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OCR A Level Computer Science Your notes

4.1 Data Types

Contents
Primitive Data Types
Positive Binary Numbers
Negative Binary Numbers
Binary Addition & Subtraction
Hexadecimal Numbers
Floating Point Binary Numbers
Floating Point Addition & Subtraction
Bitwise Manipulation & Masks
Character Sets

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Primitive Data Types

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Primitive Data Types
What are Data Types?
A data type is a classification of data into groups according to the kind of data they represent
Computers use different data types to represent different types of data in a program
The basic data types include:
Integer: used to represent whole numbers, either positive or negative
Examples: 10, -5, 0
Real: used to represent numbers with a fractional part, either positive or negative
Examples: 3.14, -2.5, 0.0
Char: used to represent a single character such as a letter, digit or symbol
Examples: 'a', 'B', '5', '$'
String: used to represent a sequence of characters
Examples: "Hello World", "1234", "@#$%"
Boolean: used to represent true or false values
Examples: True, False
It is important to choose the correct data type for a given situation to ensure accuracy and efficiency in
the program

Casting
Casting is when you convert one data type to another data type
When a user enters data into a program, this will more than likely be in a string format
It's essential to convert some of this string data to a numerical format where possible
For example, you may want to perform calculations on age-related data to determine if someone is
eligible to vote

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Some programming languages can't execute numerical comparisons on text data, making this
transformation crucial
Your notes
For example if you had "12" stored as a string and you wanted to know if this value was below 20
Therefore, the string value of "12" will need to be cast as an integer to allow the comparison to take
place
Python example
int_value = int("123") // converts the string "123" to 123

float_value = float("3.14") // converts the string "3.14" to 3.14

Java example
int intValue = Integer.parseInt("123"); // converts the string "123" to 123

double doubleValue = Double.parseDouble("3.14"); // converts the string "3.14" to 3.14

Casting between data types

Conversion Example Output

From Integer to Real int_value = 5 5.0

real_value = float(int_value)

From Real to Integer real_value = 5.7 5

int_value = int(real_value)

From String to Integer int_str = "10" 10

int_value = int(int_str)

From Integer to String value = 5 "5"

str_value = str(value)

From Boolean to String bool_val = True "True"

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str_val = str(bool_val)

From String to Boolean bool_str = "True" True

Your notes

bool_val = bool(bool_str)

WORKED EXAMPLE
You are tasked with designing a program for a bookstore.
The program should be able to store each piece of information given in table.

Book Detail Recommended Data Type

The book's title

The number of pages the book has

The price of the book

Whether the book is currently in stock or not

The average rating given by customers which ranges from 1 to 5

Complete the table by identifying a suitable data type for each piece of information in the table.
5 marks
Answer:
Answer that gets full marks

Book Detail Recommended Data Type

The book's title String

The number of pages the book has Integer

The price of the book Float

Whether the book is currently in stock or not Boolean

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The average rating given by customers ranging from 1 to 5 Float

Your notes

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Positive Binary Numbers

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Binary
What is Binary?
binary refers to a system of representing information using only two digits: 0 and 1.

Bits
A bit is the smallest unit of digital information, representing either an "off" (0) or an "on" (1) state.

The status of a computer bit being on or off.

Bytes
Bits are grouped into larger structures to form bytes (8 bits), words, and long words
These groupings allow us to represent more complex information, like numbers, text, and instructions

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Your notes

Groups bits to store more complex information

What do the 0s and 1s represent?

