Operating system (OS)

OPERATING SYSTEMS (OS)

Definition
An operating system (OS) is a set of programs that control and supervise all the hardware
and software resources of a computer

An operating system also contains instructions that allow you to run application software. A
computer cannot function without an operating system.
User
(Runs application program)

Application software
(Sends user request to OS)

Operating system
(Receives and controls execution of
application requests)

Hardware
(Receives and does OS commands)

Figure 1: Role of an operating system

Reasons why an Operating system is needed in a computer (why operating

systems were developed).
i). Modern computer systems are so complex & fast such that they need
internal control.
ii). To ensure that the full system software facilities are readily available.
iii). Due to the complexity of systems, jobs need to be controlled in what they
are allowed to do for security.
iv). To increase the throughput, i.e., to increase the amount of data that can
be processed through the system in a given period of time.
v). Improve communication between the user & the computer.
vi). To make complex tasks very simple for the user to carry out.
vii). It helps the computer to correct any problem that might occur.
viii). Reduces job setup time.
ix). Most computers allow many programs to be run & also many users to use
the system at the same time.
Devices/resources under the control of an Operating System.
As a resource manager, the OS manages the following basic resources/ devices:
-
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 Operating system (OS)

1. Processor.
2. Main memory (RAM).
3. Secondary storage devices.
4. Input/Output devices and their Ports.
5. Communication devices and their Ports.
6. Files.
Functions of an Operating System
1. Processor scheduling.
This refers to allocating each job waiting for execution processor time at
each given interval. A computer may have concurrent processes ready for
execution, it is the OS that determines which task will be processed first.
To do this, the OS arranges the tasks according to priority and has the
ability to stop a particular task to allow the processor to service another
task.
2. Memory allocation & loading of programs.
 Programs must be loaded into memory before they can be executed or
after execution, and moved out of memory when they are no longer
required.
 The computer memory is a scarce resource, and therefore, the OS must
determine which task will remain in memory awaiting for execution and
which one will be sent back to secondary storage to wait.
 The OS keeps track of what parts of memory are in use and by which
program, and what parts are free.
 The operating system organizes the main memory into blocks of sizes
called page frames. The processes are then equally divided into pieces
that can fit into the frames called pages.
 The OS swaps pages between the main memory and the secondary
storage.
3. File management.
The OS is concerned with the logical organization of the information (the
File System) and provides a means through which files can be sorted,
retrieved & shared.
It also provides a means of protecting data files & programs against
unauthorized access and corruption.
4. Resource control and allocation.
The OS controls the selection & operation of hardware devices used for
input, output and storage.

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 Operating system (OS)

The OS determines which task uses a particular resource and at what time.
To do this, it gives each resource a unique identification number called an
Interrupt Request (IRQ) so that, when two tasks request to use a resource
at the same time, the one with higher priority interrupt is granted control.
This prevents an undesirable situation called deadlock that occurs when a
particular task holds a needed resource & refuses to release it for use by
other tasks.
5. Error handling.
The OS has many ways of reporting to the user of any errors that occur
during program execution. It does this by monitoring the status of the
computer system & performing error checks on both hardware and
software.
When the user makes an error, the OS through the Kernel determines the
cause of the error, and prints diagnostic messages on the screen suggesting
appropriate routines of how the error can be corrected.
In case of a fatal error that cannot be corrected, the program will be
suspended permanently.
6. Interrupt handling.
An Interrupt is a break from the normal sequential processing of
instructions in a program.
Each hardware device communicates to the processor using a special
number called the Interrupt Request number (IRQ). Therefore, when an
interrupt occurs, control is passed to the Kernel, which determines the cause
of the interrupt. The processor stops executing the current program to wait
for the corrective response of the user. Control is returned to the program
that was interrupted once corrective action has been taken.
Some causes of Interrupt.
i). An Interrupt caused by Power failure.
ii). Arithmetic or logic errors.
iii). Hardware malfunction, e.g. parity errors.
7. Interfaces the user to the system’s hardware.
The OS provides quick means of communication between the computer
user & its programs.
The user requests the services of the OS by use of commands & the OS
communicates the messages regarding the processing to the user through,
either the screen or printer.

