spam,
including computers, smartphones, and and data breaches
tablets

Organised: Stores and organises messages in Privacy concerns: Email messages and attachments
folders, such as Inbox, Sent, and Drafts can be intercepted, read, or modified by unauthorised
parties

Versatile: Supports the attachment of various Reliability: Delivery issues can occur due to server
file types and sizes problems, incorrect email addresses, or spam filters

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SQL
Your notes
Selecting Data (Single Table)
What is SQL?
SQL (Structured Query Language) is a programming language used to interact with a DBMS.
The use of SQL allows a user to:
Select data (single table)
Select data (multiple tables)
Insert data
Delete records
Delete tables

Selecting Data (Single Table) Commands

Example
Command Description

SELECT Retrieves data from a database table SELECT * FROM users;

(retrieves all data from the 'users'
table)
SELECT name, age
FROM users
(retrieves names and ages from the
'users' table)

FROM Specifies the tables to retrieve data from SELECT name, age FROM users;
(retrieves names and ages from the
'users' table)

WHERE Filters the data based on a specified condition SELECT * FROM users
WHERE age > 30;

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(Retrieves users older than 30)

Your notes
LIKE Filters the data based on a specific pattern SELECT * FROM users
WHERE name LIKE 'J%';
(retrieves users whose names start
with 'J')

AND Combines multiple conditions in a WHERE SELECT * FROM users

clause WHERE age > 18 AND city = 'New York';
(retrieves users older than 18 and from
New York)

OR Retrieves data when at least one of the SELECT * FROM users

conditions is true WHERE age < 18 OR city = 'New York';
(retrieves users younger than 18 or
from New York)

WILDCARDS '*' and '%' symbols are used for searching and SELECT * FROM users;
matching data (retrieves all columns for the 'users'
'*' used to select all columns in a table table)
'%' used as a wildcard character in the LIKE
operator SELECT * FROM users WHERE name
LIKE 'J%';
(retrieves users whose names start
with 'J')

Examples
Select all the fields from the Customers table
Command:

Output:

ID Name Age City Country

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1 John Doe 30 New York USA

Your notes
2 Jane Doe 25 London UK

3 Peter Lee 40 Paris France

Select the ID, name & age of customers who are older than 25
Command:

Output:

ID Name Age

1 John Doe 30

3 Peter Lee 40

Select the name and country of customers who are from a country that begins with 'U'
Command:

Output:

Name Country

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John Doe USA

Your notes
Jane Doe UK

Select all fields of customers who are from 'London' or 'Paris'

Command:

Output:

ID Name Age City Country

2 Jane Doe 25 London UK

3 Peter Lee 40 Paris France

WORKED EXAMPLE
Customers’ details are stored in the flat file database table Customer. An extract of the table is
shown below

Write the SQL statement that would show only the CustomerID and Surname fields for customers
with the Title “Miss” or “Mrs”
[4]

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Answer:
SELECT CustomerID, Surname [1] Your notes
FROM Customer [1]
WHERE Title="Miss" [1]
OR Title = "Mrs" [1]

Selecting Data (Multiple Tables)

Example
Command Description

Nested A select within another select statement SELECT * FROM users WHERE age >
SELECT (nested). A mini select within the main one (SELECT AVG(age) FROM users);
(retrieves users with an age greater than
the average age)

JOIN Combines data from two or more tables SELECT users.name, orders.order_id
(INNER based on a related column FROM users
JOIN) JOIN orders
ON users.user_id = orders.user_id;
(retrieves user names and their
corresponding order IDs)

Examples
Table: Employees
ID Name Salary Department City

1 Fynn Roberts 45000 HR London

2 Zarmeen Azra 52000 Sales Manchester

3 Ella Stanley 39500 Marketing Birmingham

Select all fields for employees whose salary is bigger than the average salary of all employees

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Command:

Your notes

Output:

ID Name Salary Department City

2 Zarmeen Azra 52000 Sales Manchester

Inserting Data
Example
Command Description

INSERT Adds new data to a database INSERT INTO users (name, age)
table VALUES ('John Doe',25);
(inserts a new user with the name 'John Doe' and age
25)