In binary, each level is based on powers of 2
In the 8-bit binary number below, each of the 8 columns represents values of 2n , e.g.
20 = 1
21 = 2
22 = 4
23 = 8
24 = 16
25 = 32
26 = 64
27 = 128

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Binary powers of two

Encoding and representation Your notes

Various encoding schemes, like ASCII for text or JPEG for images, map these binary values to human-
readable forms
For example, the binary value 01001000 represents the letter 'H' in ASCII
In the example below, an image is shaded black or white depending on the binary value for each pixel
Each row in the image requires 1 byte of storage

Pixel-shading in a bitmap image

Abstraction layers
Computers handle large volumes of basic numeric data
To create meaningful representations of data, layers of abstraction exist so that basic data can be
interpreted upwards into other forms, e.g. images, sound, video
The same principle applies to programming languages that compile down into binary code
At the bottom, you have binary, and each layer above it allows for more meaningful information to be
represented

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Your notes

Abstractions of binary

Converting Between Binary & Denary

Within computer science, two common number systems are:
Denary numbers – This is also known as base-10. These are used by humans and consist of 10
digits ranging from 0 to 9
Binary numbers - Computer systems store data using 1s and 0s. This is known as binary or base-2.
Computer systems store data in binary format because computers are made up of circuits and
switches that are either on (1) or off (0)
Binary numbers can be converted into denary and vice-versa
For example the 8-bit binary number 01101001 can be converted into denary using the following
method:

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Your notes

Binary to decimal conversion

Therefore the 8-bit binary number 01101001 is 105 as a denary value.

Converting Between Denary & Binary

To convert the denary number 101 to binary, we firstly write out binary number system

128 64 32 16 8 4 2 1

Then we start at the left and look for the highest number that is less than or equal to 101 and if so, place
a 1 in that column. Otherwise, place a 0 in the column
128 is bigger than 101 and therefore we place a 0 in that column
64 is smaller than 101 so we place a 1 in that column. 101 - 64 = 37. This now means we have 37 left to find
32 is smaller than 37 so we place a 1 in that column. 37 - 32 = 5. This now means we have 5 left to find
16 is bigger than 5 and therefore we place a 0 in that column
8 is bigger than 5 and therefore we place a 0 in that column
4 is smaller than 5 so we place a 1 in that column. 5 - 1 = 1. This now means we have 1 left to find

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2 is bigger than 1 and therefore we place a 0 in that column

1 is equal to the number we have left so we place a 1 in that column Your notes
64 + 32 + 4 + 1 = 101. Therefore the denary number 101 in binary is 01100101
128 64 32 16 8 4 2 1

0 1 1 0 0 1 0 1

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Negative Binary Numbers

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Signed Binary Numbers
What are Signed Binary Numbers?
A binary number can be signed or unsigned:
Unsigned - used to represent positive binary numbers
Signed - used to represent both positive and negative binary numbers
We can use signed binary numbers to represent negative numbers using methods such as:
Sign & magnitude
Two's complement
Both of these methods use the Most Significant Bit (MSB) to represent whether the number is
negative or positive:
If the MSB is 0, the number is positive
If the MSB is 1, the number is negative

Sign & Magnitude

Sign & magnitude binary numbers contain a:
Sign - This is when the MSB is used to represent whether the number is negative (1) or positive (0)
Magnitude - This is used to describe the rest of the bits after the MSB

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Your notes

Representing negative binary numbers using sign & magnitude

Binary to denary example

To convert a sign & magnitude binary number to denary, you need to:
Convert the number as normal from binary to denary (as described in Positive Binary number:
Binary to Denary)
Apply the MSB at the end of the calculation
If the MSB is 1, the number is negative
If the MSB is 0, the number is positive

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Converting sign & magnitude binary numbers to denary

Denary to binary example Your notes

To convert a denary number to a sign & magnitude binary number, you need to:
Identify whether the number is positive or negative
Convert the number to binary as normal (as described in Positive Binary Numbers: Denary to Binary)
If the number is negative, change the MSB to 1

MSB 64 32 16 8 4 2 1

1 1 0 0 0 1 1 1

64 + 4 + 2 + 1 = 71
Apply a sign of 1 to make -71
Therefore the denary number -71 in binary is 11000111

