Module 8: From The Universe To The Atom

Origins Of The Elements

investigate the processes that led to the transformation of radiation into matter that followed the ‘Big Bang’

The Big Bang

During the 1920s, Belgium physicist, Georges Lemaitre, proposed his model for the origins of the universe called the
Big Bang model. The Big Bang model states that the entire universe was created from a singularity – a tiny and
extremely dense point where all the matter was concentrated.
The process of expansion and cooling allowed matter to form and with it the universe as we know it today. The model
outlines that time didn’t exist before the Big Bang and only began with the Big Bang. To predict what occurred during
the creation of the universe, physicists utilise particle physics and the Theory of General Relativity. This allowed them
to piece the puzzle regarding the creation of the universe from the very beginning.

Planck Era
Planck Era: 0 seconds to 10^-43 seconds

Certain theoretical studies propose that in order for general relativity and quantum physics to unify, it is required to
quantise space and time. Meaning that time itself consists of discrete and indivisible units. The length of each unit is
termed Plank time and has a value of 1.35 x 10-43 seconds.
Therefore, when the Big Bang occurred the first unit of time called the Planck era ‘clicked’ of the clock of the
universe. During the Plank era, it is impossible to completely explain what occurred but it was known that the
universe existed as a singularity in a hot and dense state with temperatures above 1032 Kelvin.

During this era, quantum fluctuations were present. Quantum fluctuations are unpredictable shifts in the amount of
energy at a point in space. Also, it was believed that during this period all 4 fundamental forces (gravity, strong
nuclear force, weak nuclear force and electromagnetic force) were unified into a combined force.

Grand Unified Era

Grand Unified Era: 10^-43 seconds to 10^-36 seconds

In the grand unified era, the universe was still extremely small containing all the energy that exists today. Gravity
separated and became a distinct independent force while strong nuclear force, weak nuclear force and the
electromagnetic force were still unified and called the GUT (grand unified theory) force.
During this era, the universe cooled down from 1032 K to 1027 K and matter and antimatter began to form from
radiation. When a particle is created from radiation its antiparticle is also created. This is termed pair production.
However, since these pairs are produced extremely close, they will collide and undergo annihilation causing them to
turn back into radiation. This process kept on occurring during this era causing an equilibrium to form between matter
and radiation.

Module 8: From The Universe To The Atom 1

 Inflation Era

Inflation Era: 10^-36 seconds to 10^-32 seconds

During the inflation era, the universe rapidly expanded in size by a factor of 1026 making it about 10cm long. This
exponential inflation is caused by the rapid expansion of the inflaton field which starts off with a huge amount of
vacuum energy. The inflaton field is a hypothetical scalar quantum field.

As annihilation occurred during this period of inflation it caused the space between the particles and their
antiparticles to expand causing the pair particles to separate and not collide and annihilate. This resulted in large
amounts of matter being created. Therefore, after the inflation period, a massive amount of annihilation occurred as
matter constantly converted into radiation, producing a large amount of energy.

Electroweak Era

Electroweak Era: 10^-32 seconds to 10^-12 seconds

In the electroweak era, strong nuclear force separates and becomes a distinct and independent force like gravity
while electromagnetic force and weak nuclear force were still combined into a single force called the electroweak
force.

Also during the electroweak era, elementary particles called Higgs boson formed. Elementary particles are the
simplest form of particles that cannot be further divided. Countless Higgs boson particles unite to form the Higgs
field, a field of energy that exists in every region of the universe and gives mass to other fundamental particles. This
allowed particles to have mass.

Quark Era
Quark Era: 10^-12 seconds to 10^-6 seconds

In the quark era, the electromagnetic force and weak nuclear force finally separated and became independent like
gravity and strong nuclear force. During this era, the temperature dropped from 1015 K to 1013 K. Also, other
elementary particles like quarks, electrons and neutrinos began to form and interact with the Higgs field giving them
mass.

At some stage, a hypothetical physical process called baryogenesis occurred which resulted in a small excess of
matter compared to antimatter. Baryogenesis describes possible conditions for any discrepancy that led to this shift
in equilibrium between matter and radiation. This uneven balance led to the prevalence of matter over antimatter in
the universe today.

Hadon Era
Hadron Era: 10^-6 seconds to 1 second

In the hadron era, the temperature dropped from 1013 K to 1010 K allowing hadrons (protons and neutrons) and
antihadrons (antiprotons and antineutrons) to form from 3 quarks with the help of gluons. Hadrons are fundamental
particles composed of quarks. Baryons are a class of hadrons describing particles composed of 3 quarks. So
essentially, protons and neutrons were also baryons.

