Discrete NMathematics

regions,
26
haseedges, v vertices and r
connected planar graphG
(2) Ifa then v - e t r = 2 .

and v vertices, then 3v -e>6.

graph Ghas e edges
(3) Ifa connected planar only ifn <5.
planar ifand
(4) A complete graph K, is andonly if m<3orn >3.
planar if
bipartite graph K. is
(5) A complete

Fig. : (2)
Fig. :(1)

called a bipartite graph if itsvertices Vcan be

G=(V,E) is
Bipartite Graph: Agraph of V, to a
such that each edge of G connects a vertex
partitioned into two subsets V,
änd V,
joiningtwo vertices in V,or two vertices in V,.2 It is
vertex of V, In other words,
no edge
andn are number ofvertices in V, and V, respectively.
denoted by K, where m

b.
U

Fig. Bipartite Graph K4 Fig. Bipartite Graph K3.4

i lits vertices

Ans.(ii)Regular Graph : Agraph is saidto be regular or K-regularllifall!

graph.A

havethe same degree K.A graph whose all vertices have degree 2is called 2-regular
complete graph Kis regular of degree n-1.
 Semester Solved papers, July -2022
27

V
Fig. : 2-regular Graph
Fig. : 3-regular Graph
Undirected Complete Graph : An undirected complete graph
isagraph in which each vertex is connected to every other vertex G=(,E) ot nverteeS
i.e., and edge exists between
every pair of distinct vertices. It is denoted by K. Acomplete graph with nvertices
will have
n(71)2 edges.

Fig. : K4 Undirected complete graph

Q.9.(a)State and Prove Euler's Formulà for Graph. (7.5)

Ans. Euler's Theorem:
Statement:Consider any connected planar graph G=(V,E) having Rregions, V
vertices and E edges. Then
V+R-E = 2.
Proof: Use induction on the number of edges to prove this theorem.
Basis of Inductions : Assume that the edges e= 1.Then we have two cases, graphs
of which are shown in Figs.(1) and (2).

Fig. :(1) Fig. : (2)

 Discrete Mathenatics
l-|=2

28 1. Thus 2 +
R=
V= 2and 1+
2-|=2.

we have Thus
In Fig.(|) V'= |and R= 2.
we have
In Fig.(2)
ofinduction is verified. formula
connected planar graphs
holds for co
Hence, the basis assumethat
the
Induction Step
: Let us

with K edges.
bea graph with K+ l
edges.
circuits. Now, takea
vertexvand
find apath
Let G contains no a new
suppose that G
we an edge, We
have vertex. At last
Firstly, whenever we find
Gis circuitfree, further as shown in Fig.(3).
cannotimove
starting at v. Since with degreee1. So we
incident on v. So, we are left with
we will reach a vertex v corresponding edge

Nowremove vertex
vand the
Fig.(4).
G* having K edges as shown in
agraph

G
Fig. : (3) Fig. : (4)

Hence, by inductive assumption, Euler's formula holds for G*,

Now, since Ghas one more edge than G*, one more vertex than G*with same nunthu
of regionsas in G*.Hence, the formula also holds for G.
Secondly, we assume that Gcontains acircuit ande is anedge in the circuit shown h
Fig(5).

V.

Fig, :(5)
Fig. : (6)
 Semester Solved papers, July -2022
Now, as eissthe part of a 29
leftwith graph G*
boundary for two regions. So, we
weare having Kedges
Lence. by inductive assumption, (Fig.(6).
only remove the edge and