A consequence of using a sign bit

The MSB purpose changes from representing a value to representing positive or negative
Losing the MSB halves the maximum size of the number that can be stored
However, as a benefit it makes it possible to represent negative numbers

Sign & magnitude number system

WORKED EXAMPLE

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Convert the 8-bit sign and magnitude binary number 10001011 to denary.
How to answer this question: Your notes
Identify the sign bit: The MSB is 1, so the number is negative
Isolate the magnitude: We are left with 0001011 by removing the sign bit
Convert to denary: The binary number 0001011 converts to 11 in denary
Apply the sign: The MSB was 1, so the number is -11 in denary
Answer:
Answer that gets full marks
10001011 converts to -11 in denary

Two's Complement
Two's complement is a different method for representing negative binary numbers
Calculations on two's complement numbers are less computationally intensive

Method
1. Start with the absolute value of the number, in this case 12
2. Invert the bits so that all of the 1's become 0's and all of the 0's become 1's
3. Add 1

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Representing two's complement binary numbers

The purpose of the MSB has changed; it now represents the negative starting point of the number, Your notes
and the rest of the bits are used to count upwards from that number. For example using the binary
number from the image above:
Begin counting at -16
Add 4 to make -12
Two's complement has a similar consequence to sign and magnitude as the maximum value of an 8-bit
value is halved

Denary to binary example

To convert the denary number -24 to a two's complement binary number, you need to:
Convert the number to binary

-128 64 32 16 8 4 2 1

0 0 0 1 1 0 0 0

Invert the bits

-128 64 32 16 8 4 2 1

1 1 1 0 0 1 1 1

Add 1 to the number

-128 64 32 16 8 4 2 1

1 1 1 0 1 0 0 0

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Binary Addition & Subtraction

Your notes
Binary Addition
What is Binary Addition?
Binary addition involves summing numbers in base-2, which uses only the digits 0 and 1
Like denary addition, start from the rightmost digit and move towards the left
Carrying over occurs when the sum of a column is greater than 1, passing the excess to the next left
column

Example addition

Binary addition example

Overflow Errors
Overflow occurs when the sum of two binary numbers exceeds the given number of bits

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In signed number representations, the leftmost bit often serves as the sign bit; overflow can flip this,
incorrectly changing the sign of the result
Your notes
Overflow generally leads to incorrect or unpredictable results as the extra bits are truncated or
wrapped around

An overflow occurring after a binary addition

Binary Subtraction
As well as adding binary numbers, we can also subtract binary numbers
One method of doing this is to use two's complement

Example 1
Subtract 1001 (9) from 0011 (3)
1. Given numbers

Number 1 1 0 0 1

Number 2 0 0 1 1

2. Two's complement
Convert the number to subtract (0011) to its two's complement
Invert bits to get 1100
Add 1 to get 1101

Number 1 1 0 0 1

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Number 2 (Converted) 1 1 0 1
Your notes
3. Addition Operation
Now add 1001 and 1101
1001 + 1101 = (1) 0110 - including an overflow

Carry 1 1

Number 1 1 0 0 1

Number 2 1 1 0 1

Addition 1 0 1 1 0

4. Remove Overflow
The result is 10110 with overflow
Remove the overflow bit to get 0110
In two's complement arithmetic, the overflow bit does not contribute to the actual value of the
operation but is more of a by-product of the method.

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Hexadecimal Numbers
Your notes
Representing Hexadecimal Numbers
What is Hexadecimal?
It serves as a more human-friendly representation of binary-coded values
Another numbering system is hexadecimal (base-16)
It consists of 10 numbers (0-9) and 6 letters (A-F)

Why use hexadecimal instead of binary?