Module 8: From The Universe To The Atom 2

 During the production of baryons and antibaryons, a great amount of annihilation occurred as these particles collided
causing them to turn into radiation. However, since there was a slight excess of baryons compared to the antibaryons
as a consequence of the baryogenesis process, not all the baryons underwent annihilation and were still leftover.

Lepton Era
Lepton Era: 1 second to 3 minutes
During the lepton era, the temperature dropped from 1010 K to 109 K. This meant that the temperature wasn’t high
enough for the production of baryons. However, smaller fundamental particles called leptons (electrons) were still
being produced at a furious rate.
Similarly to the Hadron era, there is a great amount of annihilation that occurred between leptons and antileptons
again causing a slight leftover of leptons due to baryogenesis.

Nucleosynthesis Era
Nucleosynthesis Era: 3 minutes to 20 minutes
During the nucleosynthesis era, the temperature dropped from 109 K to 107 K resulting in a decline in annihilation
between matter and antimatter. In this period, protons and neutrons reacted with electrons and neutrinos causing
protons to change into neutrons and vice versa producing an equal number of both.
However, as the temperature dropped fewer protons reacted with electrons to form neutrons resulting in a higher
number of protons to be formed than neutrons with a ratio of 7:1. This explains why hydrogen is the most abundant
element in the universe even today.
At this stage, a process called nucleosynthesis occurred which involves the formation of nuclei from the fusion of
nucleons (protons and neutrons). At specific temperatures, protons (hydrogen nuclei) fused to give helium-4. In the
17 minutes of the nucleosynthesis era, the universe had converted 25% of hydrogen into helium. Other nuclei that
were also formed but to a lesser extent include deuterium, tritium and helium-3.

Matter Era
Matter Era: 20 minutes to 380,000 years
During the matter era, the temperature dropped from 107 K to 3000 K. At this stage, the universe mostly contained
photons, nuclei and electrons. With the presence of high temperatures and matter, photons would continuously
scatter off free electrons and couldn’t go anywhere thus the universe appeared opaque.

Decoupling Era
Decoupling Era: 380,000 years to 150 million years
In the decoupling era, a process called recombination occurred where electrons, protons and nuclei were able to
combine to form hydrogen and helium atoms. This didn’t occur earlier since the temperature was too high and the
massive amount of energy would cause the electron to simply ionise.
Since most of the electrons and protons were now combining to form hydrogen atoms, photons were finally able to
move freely without getting scattered and spread throughout the universe causing the universe to instantly become
transparent. This radiation that spread throughout is known today as cosmic microwave background radiation (CMB).

Module 8: From The Universe To The Atom 3

 After the decoupling era, the universe continues to expand and cool, slowly creating stars and galaxies as gravity
causes matter to accumulate into regions of high density.

Cosmic Microwave Background (CMB) Radiation

Cosmic microwave background radiation (relic radiation) is a faint electromagnetic radiation uniformly filling all of
space that is a remnant from an early stage of the universe. It is the oldest electromagnetic radiation in the universe
and is evidence for the Big Bang origin of the early universe.

The CMB was accidently discovered in 1965 by Astronomers Arno Penzias and Robert Wilson. The CMB radiation
spread throughout the universe during the recombination / decoupling era. When recombination occurred where
electrons, protons and nuclei started combining to form atoms, photons were finally able to move freely without
getting scattered and spread throughout the universe causing the universe to instantly become transparent
After the decoupling era, as the universe continued to expanded, it stretched and cooled the high energy radiation of
the very early universe into the microwave region of the electromagnetic spectrum. The CMB radiation is not totally
uniform as there are tiny variations about 0.0003 K, indicating that the early universe was not totally uniform.

investigate the evidence that led to the discovery of the expansion of the Universe by Hubble (ACSPH138)

Evolution Of The Universe

Before the 1900s, most scientists including Albert Einstein thought that the universe was static – not expanding nor
contracting. This would mean that even though stars and galaxies moved relative to each other, the underlying space
stayed constant and unchanged.

However, in the 1920’s Russian physicist, Alexander Friedmann, and Belgium physicist, Georges Lemaitre, utilised
Einstein’s general relativity field equations from 1916 and discovered that these equations yield a dynamic solution
and suggested a non static universe. This led scientist to develop dynamic models of the universe.

Module 8: From The Universe To The Atom 4

 The open model suggests the universe is expanding at an accelerating rate so it will continue to expand faster and
faster. The flat model suggest the universe is expanding at a decellerating rate and so will eventually stop. The close
model suggest that the universe will stop expanding and start contracting leading to the 'Big Crunch'.