Now, since G has more edge Euler's fomula holds for G*.
than G*,one more region
vertices as G* Hence the formula than G* with same number of
also holds for Gwhich,
proves the theorem verifies the inductive:step and hence
Q.9.(b) What do you mean by Spanning
Tree ? Explain an algorith mto find
Minimal Spanning Tree.
Ans. Spanning Tree: Consider aconnected (7.5)
graph G=(V, E). Aspanning tree 1 is
defined as a subgraph of GifTis atree and Tincludes
all the vertices of G.
Minimum Spanning tree: Consider a connected weighted graph
minimal spanning treeT of the graph Gis atree whose total weight is G=(V, E). A
smallest among allthe
spanning trees of the graph G. The total weight of the spanning tree is the sum oftheweights of
the edges of the spanning trees.
The minimum weight ofthe spanning tree is unique but the spanning tree may not be
unique because morethanonespanning
o tree are possible when more than one edges exist
having the same weight
Kruskal'sAlgorithm :Suppose we are given aconnected weighted graph. First of all
name allthe vertices. Also listállthé edges in thè increasing order oftheir weights (i.e.taking the
minimum cost first).
Now, jot down allthe vertices along with their names given in the graphs.
Step 1:Get the first edge byjoiningthe vertices topping the above list.
Step 2: Get the second edge by joiningthe vertices topping in the list.
Step 3:Consider the next (3d) edge in the list. Ifit doesnot forn acycle with already
selected edges than join the vertices to get the edge. Ifit forms acycle with the already selected
edges, reject it.
Step 4: Repeat the above step till you get aspanning tree i.e. you have jointed all the
vertices.
(2) Prim'sor Dijkstra's Algorithm :Another way to compute minimum spanning
tree for a weighted graph is Prim's Algorithm. It was discovered by Prim and Dijkstra
simultanously but independenty.
Step 1:Select any arbitary vertex say v, as tree root.
Step 2: Find edge e, = (Vo, )in E such that its one end vertex v, is in T and its
weight is minimum Join the vertex v, to v.
 Discrete Mathemuti
30 v, is in
v) suchthat its one end vertex Tand the
Step 3: Select the next edge e, =(V, from acircuit)
weight
also the
and of the edgee
should not
other end vertex v,is not in T. (e,: to
Join the edge e,and Ithe vertex v,
is as small as possible. 1.
the step 3 until all the vertices of Gare in
Step 4 :Repeat
Tis the required minimum spanning tree.
This is the required Minimal Spanning Tree.

RO
 DISCRETE MATHEMATICS
May - 2023
Paper Code:-PCC-CSE-202-G

Note: Atempt five questions in all,

Ouestion No. I is compulsory. All questionsselecting one question from each Section.
carry equal marks.
).1.(a) Define equivalence relation.
Ans. Arelation Ron aset Ais called an equivalence
properties:
relation ifit satisfies following three
(0) Relation Ris reflexive i.e., aRa y ae A.
(2) Relation Ris symmetric i.e., aRb’ bR.
(3) Relation Ris transitive i.e.,aRb and bRc ’ uRc.
Q.1.(b) Describe Hasse diagram in short.
Ans. Hasse Diagram: It is auseful tool. which completely describes the associated
àtiial order. Therefore, it is also called an ordering diagram. It is very easy to convert a
wirecied graph of arelation on aset Ato an equivalent Hasse diagram. Therefore, while drawing
atHasse diagram following points must be remembered.
() The vertices in Hasse diagram are denoted by points rather than by circles.
(2) Since a partial order is reflexive. hence each vertex ofA must be related to itself, so
tne edges from a vertex to itselfare deleted in Hasse diagram.
(3) Sincea partial order is transitive. hence whenever aRb. bRc. we have aRc. Eliminate
ailedges that are implied by the transitive property in Hasse diagram i.e. Delete edge from ato
cbut retain the othertwoedges.
(4) Ifa vertex 'u' is connected tovertex h by an edge i.e.,aRb, then vertex 'b
appears above vertex 'a.Therefore. the arrows may be ommitted from the edges in Hasse
diagram.
The Hasee diagram is nnuch simpler than the directed graph of the partialorder.
Q.1.(c) State Pigeon-Hole principle.
Ans. The Pigeonhole Principle : lfnpigeonholes are occupied by -Ior more
pigeons. then at least one pigeonhole is occapid by greater than one pigeon. Generalized
pigeonhole principle is: -Ifn pigeonholes are occupied by k+lor more pigeons. where kis a
positive integer, then at least one pigeonhole is occupied by k+lor more pigeons.
Q.1.(d)Define semi group.
Ans. Semigroup: Let us consider. an algebraic system (4.*), where * is abinary
operation on A. Then, the systen (4.*) is said to be asemi-group if it satisfies the following
properties :
() The operation * isa closed operation on set 4.
(2)The operation *is an associative operation.
 Discrete Mathematies
32
operation.
Ans. Binary Operation : Consider anon-empty set Aand afunction fsuch that f.A
Q.1.(e) Define binary
A’4is called a binary operation on A. If* is a binary operation on A, then it may be witten

as a * b. symbols +,-, *,e .