It is more concise as four binary bits (e.g. 1010) can be represented with one hexadecimal character
(e.g. A)
It is easier for humans to read and write
it is less prone to error as it is more likely to be communicated correctly

Potential uses of hexadecimal

It is commonly used for debugging, configuring hardware devices, and in cryptographic algorithms
It also also commonly used to define colours. As there are millions of colours in the visual spectrum that
require very large binary numbers to represent them, they can be replaced with shorter hexadecimal
values

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Your notes

Sample hexcolours

Hexadecimal Lookup Table

The hexadecimal lookup table serves as a quick reference for converting numbers between denary,
binary and hexadecimal values
The hexadecimal scale is identical to the denary scale until the tens column is introduced

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When the denary scale reaches 10, this is when the hexadecimal scale switches to letters, starting with
A
Your notes
Denary Binary Hexadecimal

0 0000 0

1 0001 1

2 0010 2

3 0011 3

4 0100 4

5 0101 5

6 0110 6

7 0111 7

8 1000 8

9 1001 9

10 1010 A

11 1011 B

12 1100 C

13 1101 D

14 1110 E

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15 1111 F
Your notes
Using subscript in number representation
The subscript in number representation denotes the base of a number
It helps in differentiating between number systems
Common uses:

10 2 indicates the number is in binary (base 2), and its value is '10' in binary

10 10 ​indicates the number is in denary (base 10), and its value is '10' in denary

10 16 ​indicates the number is in hexadecimal (base 16), and its value is '10' in hex, equivalent to '16'
in denary
It provides clarity, especially in contexts where multiple numbering systems are discussed

Denary to Hexadecimal
Convert the denary number 241 to hexadecimal.
Step 1: Convert the number to binary

Step 2: Split the binary number into nibbles

Step 3: Convert each nibble into its hexadecimal value

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Your notes

Step 4: Final result

The denary number 241 is F1 in hexadecimal.

Hexadecimal to Denary
Convert the hexadecimal value 1A to denary.
Step 1: Convert each hexadecimal character into binary

Step 2: Join the binary values

Step 3: Final result

16 + 8 + 2 = 26
The hexadecimal value 1A is 26 in denary.

Binary to Hexadecimal
Convert 1101 0101 to hexadecimal.
Step 1: Take the binary values

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Step 2: Convert each nibble into its hexadecimal value

Your notes

Step 3: Final result

The binary number 11010101 is D5 in hexadecimal.

Hexadecimal to Binary
Convert B2 from Hexadecimal to Binary.
Step 1: Split the Hexadecimal into two separate digits and convert each to a nibble

Step 2: Join the two nibbles to make a byte (8 bits)

Step 3: Final result

The hexadecimal number B2 in Binary is 10110010

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Floating Point Binary Numbers

Your notes
Floating Point Binary
What is Floating Point Binary?
Floating point binary addresses the limitations of fixed-point binary in representing a wide array of real
numbers
It allows for both fractional and whole-number components
It accommodates extremely large and small numbers by adjusting the floating point
It optimises storage and computational resources for most applications

Representation of floating point

The appearance of floating-point binary is mostly the same except for the presence the decimal point

An example positive floating point number

In the example above, an 8-bit number can represent a whole number and fractional elements
The point is always placed between the whole and fractional values
The consequence of floating point binary is a significantly reduced maximum value
The benefit of floating point binary is increased precision

Representation of negative floating point

Negative numbers can also be represented in floating point form using two's Complement
The MSB is used to represent the negative offset of the number, and the bits that follow it are used to
count upwards
The fractional values are then added to the whole number

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Your notes

Converting Denary to Floating Point

Denary to floating point binary
Example: Convert 6.75 to floating point binary
Step 1: Represent the number in fixed point binary.

-8 4 2 1 . 0.5 0.25

0 1 1 0 . 1 1

Step 2: Move the decimal point.

0 . 1 1 0 1 1

Step 3: Calculate the exponent

The decimal point has moved three places to the left and therefore has an exponent value of three.

-4 2 1

0 1 1

Step 4: Calculate the final answer:

Mantissa: 011011
Exponent: 011

Converting Floating Point to Denary

Binary floating point to denary

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Example: Convert this floating point number to denary:

Mantissa - 01100 Your notes
Exponent - 011
Step 1: Write out the binary number.