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 Operating system (OS)

8. Logging & accounting.

The OS keeps records on how the computer’s resources, are being used. It
also keeps a complete record of all that happens during processing.
Examples of operating systems:
 DOS (Disk Operating System).
 Windows operating system:- Windows 95, 97, 98, 2000,XP,Vista, 7,8,10,11
 MacOS (Macintosh).
 Unix.
 Linux.
 Windows CE
 UNIX
 Linux
 NetWare

Factors to consider when choosing an operating system (OS)

i. Hardware configuration i.e. the memory capacity, size of the hard disk, type of processor etc
ii. Basic design of the computer is it an IBM or an apple computer etc
iii. Applications intended for the computer
iv. User friendliness or human interface i.e. is it command based, menu driven, or graphic user
interface based
v. Cost how expensive is it
vi. Availability in market Microsoft based OS are very common
vii. Reliability i.e. does it work without crashing or hanging

TYPES OF OPERATING SYSTEMS

Operating systems can be classified according to:
i. Number of users
ii. Number of tasks handled concurrently
iii. Human computer interface (HCI)

Classification according to number of users handled concurrently

a) A single user
Allows only one user to run one program at a time. Suppose, for example, you are
typing a memorandum in a word processing program and decide to browse the Web
for more information. If you are working with a single user operating system, you

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 Operating system (OS)

must quit/exit the word processing program before you can run the Web browser.
Example of single user OS is MS DOS

b) A multi-user operating system

Enables two or more users to run a program simultaneously. Networks,
minicomputers, mainframes, and supercomputers allow hundreds to thousands of
users to be connected at the same time, and thus are multi-user.

Classification according to number of tasks handled concurrently

a) Single tasking operating system
These operating systems allow processing of only one user program in main
memory at a time. This means that the user can only run one interactive program at a
time. The user must exit from one program before loading another example of this
OS is MS DOS

b) Multi tasking operating system

Allows a single user to work on two or more applications that reside in memory at
the same time. If you are working with a multitasking operating system, you do not
have to quit the word processing program to run a Web browser; that is, both
programs can run concurrently. Examples include windows 7, XP, 2000, Linux etc

Classification according to interface

The term human computer interface refers to the method of interaction between the computer
and the users and determines how easily the user can operate the computer

There are three main types of human computer interface (HCI)

a) Command line
The user interacts with the computer by typing a command at the prompt found on a
command line. The computer reads the instruction from the command line and
executes them example include MS DOS ,PC DOS,OS/2
Disadvantages of using command driven interfaces
 They are more difficult to learn.
 The user must know the command to type.
 It is less user-friendly.
 It is not easy to use, i.e., one is required to master the command
format/syntax.

b) Menu driven interface

This type of interfaces provide the user with a list of options or a menu to choose
from using the keyboard or pointing devices
Advantages of Menu driven interfaces
 Menus provide many options to select from.

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 Operating system (OS)

 The user is presented with a choice and therefore, does not need to master
any commands.
 They are easier to use.

c) Graphical user interface (GUI)

This is an interaction between the user & computer that involves issuing of
commands to the computer by activating certain small graphic images
displayed on the screen called Icons.
These features are given an acronym WIMP (windows, icons, menus and
pointing devices)
To issue a command, the icons can be selected using a pointing device like a
Mouse.

Examples of GUI based OS;

 Presentation manager of OS/2,
 Ms-Windows,
 Linux,
 Apple Macintosh.

Features of a graphical user interface.