Abinary
The operation can be denoted by any of the A,a,Y etc.
value ofthe binary operation is denoted by placing the operator between thetwo

operation on the set of natural nunmhe

operands.
() The operation ofaddition is a binary
() The operation ofsubtraction isa binary operation on set ofintegers. But, the operation
ofsubtraction is not a binary operation on the set of natural numbers because the subtraction of

two natural numbers may or may not be a naturalnumber.

natural numk
(i) The operation of multiplicationis a binary operation on the set of
set of integersand set of complex numbers.
(i) Theoperation of set union isa binary operationi on the set of subsetsofa univereal
set. Similarly. the operation of set intersection is abinary operation on the set of subsets ofa
universal set.

Q.1.() Define planargraph.

Ans. Planargraph : Agraph is said to be planar ifit can be drawn in a plane so that
no edges cross.
For example :The graphs shown in fig.(1) and fig.(2) are planar graphs.

2
V,

Fig.(1)
Fig.(2)
0.2.(a) Explain in detail Unit-1
Ans. Operations on sets:difTerent
The basicoperations and law sets.
() Union of Sets : Union of set operations are:
eleiments which belong1to Aor. Bor the sets Aand Bis defined to be the set of allthose
both and is
AUB =x:xE AOrdenoted by AUB.
e.g.. Let xE B}
AUB = =1,2,3), B= (3, 4. 5,6}
{1.2,3.4, 5,6}.
 Solved papers, May -2023
Semester;
ics
(2) IntersectionnofSets : Intersection of two sets A 33
hich belongto both Aand Band is denoted by A n B. and Bis the set of allthose
clements
AnB= x:E Aandre B}
en Let
e.g. A = (a. b, c, d. B (a,
b, l, m}
AnB = (u. b}
(3) Difference of Sets :The difference of twosets
A
and Bis a set of all those elements
shich belong to 4 but do not belong to Band is denoted by 4- B.
A B (r:xe Aand x EB}
e.g., Let A =(a, b,c, d), B- (d. l, m, n}
f 4B- {a, b. c}.
(4) Complement of aSet w.rt. a Universal Set :The coimplement ofa set Ais a set
nfallthose elements of the universalset which do not belong to 4 and is denoted by A.
A° = U-- A= (r:xe Uand x A}={r:x A}
e.g.. Let U is the set ofallnatural numbers.
A ={1. 2.3}
A° = (all natural numbers except 1.2, 3}.
(5) Symmetric Difference of Sets :The symmetric difference of two sets Aand Bis
the set containingall the elements that are in Aor in Bbut not in both and is denoted by A B
ie.,
A
DB = (AUB)-(4nB)
e.g.,
() Let A = (a, b, c, d}
B =(a, b, l, m}
ADB = (c, d, l, m}
(i) Let A={1, 2, 3, 4}
A {1,2, 3, 4}
(iii) Let A = {I. m, n, m}
AA = ).

Law Sets:
(i) Idempotent Laws (v) ldentity Laws
(a) AUA=A (a) AUØ= A
(b) AnA=A (b) 4n U= 4
(c).4UU=
(ii) Associative Laws
(a) (AU B)oC=AU(BUC)
(b) (40 B)oC=An(BoC) (vi)Complement LLaws
(a) 4U4=U
(ii)Commutative Laws
(b) An4
(u) Au B= BUA
(c) =
(b)An B= BoA (d) =U
 Discrete Matleat B Tec
(viii) Involution aw
34
(iv) (Distributive Laws
(a) (A'y A. 6. 10

a) 4 U B n C ) = AUB)o(4U)

(3) 4nBUC)(AnB) (4nO

Laws
(") De Morgan's
AB
(o) (4U B) +
() (4n B)UB.