0 . 1 1 0 0

Step 2: Work out the exponent value.

The exponent value is 3.

-4 2 1

0 1 1

Step 3: Move the decimal point three places to the right.

-8 4 2 1 . 0.5

0 1 1 0 . 0

Step 4: Calculate the final answer: 6

Normalising Floating Point Binary

A floating point number is said to be normalised when it starts with 01 or 10.

Why normalise?
Ensures a consistent format for floating point representation
Makes arithmetic and comparisons more straightforward

Steps to Normalise a Floating Point Number

1. Shift the decimal point left or right until it starts with a 01 or 10
2. Adjust the exponent value accordingly as you move the decimal point

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Moving the point to the left increases the exponent and vice versa.
Example
Your notes
Before normalisation:
Mantissa = 0.0011
Exponent = 0010 (2)
After normalisation:
Mantissa = 0.1100 – Decimal point has moved 2 places to right so it starts with 01
Exponent = 0000 (0) - Exponent has been reduced by 2

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Floating Point Addition & Subtraction

Your notes
Floating Point Arithmetic
How do you represent Floating Point Numbers?
Floating point numbers are represented with a sign, mantissa, and exponent
Arithmetic operations must take into account these three components

Sections of a floating point number

Steps for adding or subtracting floating point numbers

1. Ensure the numbers have the same exponent before performing arithmetic
This might involve shifting the decimal point of one number and adjusting its exponent until both
numbers have matching exponents.
Example:

Number A: 1.101×23

Number B: 1.010×22

Number A has an exponent of 23 and B has an exponent of 22 , we need to adjust B to have the
same exponent as A
This is achieved by moving the point one space to the left in Number B and increasing the
exponent by 1

Resulting in: 0.101×23

2. Perform the binary addition or subtraction on the mantissa

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1 . 101 + 0 . 101 = 10. 010

3. Ensure the result is in a normalised form
Your notes
The sum 10.010 exceeds the normal range for mantissa (1.0 to 1.111... in binary)
To normalise it, we shift the mantissa one position to the right and increment the exponent by 1
New Mantissa: 1.0010

New Exponent: Increment the exponent from 23 to 24

The final result would be 1.0010×24 .

4. Determine Sign
For addition: If both numbers are positive or negative, the result takes the common sign
If they have different signs, the result's sign depends on the larger absolute value
For subtraction: The sign is determined by the sign of the number you're subtracting from and the
result of the subtraction
Example addition
1. 1.100 1 2 ×2 3 + 1. 011 0 2 ×2 2

2. Align exponents: 1.100 1 2 ×2 3 + 0.101 1 2 ×2 3

3. Add mantissa: 10.010 0 2

4. Normalise (if required) and determine the sign.

Example subtraction
1. 1.100 1 2 ×2 3 - 1. 011 0 2 ×2 2

2. Align exponents: 1.100 1 2 ×2 3 - 0.101 1 2 ×2 3

3. Subtract mantissas: 0. 111 0 2

4. Normalise (if required) and determine the sign.

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Bitwise Manipulation & Masks

Your notes
What are Logical Shifts?
Logical shifts are the process of moving the bits in a binary number to the left or right by a specified
number of places
Bitwise manipulation uses logical operators like AND, OR, XOR, and NOT to manipulate binary numbers

Logical Shifts
Logical binary shifts are operations performed on binary numbers where all the bits in the number are
moved left or right by a specified number of positions
These shifts are commonly used in computer programming and digital systems
There are two types of logical binary shifts: Left and Right

Example left shift

The following number is shifted by two places to the left.

Original number: 00001110 = 14

Left shift (2) result: 00111000 = 56
Each left shift has doubled the number:
Original value = 14
Left shift 1 - Doubled the number to 28
Left shift 2 - Doubled the number to 56

Example right shift

The following number is shifted by three places to the right.