 Programs are represented graphically by use of Icons.
 Commands are selected and issued using pointing devices, e.g., Mouse,
trackball.
 There is use of pull-down menus.
 Programs open by displaying windows.
Advantages of using GUI based OS
 They are user friendly.
 Easy to learn & use.
FACTORS TO CONSIDER WHEN CHOOSING AN OPERATING SYSTEM.
1. The hardware configuration of the computer such as the memory capacity,processor
speed and the hard disk capacity.
2. The type of computer in terms of size and make.
3. The application software intended for the computer
4. User-friendliness of the operating system.
5. The documentation available.
6. The cost of the operating system
7. Reliability and security provided by the operating system
8. The number of processors and hardware it can support

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 Operating system (OS)

The number of users it can support

How operating system Organizes information
Factors that dictates how an operating system organizes information.
1. Rapid access – the organization should allow quick access to stored data.
2. Economy of storage – should use the least storage possible.
3. Ease of update – should allows ease of update and the OS must be able to keep a
record of the date of modification.
4. Reliability – the file organization method must be reliable.
5. Simplicity of maintenance – should enable quick navigation through the file system
and make it easy for it to be maintained.

The OS organizes information in tree-tier hierarchy

i. Files
A file is a collection of related data given a unique name for ease of access, manipulation
and storage on a backup storage

Every file has the following details

a. A unique name and an optional extension
The name and the extension are separated by a period (.) e.g. Lettter1.doc
b. The size, date and time the file was created or modified

Types of files
 System file – contain information that is critical for the operation of the
computer example include config.sys, io.sys etc
 Application file – hold programs and are executable e.g. win98.exe
 Data file – contain user specified data e.g. sgccat1.doc
Functions of files.
√ Storage of data.
√ Organization of information

Table 1: file description table

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 Operating system (OS)

Extension File type Description

.doc Data Microsoft word document file
.txt Data A plain text file created using note pad or DOS editor
.tif Data A graphical file created using application such as adobe
Photoshop
.exe Application The file that launches a particular application e.g.
file Winword.exe, PM.70.exe etc
.bat System file File containing series of commands loaded during boot up
.sys System file System file that perform fundamental operations in a computer
ii. Directories / folders
It's a named storage area where the user can store related files to enable easy access.

Subfolders
A large folder may be divided into smaller units called subfolder. Therefore a subfolder or a
subdirectory is a folder/directory within another folder/directory

iii. Storage media / drives

Logical storage location usually associated with a physical storage device like the HDD.When
saving a file or creating a folder, one must identify a storage location, which is available and has
sufficient storage space e.g. Floppy disk, compact disk, hard disk etc
INTRODUCTION TO MS WINDOWS 10
Was officially released in 2015.
After you switch on a computer running on windows 10,you will get a welcome screen showing the
time and date.
Click anywhere to go to the user account then enter your user account and password.
A typical window 10 desktop consist of the following features:
√ Background
√ Icons
√ Taskbar

1. Taskbar.
The Taskbar is the bar located at the bottom of the screen / desktop that
includes the Start button.

Functions of the Taskbar.

(i). Indicates what programs are running.
(ii). Holding minimized programs.
(iii).The Taskbar enables the user to easily switch between different
programs and documents (tasks) that are currently running.
(iv). Provides the shortcut menu for arranging programs.

The Taskbar has 5 main parts;

(a). Start button: The leftmost button on the taskbar that the user clicks to
display the Start menu.labelled using the Microsoft logo

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 Operating system (OS)

(b).Task Manager: This is the plain strip that displays buttons of all

currently running tasks.

(c). Notification area (System tray): This is at the rightmost part of the
taskbar. It contains icons for some Windows programs and folders, and
tasks running in the background but are not displayed on the screen e.g
antivirus.
(d).Pinned apps:this is the part of the task manager that holds icons for
launching of frequently used apps such as web browser etc.
(e). Search box:presents a feature known as cortana that simplifies your
search for files and folders on the computer or web.

2. Icons.
 An Icon is a graphical representation of an element in Windows. It is a
little picture on your screen representing a program, disk drive, file,
folder or any other item.
 An Icon can also be described as a pictorial representation of a command.
 Examples of icons placed on the desktop include This Pc,Recycle
Bin,Network,User Documents etc

A pre-defined setting. E.g., Double-click is the default setting for opening

icons in Microsoft Windows.
Start Menu
Once you click on the start button or press the windows key, 2 main panes are displayed:
Start menu pane-this is the main menu used to access installed applications also known as
apps.
Live tiles-This pane contains thumbnails(tiles) that display apps and context information such
as news headlines and weather at a glance.