different types with

the help of suitable
lattices and its there
Q.2.(b) Deseribe
examples.
poset in which every pair ofelements has aleast upper
Ans. Lattices: Alattice L. is a infimum.
or supremum and a greatest lower bound (GLB)or
bound (LUB)
pOset L under the ordering <. Let a. be L. Then LUB (u. h)yr
Join: Consider a b=SUPi i
denoted by avbor auband is calledthe join ofa and b i.e., a v (b.
(a. b) is s. Let a. bE L. Then GLB(. b)ori
Consider aposet L under the ordering 1.
Meet :
meet ofa and b i.e., a ab=inr(a, by
(a. b) is denoted by anboranband is called the structure with two binan
From the above. it follows that a latticeLis a mathematical
elements a.b
operations v(Join) and a(neet). It is denoted by {L. v, A}. The lattice L for any
and c satisfies the following properties :
(a) Commutative Property (b) Associative Property
() aah=baa () (aab) ac=aa(Bac)
(ii) av b =bvu. (ii) (avb) vc=av(bvc)
(c) AbsorptionPropery
() anlav b) = a ha
(ii) av (a ab) = a.
Types of lattices :
(1) Bounded Lattices : A lattice L is called a bounded lattice if it has a
element I and a least element 0. reatest
Example :(i)The power set P(S) of theset S under
union is a bounded lattice since is the least element the operations of intersection and
of P(S) and the set S is the grealest
element of P(S).
dis
(ii) The set of tve integers / under the usual
it has a least element I but the order of< is not a bounded lattice silike
greatestelement does not exist.
Properties of Bounded Lattices :ItLisa bounded
we have the following identities : lattice. then for any element
() av l=1 (ii) an| a (iii)
(2) Sublattices : Consider a a v0=a (iv) aa0
non 0.
sublattice of Lif L, itself isa lattice w.r.t. empty subset L, of alatticeL. Then L!is cal.:
whenever ae L, and be L. the operations of Li.e.. ifa v
be L, andu
Exanple :Consider thethe lattice of all
The lattice D of al! divisors +ve integers / under the
of n>Tisa sublattice ofI. operation ofdivisibliiN
BTech 4h Semester, Solved papers, May -2023 35

Detemine all the sublattices of D, that contain at least four elements. D,1.2.3.5.
6. 10, 15, 30}.
Sol: The sublattices of D, that contain at least four elements are as follows:
() {1.2, 6, 30} (ii) {1, 2.3.30
(ii){1, 5, 15, 30} (iv) {1, 3. 6, 30}
(r) {I.5, 10, 30} (vi) {1,3, 15, 30}
(vii) {2. 6, 10, 30}.
isomorphic lattices if
(3) lsomorphic Lattices : Two lattices L, and L, are called
there is a bijection from L,to L, i.e.. f: L, -’L, such that
f(an b)= f(a) af(b) andf(av b) = f(u) v f(b)
for every element a, b belongs to L,.
Example :Determine whetherthe lattices shown in Fig.(1 )are isomorphic.
Sol: The lattices shown in Fig.(1) are isomorphic. Considerthe mappingf-(a. l).
Af(c)-2A3
(b. 2). (c. 3). (d, 4)}. For example f(b a c)=f(a)=1.Also we have f(b)
1.

b 2

Fig. : (|)
lattice if for any elenents d.
(4) Distributive Lattice:Alattice L is called distributive
hand cofL. it satisfies following distributiveproperties :
(i) an (bvc)=(a ab) v(avc) (aac)
(i} av (bnc)=(avb) a properties.it is called a non-distributive
íthe lattice L does not satisfies the above
latice.
For Example : union is a
power set P(S) of the set Sunder the operations ofintersection and
(1) The
distributive function. Since,
an(buc) = (anb)u(unc)
any sets a. band cof P(S).
ad also uv(bnc) =(aub)n(uuc) for
Since it satislies the distributive properties
(2) The lattice shown in Fig.(2) is distributive.and
1.2,3, 4.
forall ordered triples which are taken from

3 2

Fig. : (2)
 Discrete Mathenatics B.T

36
following in short : Neg
Q.3. Explain the
(a) Propositions de
(b) Tautologies
(c) Logicalequivalence stateiment
whichis either true or false. Itisa
propositionis a
Ans.(a) Proposition:Ap
declarative sentence. propositions :
following statements are all
For example : The
Nehru is the first prime minister of India.
() Jawahar Lal
(i) Itrained yesterday.
(ii) Ifx is an integer, then is a+ ve integer. propos1tions : be
Yrexample : The following statementsare
not
are
() Please report at 1la.m. sharp.
(ii) What is your name ?
(ii)x= 13.
Combination of propositions : We can combine the propositions
to produce new
connectos to conbine the
propositions. There are three fundamental and three derived
propositions. These are explained as follows:
(a) Fundamental Connectors
(19 Conjunction : It means ANDing oftwostatements. Assume p and ybe two
propositions. Conjunction of pand qto be aproposition which is true when both pand yare
true, otherwise fålse. It is denoted by pAg. [Fig.(1)) p
Truth tables are used to determine the truth or falsity of thecombined proposition.