Example
Table: Employees

ID Name Salary Department City

1 Fynn Roberts 45000 HR London

2 Zarmeen Azra 52000 Sales Manchester

3 Ella Stanley 39500 Marketing Birmingham

Insert a new employee into the Employees table with the 'Name', 'Salary', 'Department' and 'City' fields

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Command:

Your notes

Output:

ID Name Salary Department City

1 Fynn Roberts 45000 HR London

2 Zarmeen Azra 52000 Sales Manchester

3 Ella Stanley 39500 Marketing Birmingham

4 George Rope 47250 Sales Leeds

Deleting Records
Example
Command Description

DELETE Removes data from a database DELETE FROM users

table WHERE age < 18;
(deletes all users younger than 18 from the 'users'
table)
DELETE FROM users
WHERE name="John";
(deletes a record where the name is John)

Example
Table: Employees

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ID Name Salary Department City

Your notes
1 Fynn Roberts 45000 HR London

2 Zarmeen Azra 52000 Sales Manchester

3 Ella Stanley 39500 Marketing Birmingham

4 George Rope 47250 Sales Leeds

Delete all records from the Employees table whose department is 'Marketing'
Command:

Output:

ID Name Salary Department City

1 Fynn Roberts 45000 HR London

2 Zarmeen Azra 52000 Sales Manchester

3 George Rope 47250 Sales Leeds

WORKED EXAMPLE
A database stores information about songs on a music streaming service. One of the tables
called Song has the fields Title, Artist, Genre and Length

A band called RandomBits removes their permission for their songs to be streamed. The
company removes all the songs belonging to RandomBits from their service.

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Write an SQL statement that will remove all songs by RandomBits from the table Song
Your notes
[2]
Answer:
DELETE FROM Song [1]
WHERE Artist = “RandomBits” [1]

Deleting Tables
Example
Command Description

DROP Deletes a table in a database DROP TABLE users;

(deletes the 'users' table)

Example
Table: Employees

ID Name Salary Department City

1 Fynn Roberts 45000 HR London

2 Zarmeen Azra 52000 Sales Manchester

3 Ella Stanley 39500 Marketing Birmingham

4 George Rope 47250 Sales Leeds

Delete the Employees table

Command:

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Output

Your notes

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Referential Integrity
Your notes
Referential Integrity
What is Referential Integrity?
Ensures consistency between related tables in a relational database
Maintains valid relationships between primary and foreign keys
There should not be foreign keys for which a matching primary key in the linked table does not exist
Foreign key constraints
Value in a foreign key field must either:
Match a primary key value in the related table, or
Be null (if allowed)
Enforce referential integrity
Rules:
Cascade actions
CASCADE: automatically makes changes to related records
SET NULL: sets foreign key value to null in related records
SET DEFAULT: sets foreign key value to its default in related records
NO ACTION/RESTRICT: prevents changes if related records exist
Update or delete actions will take effect everywhere in the database automatically
Types:
Benefits and Drawbacks of Referential Integrity

Drawbacks
Benefits

Ensures data consistency and accuracy Can impact performance due to additional checks

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Prevents orphaned records May require additional planning and design

Your notes
Maintaining referential integrity
Use database management systems (DBMS) with built-in support
Implement triggers to enforce custom referential integrity rules
Regularly validate and clean up data to ensure consistency

WORKED EXAMPLE
A hotel uses a computer system to keep track of room bookings. The hotel staff are able to query
a database to discover which rooms are booked or which rooms are free
The hotel booking database enforces referential integrity.
Explain what is meant by the term ‘referential integrity’ and how this could potentially be broken
[2]

Answer:
Database/relationships are consistent and each foreign key links to an existing/valid primary key [1]
If a primary key is deleted, foreign keys that link to it are no longer valid so they should also be
deleted - this is known as a cascaded delete [1]