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Your notes

Original number: 11001000 = 200

Right shift (3) result: 00011001 = 50
Each right shift has halved the number:
Original value = 200
Right shift 1 - Halved the number to 100
Right shift 2 - Halved the number to 50
Right shift 3 - Halved the number to 25

Bitwise Manipulation
Bitwise AND operation
If both bits are 1 in the binary number and the mask, the result will be 1. Otherwise, the result will be 0.

Description 128 64 32 16 8 4 2 1

Binary 1 0 1 1 1 0 0 1

Mask 0 0 1 1 0 0 0 0

Result 0 0 1 1 0 0 0 0

Bitwise OR operation
If either bit is 1 in the binary number or the mask, the result will be 1. Otherwise, the result will be 0.

Description 128 64 32 16 8 4 2 1

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Binary 1 1 0 0 1 0 1 0
Your notes
Mask 0 1 1 1 0 0 0 0

Result 1 1 1 1 1 0 1 0

Bitwise XOR operation

If only 1 of the bits is 1 in the binary number or the mask, the result will be 1. Otherwise, the result will be 0.

Description 128 64 32 16 8 4 2 1

Binary 1 0 1 0 1 0 1 0

Mask 0 0 1 1 0 0 0 0

Result 1 0 0 1 1 0 1 0

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Character Sets
Your notes
Character Sets
How are characters represented?
Computers only understand binary and therefore we need to represent characters using binary codes
For example, the letter 'A' might be represented as 01000001 in binary

Character sets
A character set is a list of all of the characters and their associated binary code
Character sets standardise the binary codes for each character
Without a character set, one system might interpret 01000001 differently from another
Two common character sets are:
American Standard Code for Information Interchange (ASCII)
UNICODE

ASCII
ASCII uses 7-bits to encode each character, providing for 128 distinct characters
For example, 'A' is represented as 65 in decimal, which is 1000001 in binary
ASCII was created to provide a common standard for encoding characters, which was necessary for
compatibility among various types of hardware and software
An extended version of ASCII exists which encodes each character using 8-bits creating 256
characters

ASCII table
The ASCII table shows the relationship between characters that humans recognise and the denary
values that represent them in the system
The denary values can then be converted to binary, representing the original character as binary

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Your notes

ASCII Table

Limitations of ASCII
1. It has a limited number of characters
ASCII is limited to 128 characters, which include English alphabets, numerals, and some special and control
characters.
A, B, C, ..., Z
a, b, c, ..., z
0, 1, ..., 9
!, @, #, ...

2. It is not suitable for multilingual text

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ASCII cannot represent characters from languages other than English, limiting its applicability globally.
No representation for: 'α', 'ö', 'ñ', Your notes
3. There is no provision for modern symbols
ASCII does not include modern symbols or emoji's common in today's digital communication.

Unicode
UNICODE was created to be a solution to the limitations of ASCII
UNICODE uses a much larger bit range, up to 32-bits (depending on the encoding method), allowing
for a wide variety of characters from different languages and scripts
Example: The Greek character Lambda 'λ' is represented as U+03BB
U+03BB breaks down to:
U+, meaning this is a Unicode character
03BB, meaning character 03BB in the UNICODE set

Impact on storage
ASCII is more storage-efficient, with characters requiring only 7-bits
UNICODE characters can require up to 32-bits, thus potentially using more storage space

Comparison
ASCII UNICODE

Encoding system 7-Bits 16-bits or 32-bits

Number of 128 characters 65,536 characters (16-bit)

characters

Uses Used to represent characters in the Used to represent characters across the
English language. world.

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Benefits It uses a lot less storage space than It can represent more characters than
UNICODE. ASCII.
Your notes
It can support all common characters
across the world.
It can represent special characters such
as emoji's.

Drawbacks It can only represent 128 characters. It uses a lot more storage space than
ASCII.
It cannot store special characters such
as emoji's.

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