T T
T F F
T F
F F F

Fig.(1): Truth
(2) Disjunction : It means ORingTable of pAq. tru
of two statements. ASsume p
propositions. Disjunction of pand qto be a proposition and g be WO
which is
when both p and q are false. It is true when either one or boui
p and gare true and is false
denoted by Dva. [Fig.(2))
T T
T F
F| T
FF F

Fig.(2): Truth Table of pv 4.

B. Tech 4th Semester, Solved papers, May -2023 37

(3) Negation:Itmeans opposite of originalstatement. Assume pbe aproposition.

Negation ofptobe a proposition which is true when p is false, and is false when p is true. It is
denoted by - p. (Fig.(3)].

T
F

Fig.(3):Truthtable of ~ p.
(b) Derived Connectors:
()NAND: It means negation after ANDing oftwo statements. Assume p and g
be two propositioins. Nanding ofp and qto be a proposition which is false when both pand g
are true, otherwise true. It is denoted by pTq. [Fig.(4)]
Tg
F
F
F T T
F T
Fig. : (4)
(2) NORorJoint Denial:Itmeans negation after ORingoftwo statements. Assurne
pand gbe two propositions. NORing of pand qto bea proposition which is true when both
pand qare false, otherwise false. It is denoted by p q.[Fig.(5)].
pq
|

T T F
T F F
F T F
F F
Fig. :(5)
(3) XOR:Assume pand qbe two propositions. XORing of pand qis true ifp is
true or if qistrue but not both and vice-versa. It is denoted by pq. [Fig.(6)].
pq
T T
T F T
F T
F F F
Fig. : (6)
Ans.(b)Tautologies : Aproposition Pisatautology ifit is true under all circumstances.
Itmeans it contains only Tin the final column of its truth table.
Example : Prove that the statement (p-’ ) +(-q’-p) is atautology.
 Discrete Matlhemati
38 B.7
statement :
Sol:Make the truth table of above ~pp ’ ) <’(~4 -’
p ~q ’
p’q
T T
F F
F 7 T all
T
F F
T
F 7 T D
tautology.
As the finalcolumn contains alT's soit isa
prupositions are said to be logically equivalenti
Ans.(c)Logicalequivalence: Twounder all circumstances.
The table
contains the
they have exactly the same truth values
fundament.al logicalequivalent expressions : (6)Complement Properties the
() De Morgan's Laws

(7) Transposition
(2) Commutative Properties
PvgqYpipaq=q^p. (p’ )(-g’-p)
(3) Associative Properties (8) Material Implication
a
(pvq)vr<pv(qvr) (p-’)@ (-pvq)
(paq)arpaqAr)
(4) Distributive Properties (9) Material Equivalence
palqvr)(paq) v(gvr) (p ’ ) [(p’ ) A(q- >p))
pv(gar)=(pv)a (q vr) (pt)=|(p’) v(-pA- g)
(5) Impotent Laws (10) Exportation
pvpp and p a psp. (p vq)-<(p’(4’))
Unit-II

Q.4. Find the number of arrangements of the letters of the

word
INDEPENDENCE. In how many of these arrangements :
(a) do the words start withP
(b) do allthe vowels always Occur together
(c) do the vowels never 0Ccur together
(d) do the words begin with / and end wvith P.
Ans. The given word contains 12letters out
tines. Doccurs 2 times and rest are all different. of which Noccurs 3 times. Eoccurs

Therefore, the total number of 12!

arrangements = =1663200
() For the words to start P, we 43!2!
we have to arrange the have to fix the letter Pat
extreme position. ibus.
reimaining lI letters
occurs 2 times and rest are all different out of which Noccurs 3 lett
times, Eoccurs 4tines. D
 B.Tech 4th Semester; Solved papers, May -2023 39
|!
The number of words starting with P =138600
413!2!
(i) There are in all 5 vowels in the given word, which comprise of4 E's and I I. Since
all the vowels have to occur together, so we treat 5vowels as one letter (EEEEI).
Now, there are 8letters (N. D, P,N, D. N, C. EEEE) out of which Noccur 3times.
Doccurs 2times and rest are all different.
Total number of arrangements =
3! 8x7x6x 5x 4x3!
3!2! 3!x2
Corresponding to each such arrangement, the 5vowels can be arrangedamongst
S!
themselves in =5 ways.
4!
Hence. the required number of arrangements 3360 x 5 = 16800.
(iii) The number ofarrangements in which the vowels never occur together.
=Total number of words -number of words in which vowels occur together
=1663200 - 16800= 1646400 ways
(iv) For thewords to begin with Iand end with P, we have to fix IandPat extreme left
and extreme right end positions.