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Transaction Processing
Your notes
Transaction Processing
What is a Transaction?
A transaction is a sequence of database operations treated as a single unit of work
Ensures data consistency and integrity during simultaneous access
Example: money transfer between bank accounts. The transaction here would be a withdrawal from
one account and a deposit into another. Both operations must happen together or neither should
happen
Problems that arise from transaction processing
Concurrency: When multiple transactions are executed simultaneously, they might try to access
or modify the same data, leading to inconsistencies
Deadlock: This occurs when two or more transactions are waiting for each other to release
resources, causing them to wait indefinitely
Data Integrity: Transactions might leave the database in an inconsistent state if they fail in the
middle of execution
Isolation: In a multi-user environment, one user's transaction might affect another user's
transaction, leading to unpredictable outcomes
Durability: If a system fails after a transaction has been confirmed, it may result in loss of data
Solutions to overcome problems that arise in transaction processing
Locking: Implementing a locking mechanism ensures that no two transactions can access the
same data simultaneously. There are two types of locks: shared locks and exclusive locks
Deadlock Prevention or Deadlock Detection: Deadlocks can be prevented by ordering the way in
which resources are requested or by having a timeout mechanism
Logging and Recovery: By keeping a log of all changes, the system can recover to a consistent
state after a crash
Commit and Rollback: The commit operation saves all changes made in the transaction as
permanent. The rollback operation reverts the changes made in the transaction

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Two-Phase Commit Protocol: In distributed systems, this protocol ensures that a transaction is
committed in all participating nodes, or none at all, to maintain consistency
Your notes
Concurrency control
Manages simultaneous access to data in a multi-user environment
Techniques:
Locking: prevents multiple transactions from accessing the same data simultaneously
Timestamping: assigns a unique timestamp to each transaction
Transaction management
Use database management systems (DBMS) with built-in transaction support
Implement custom transaction logic using SQL or other query languages
Test and monitor transactions to ensure ACID compliance and performance
ACID
ACID (Atomicity, Consistency, Isolation, Durability)
A set of rules that all Database Management Systems (DBMS) must use to ensure data integrity
Guarantee reliable processing of transactions
Atomicity
All operations in a transaction succeed or fail as a whole
If any operation fails, the transaction is rolled back
Ensures partial transactions do not occur
Consistency
Ensures data remains in a consistent state after transactions
Transactions must follow database rules and constraints
Starts with a consistent state and ends with a consistent state
Isolation
Transactions are isolated from each other

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Intermediate states are not visible to other transactions

Prevents conflicts and data inconsistencies Your notes
Durability
Committed transactions persist even in case of system failures
Ensures data is not lost once a transaction is complete

WORKED EXAMPLE
RestaurantReview is a website that allows users to leave reviews and ratings for different
restaurants
The website uses a database with the following structure

The database management system ensures referential integrity is maintained

Whenever a review is added to the system, the restaurant’s average rating is updated
Describe what is meant by the term ‘Atomic’ in the context of ACID transactions. You should refer
to the example of a review being added
[2]
Answer:
A transaction / review can only fully complete or not complete / cannot partially complete [1]
In this case, it should not be possible for the review to be added without the (average) rating being
updated [1]

Record Locking
Record locking is a technique used in database management systems (DBMS) to prevent conflicting
access to data by multiple transactions or processes
It ensures data consistency and integrity when multiple users or processes try to read, modify, or
delete records simultaneously
Key Concepts

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Lock: A mechanism that prevents access to a database record by other transactions while a
specific transaction is using the record
Your notes
Lock granularity: Refers to the size of the locked data, ranging from a single row to an entire table
Types of Locks
Shared lock (Read lock): Allows multiple transactions to read a record simultaneously, but prevents
modifications or deletions until the lock is released
Exclusive lock (Write lock): Allows only one transaction to access and modify a record, blocking
other transactions from reading or writing to the locked record until the lock is released
Benefits of Record Locking
Maintains data consistency and integrity by preventing conflicting modifications
Allows concurrent read access to records without compromising data consistency
Improves database performance by enabling multiple users to access data simultaneously, while
managing access to prevent conflicts

Redundancy
Redundancy can occur when the same piece of data is stored in more than one table in a database.
This can either be by accident or by design
It can lead to inconsistencies in the data and/or wasted storage space

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