Application Window
 A window is a rectangular frame for displaying applications.
 The rectangular portion of the screen that displays an open program (file) or
the contents of a folder or disk.
Parts (Features or Properties) of a Window.
A window might contain all or some of the following features: -

1. The Title bar.

This is the horizontal bar on top of a program window that shows the name
of the active program, window, folder, or document.

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 Operating system (OS)

The Title bar also provides a way of moving the window to a new position
on the screen.

Functions of the Title bar.

(i). Identifies what program has been opened.
(ii). Helps us drag/move windows from one part of the screen to another.

It contains three tiny buttons found on the right hand corner of the Title bar.
(i). Minimize button – reduces the window to an icon on the Taskbar. To
activate a minimized window, click its icon on the Taskbar.
(ii). Maximize button – enlarges / expands the window to cover the whole
screen.
(iii). Restore button – Appears after the window has been maximized. It is
used to shrink/ change the window to its previous size before it was
maximized.
(iv). Close (or Cancel) button – removes a window or dialog box from the
desktop and quits a program.

2. Menu bar.
It contains a ribbon (list)of commands that can be used to manipulate a
task. It contains commands such as File, Edit, View, Tools, etc for
working in the program window.
A menu is a list of options or commands in a program from where you can
choose any one.
To open a menu, click on its name.
3. Toolbars.
These are bars that contain a set of buttons (shortcuts) for the various
commands in the Menu bar that you click to perform common tasks.
The commands are represented in the form of icons.
The buttons in the Toolbars provide alternatives of using commands in the
Menu bar.

4. Work area.
This is the area where the typing is done in a Word-processor screen.
Note. All Windows based application programs provide the user with a
unique working area suited to that particular application. It contains an
Insertion point which is a blinking vertical bar that appears when you
start a Word processing program. It is sometimes called the Cursor.

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 Operating system (OS)

It marks the place where text and graphics will appear when typed or
inserted.

5. Status bar.
This is an interactive strip at the bottom of the application window that acts
as a communication link between the user and the operating system.

6. Scroll bars.
These are bars that appear on the right-side (Vertical Scroll bar) or bottom
side (Horizontal Scroll bar) of the window.
They provide a way to move a window up & down or left & right in order
to show information that doesn’t fit in the window.

7. Mouse pointer.
This is an arrow, which appears on your screen if a mouse is installed & is controlled by
moving the mouse. It indicates the area of the screen that will be affected when you
press the mouse button.
The pointer usually appears as an arrow, but it can change shape depending
on its present location and the task one is performing.

File/folder management using the operating system / manipulating files/folders

i. Creating a Files/Folders

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 Operating system (OS)

This involves making a new file/folder

Procedure
a) Using My computer icon right click to display the Explorer window.
b) From the folder tree on the left pane, select the location in which you want to
create a new folder.
c) From the File menu, click new then click on folder
 A new folder with a temporary name New folder appears
in the explorer window
d) Type a new name for the folder to replace the temporary name then press or click
the icon once.
ii. Renaming Files/Folders
Refers to changing files from their original name to some other new names.
Procedure
a) Right click on the folder
b) From the menu that appears choose rename
c) Type in the new name
d) Then press or click the icon once.

iii. Sorting files/folders

Refers to organizing files and folders in a particular way.
Procedure
a) Open a folder or storage location then
b) Click view, point Arrange icons by
c) Choose the method of sort either by name, size, type or date modified

iv. Copying Files and folders

Enables the computer user to duplicate files and folders to another location.
Procedure
a) Using My computer icon right click.
b) From the drop down list click on Explorer.
c) From the explorer window on the edit menu, click copy
d) Select the drive or folder where you want the item to be copied.
e) From the edit menu click Paste. Information or item is pasted to a new location

v. Moving files/folders
Refers to moving files and folders to another location.
Procedure
a) Using My computer icon right click
b) From the drop down list click on Explorer.
c) From the explorer window on the edit menu, click cut
d) Select the drive or folder where you want the item to be copied.
e) From the edit menu click Paste.

vi. Deleting files/folders

Refers to removing the files and folders completely from the storage location. The information is
transferred into a special folder called recycle bin which can be restored if necessary
Procedure
Warning!