Thus, we have to arrange to remining 10letters out of which Noccurs 3 times. E

Occurs 4 times and Doccurs 2 times.
Hence, the required number of arrangements = 10!
312!4!
10x9x8x7x6x 5
= 12600.
3×2xlx 2x1
Q.5. Solve the difference equations :
(a) a,,,+ 2u,,3 +34,+2 + 24,+1 +a=0
(b) 4, + 5a, + 64,2 =3r'-2r +1
Ans.(a) 4..,+ 2a.. 3 t 3a,,,+ 2u,., ta=0
The characteristic equation isst+2s+3s+ 2s +|=0
or (s +s+ 1(s +s+ I) =0
or S=
-1tiN3 -1ti/3
2 2
Therefore, the homogeneous solution isgiven by
-+i3Y
+(CG +Cr) 2

Ans.(b) a +5a,,+ 6a, ,=3r-2r+ 1

The characteristic equation is
 Discrete Mathenatics
40
a'+ Sa +6 0
(a+ 3) (a + 2 ) 0
a 3 , -2are the roots
complementary function
C. -
C3y + C-2Y
To find PS. a P =An+ Bn +C
..The GE. becomes
- ) + ) + 6(A(7-2) + B(n- 2) + C)=3
A(n) +Bn +C+ 5 (4(n - 1)- B(n
-2n +l
Equating the coefficients oflike powers ofn. we get
124 = 3: 12B - 34A=-2
294 -17B+ 12C = 1
13 71
A = -: B= 288
4 24
13 71
P.S. = aP=.4 24
-n+
288
Hence. the general solution is
13 71
= G(-3)" +(-2)" +-n+n+
4 .24 288

Unit-III
Q.6. Define following terms with the help of suitable examples :
(a) 0somorphism
(b) Group
(c) Normal subgroup
Ans.(a) Isomorphism:An algebraic system (B, *) is said to be isomorphicto another
system (4. ) if we can obtain (B, *) from (4, *) by renaming the elements of Aand /or by
renaming the operation . More precisely. we say that an algebraic system (B, *) is isomorphic
to another algebraic system (4, «) if there exists a one to one correspondence ffrom AtoB
such that for all elements a, and a, in A.
Ka, « a) =Aa,) *u,)
The function fis called an isomorphism from (4, )to (B, *). (B, *) is called an
isomorphic image of A.
For example, consider the algebraic systems (4, +) and (B, *)defined as shown in
table on the right. ue

b
b B
B. Tech 4 Semester; Solved papers, May -2023 41

If we define fby f(a) - oa. f(b) =B then fis isomorphic, because

f(ax b)=f(b) and f(a) *f(b) =a# ß=B=f(6)
f(a b) =f(a) *f(b)
Ans.(b) Group:Let us consider an algebraic system (G *). where * is a binary
operation on G. Then the system (G ) is said to be agroup if it satisfies following properties:
() The operation * is aclosed operation.
() The operation *is an associative operation.
(i) There exists an identity element w.r.t. the operation *.
(iv) For every a e G, there exists an element a- e Gsuch that
a!*a= a* l=e
e.g, The algebraic system (1, +), where lis the set of all integers and +is an addition
operation, is agroup. The element 0is the identity element w.rt. the operation +. The inverse of
every element a e Iis-a e l.
For example, consider the algebraic system (Q, +) where Qis the set of all rational
numbers and + is an addition operation.
Closure property :The set Qis closed under operation +, since the addition of two
rationalnumbers isa rational number.
Associative Property :The operation + is associative, since (a+ b) tc=a+(b+ c)
Va, b, ceQ.
ldentit' :The element 0 is the identity element. Hence a+0=0+a-avaç Q.
Inverse :The inverse of every element a e Qis -a c Q. Hence tlhe inverse of every
element exists.
Since, the algebraic system (a, +)satisty alltheproperties of a group. hence (a. +)is
a group.
Ans.(c) Normal Subgroup:Consider a group (G. *) and subgroup (H: *) of the
group,then the (H, *) is called a normalsub-group if for any aE G, we have
aH = Ha.
The meaning ofthe above definition is that if His a normal sub-group. then both the left
and right cosets of Hin Gare equal.
Theorem:Showthat every sub-group Hof an abelian group Gis normal.
Proof: Let us assume any element uE H
Also, assume any element be G
Then we have b-' ah = ab b= ae b=e
We know that a ¬ Ha
Hence, His a normal sub-group.
Q.7. Define the following terms with the help of suitable examples :
(a) Rings
(b) Boolean algebra
(c) Principle of duality
 Discrete Mathennatics
42
.) where Ris a set with two arbitrary
algebraic system (R. +.
Ans.(a) Rings : An satisfies following conditions :
and ., is called a ring ifit
binary operations +
()) (R. t)is an abelian group.
() (R. ) is a semigroup. operation +ie
operation,.. is distributive over the addition
(un) The multiplication
+ ac and (b t c)a ba + ca tor all a, b, c e R
alb + c) = ab e dl
Consider Mbe the set ofall matrices of the type over integers
For exanple:
under matrix additionand matrix multiplication.
Thus Mfom ring.
example: The set Z% ={0, 1.2.3,4. 5.6.7. 8} under the operation addition and
For
multiplication modulo 9 forms a ring.
Types ofRings :
Commutative Rings :A ring (R, +, ) is called a commutative ring if it holds the
(1)
commutative lawunder the operation of multiplication i.e.,
a. b =b. a, for every a, be R
operation of addition
For example : Consider a set E of alleven integers under the
and multiplication. The set E forms a commutative ring.
multiplicative
(2) Ring with Uniny :A ring (R, +, ) is called a ring with unity, ifit has a
identity i.e.
a. e =e. a =a for every a e R
For example : Consider a set Mof all 2 x 2 matrices over integers under matrix
0
multiplication and matrix addition. The set Mforns a ring with unityo :
(3) Ring with Zero Division : If a. b= 0, where a and b are any two non-zero
elements ofR in the ring (R, +, )then a and bare called divisions of zeroand the ring (R. t. )
iscalled ring with zero division.
(4) Ring without ZeroDivision :An algebraic system (R, +,.) where R is a set with
twoarbitrary binary operation +and. , is called a ring without divisiors of zero if for every , b.
¬R, we have
ab # 0 a 0 and b0.

Ans.(b) BooleanAlgebra :Accnip'nented distributive lattice is called aBoolean

algebra. It isdenoted by (B. A, V,,0, I). where B is a set on which two binary operatlo
A(*)and v (+) anda unary operation (complement) are defined. Here 0 and Iare tw
distinct elements ofB.
Since (B, A, v) is acomplemented distributive lattice, therefore each element of b
a unique complement.
OR
Consider aset B on which two binary operation * and + and a uniary operation'
(complenent).) are defined. Also let 0and l are (wo distinct element of B. Then itis calleda
 BTech 4t Semester: Solved papers,
May-2023 43
Boolean algebra, if the following properties are satisfied for
Bby it. any elements a, band cofthe set
(1) Commutative Properties :
() atbb+a
() a*b=b*a
(2) Distributive Properties :
() a+(b * c)= (a+ by* (a+ c)
()a* (b+ c)=(a* b) + (a*)
(3) ldentity Properties:
() a+ 0 a
(ii) a* |=a
(4) Complement Laws:
(i) ata= |
(ii) a * a=0
The Boolean algebra is denoted by (B. +,
*.",0. 1).
Example:Consider aset B= 0. 1}.Also consider the operations *, +
set Bas shown. Since the algebra (B. *. +.,0. and´on the
1) satisfies allthe properties. Hence, it is a
Boolean algebra.
01 + |0 1
00 0 1
||0 1 I|0
Ans.(c) Principle of Duality : The dual ofany expression Eis
the operations +and *and also interchangingthe obtained by inierchanging
original expression E.
corresponding identity elements 0and , in
Example :Writethedual of following Boolean expressions:
() (y*x) +(x *x3) (i) (1 +x,) * (r, + 1)
(ii) (a a (bac).
Sol.() (x +x)*(41+x3) (i)(0 *x) +(r, *0)
(i)(a v(bac))
Unit-IV
Q.8. Explain the following terms with the help of suitable example:
(a) Graph
(b) Isomorphic graph
(c) Weighted graph
Aus.(a) Graph: Let us consideranalgebraic system (G, *), where *is binary
on G Then the system (G, *) is said to be a group ifit operation
satisfies following properties :
() The operation *is a closed operation.
(i) The operation *is an associativeoperation.
 Discrete Matlematics
44