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 Operating system (OS)

a) One should not attempt to delete system and application files from the hard disk.
b) Items deleted from removable storage are not held in the recycle bin and are completely
lost.

To delete a file or folder proceed as follows:

a) Using My computer icon right click
b) Click on Explorer
c) From the folder tree on the left pane, select the item that is to be deleted.
d) On the File menu
e) A message appears on the screen asking whether you actually want to delete the
item.
f) Confirm by clicking Yes

Restoring deleted files and folders from the recycle bin to its original location proceed as follows
a) Double click the recycle bin Icon.
b) Select the deleted item (or items) to be restored.
c) Click on file and then restore

vii. Searching Files/folders

Refers to looking for a certain file or folder.
Procedure
a) From the start menu, click Find/Search.
b) From the dialogue box Type the name of the file and the location to look in
respectively.
c) Click Find Now button.

Functions of a file
i. Storage of data
ii. Organization of information

Information/properties that the OS can display about a file or a folder

i. The type of file
ii. The size of the file/folder
iii. The storage location of the file/folder
iv. Date the file/folder was created
v. The last date the file or folder was modified
vi. The last date the file or folder was accessed
vii. The attributes either hidden or read only

Disk Management Using Operating System

Windows operating system provides the users with tools that help them to manage storage devices
and media. This enhances proper and orderly way of data storage to avoid data loss.

Warning!

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 Operating system (OS)

Do not attempt these operations on disks without the guidance of the teacher. It is preferable to use
the floppy disk rather than the hard disk to perform these operations because some of them can easily
lead to loss of data and information stored on the hard disk.

i. Formatting Disk
Is process of preparing a new disk for use by creating sectors and tracks on the surface of
disk
Procedure
a) Put a new unformatted disk into the floppy drive, USB port for the flash disk etc
b) Double click my computer icon
c) Right click the icon labeled 3 ¼ floppy (A:) or the removable disk then select format
d) Select the disk capacity e.g. 1.44MB for floppy, format type i.e. either quick erase or
full
e) Give the diskettes/flash disk an internal name (label).
f) Click Start to begin formatting.
g) Once the process is over, click close

ii. Disk Defragmentation

Refers to arranging of scattered folders and files on a storage media for easy access of files
and folders.

Procedure to Defragment a 3 ½ floppy disk

a) Double click my computer icon to display the storage devices installed on computer.
b) Right click a drive icon 3 ½ floppy disk (A :).
c) From the shortcut menu, click properties, and then click on tools tab
d) From the dialog box displayed, click Defragment now button
e) From the dialog box displayed, click Defragment. A progress status bar is displayed.
f) Wait for the process to complete then close the defragmenter.

iii. Disk Compression

This tool help in consolidating files and folders in smaller storage areas hence creating
more space on the storage device

iv. Disk Partitioning

The process of dividing a large physical disk into two or more partitions called logical
drives. Each partition is treated as a separate drive installed on its own partition.
Reasons for partitioning
a) To install more than one Operating System
b) For the purpose of backup
Read on the procedure for disk partitioning

v. Backing up Data
The tool enables the user to create copies of data and programs on separate storage areas to
avoid losing of data and programs incase the storage device fails.
Procedure to Backing up Data
a) Click the start button, point to programs, Accessories, system tools then click on
Backup

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 Operating system (OS)

b) A welcome to Microsoft Backup dialog box appears, click OK to close it.

c) In the Microsoft Backup dialog box, select the files and/or folders you want to
backup by placing checkmarks next to their names. When all the files in a folder are
selected, it will appear gray.
d) Follow the on screen instructions to accomplish the operation
vi. Scanning Storage Device
This tool helps the user to check up and repair minor storage problems e.g. lost storage or
damaged surface.

vii. Scanning for Virus

Refers to checking your system for virus and removing them

Examples of antiviruses
 Norton anti-virus
 Escan
 MacAfee
 Avira.
 Avast
 Kaspersky
 Nod 32

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