(ii) There exists an identity element w.r.t. the operation".

e Gsuchthat.
(iv) For every a e G. there exists an elementar!
a-l*a =a* al=e
The algebraic system (I. +), where / is the set of all integers and + is an additi
e.g. operation +. The inverse of
a group. The element Ois the identity element w.r.t. the
operation,isSa
every element a e lis-a el.
Axanple:Let us consider thealgebraic system(. +)
where Ois the set of all rational
numbers and + is an addition operation.
. Since the addition of
Then, Cosre propern:The setO isclosed under operation
tworational number is a rational number.
Associative Property: The operation +is associative. since (a+
b) +c=4+(h,
c) ta.b,ceQ.
Indentithy: The element 0is the identity element. Hence a+0 =0+a=aVae0.
Inverse : The inverse ofevery element aeQ is -aeQ. Hence the inverse of evey
element exists.
Since. the algebraic sytema. +)satisfy all the properties ofa group, hence (a. +)is a
group.

Ans.(b) Isomorphic graph : Isomorphic graphs : Twograph GandG, are called

isomorphic graphs ifthere is a one-to-one correspondence between their vertices and between
their edges i.e., the graphs have identical representation except that the vertices may have
different labels.
For Example : Consider the following graphs shown in fig.(1) and fig.(2). They are
isomorphic graphs.

V.

Fig. ¢l)
Fig. (2)
Ans.(c) Weighted graph : Agraph G=(V. E)
of graph Gis assigned positive number is calleda weighted graph ifeach edge
w
For example :The gaph shown incalled the weight ofthe edge e.
fig.(3) and fig.(4) is a weighted
graph.
B.Tech 4 Semester, Solved papers, May -2023
45

4
C

K
8 11 24
6

D E
M

Fig.(3) Fig.(4)
Q.9. Write short note on:
(a) Binary trees and its traversals
(b) Eluerian paths and circuits
Ans.(a) Binary tree: Ifthe outdegree of every node is less than or equal to 2. in a
directed tree then the tree is called a binary tree. Atree consisting of no nodes
(empty tree) is
also a binary tree. Abinary tree is shown in Fig.(1).

M
Fig. : (1)

Traversing Binary trees : Traversing means to visit all the nodes of the tree. There
are three standard methods totraverse the binary trees. These are as follows :
(1) Preorder traversal
(2) Postorder traversal
(3) Inorder traversal.
(1) Preorder traversal: The preorder traversal of abinary
tree is a recursive proces.
The preorder traversal ofa tree is
(i) Visit the root ofthe tree.
() Traverse the left subtree in preorder.
(ii) Traverse the right subtree in preorder.
 Discrete Mathematics
46
(2) Postorder traversal: The postorder traversal ofa binary tree is arecursive process.

The postorder traversal ofa tree is

() Traverse the left subtree in postorder.
(ii) Traverse the right subtree in postorder.
(iüi)Visit the root of thetree. proces.
traversal: The inorder traversal of abinary tree is a recursive
(3) Inorder
The inorder traversal ofa tree is
() Traverse in inorder the left subtree.
(in) Visit the root of the tree.
(iii) Traverse in inorder the right subtree
the preorder: postorder: and inorder traversal of the binary ree ne
Determine
shown in Fig.

as follows:
The preorder, postorder and inorder traversal ofthetree is
Preorder 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11
Postorder 3 4 2 7 10 9 || 8 6 I
Inorder 2 5 4 7 6 9 10 8 |1.

Ans.(b) Euler Path:An Euler path through agraph is a path whose edge list contains
each edge of the graph exactly once.
Euler Circuit :An Eulercircuit is a path through a graph. in which the initial vertex
appears second time as the terminal vertex.
In the graph G, shown in fig.(1). ae be,ce de ae, is an Euler path because the edges
appear exactly once. In the graph G2 ae,be,ce de e,ais the Euler circuit.

G, Gz
Fig. : (1)