However, after conclusive evidence and research it was finalised that the open model of the universe was the
accurate model.

Evidence For The Expanding Universe

Following this, Astronomers such as Vesto Slipher and Milton Humason discovered that the spectra of these distant
galaxies were red-shifted to various extents. Red-shift occurs when the light emitted by a star or galaxy is shifted
towards the red end of the spectrum because it is moving away from us. Its counterpart blue-shift occurs when the
light emitted by a star or galaxy is shifted towards the blue end of the spectrum because it is moving towards us. The
greater the shift, the faster the stars or galaxy’s translational velocity.

During this time, from 1919 to 1926, American astronomer, Edwin Hubble, conducted an investigation in which he
analysed the spectra of distant nebulae (galaxies) like the Andromeda galaxy and studied Cepheid variable stars
within these galaxies. Cepheid variable stars pulsate radially with a stable period that is found to have a strong
relation to the luminosity of the star as previously discovered by Henrietta Swan Leavitt. Thus, another American
scientist, Harlow Shapley, was able to calculate the distances of these Cepheid variable stars by measuring their
pulsation period and the corresponding luminosity.
Using these results, in 1929 Hubble was able to conclude that the redshift of these galaxies increases as the
distance to the galaxies increases. Meaning the further away a galaxy is, the faster it is moving away from us.

Δλ
z=
λ
where:

z = cosmological redshift of star / galaxy

Δλ = the difference between observed wavelength and emitted wavelength

λ = emitted wavelength

Additionally, Hubble plotted the recessional velocities (redshifts) of these 46 distance galaxies against their distance
from Earth and also managed to find the line-of-best-fit for the set of data. The gradient of the line became known as
the Hubble constant (H0) and the linear relationship as Hubble’s Law.

v = H0 D

Module 8: From The Universe To The Atom 5

 where:

v = recessional velocity of the galaxy (km/s)

H0 = Hubble’s constant
D = distance of the galaxy from an observer (Mpc)

The Hubble’s constant is being measured with increasing accuracy as time progresses with a currently accepted
value of around 71 km/s/Mpc compared to the value Hubble initially calculated of 500km/s/Mpc

An observation that is superficial in Hubble’s data is that all galaxies are appearing to be moving away from us which
can only suggest that the universe is expanding in all directions which adheres to the cosmological principle that at a
large scale the universe is uniform and isotropic. Meaning we would have observed similar results if we had
conducted the same experiments in another galaxy.

analyse and apply Einstein’s description of the equivalence of energy and mass and relate this to the nuclear
reactions that occur in stars

Mass - Energy Equivalence

Mass - energy equivalence is the relationship between mass and energy which was proposed by Einstein. He
believed that mass and energy were interchangeable and could be converted to one another. He quantified his
proposal with the famous equation:

ΔE = Δmc2

where:

ΔE = change in energy (J)

Δm = mass defect (kg)
c = speed of light (3.0 x 10^8 m/s)

Nuclear Fusion
Nuclear fusion occurs when two light nuclei are combined to form a larger nucleus where the combined mass of the
two individual nuclei is greater than the mass of the larger nuclei. The observed mass defect is caused by the
conversion of mass into energy.

Module 8: From The Universe To The Atom 6

 Nuclear fusion is a very difficult process because nuclei are positively charged, and thus repel one another. Fusion
will only occur if nuclei have enough kinetic energy to over come the repulsive force. Hence, extremely high
temperatures are needed like the temperature inside the core of stars.

Nuclear fusion is essential to stars since the energy created by fusion provides an outwards pressure that can
counteract and balance the inwards gravitation force and prevent the star from collapsing.

account for the production of emission and absorption spectra and compare these with a continuous black
body spectrum

Astronomical Spectroscopy

Astronomical spectroscopy involves analysing the spectra produced from stars to determine their properties. Most
spectra can be classified as either continuous, emission or absorption. Each one is unique and produced in its own
way.

Continuous Spectrum

A continuous spectrum is produced from any source that radiates heat. The emitted blackbody radiation from the
source is separated into its wavelength using a prism to produce a continuous range of wavelengths without any
gaps.

Absorption Spectrum
An absorption spectrum is produced when the emitted black body radiation of a star is passed through a cool cloud
of gas containing atoms. This causes the orbiting electrons of those atoms to absorb specific energies of
wavelengths that are unique to the element. Therefore, if the resultant ray is separated into its wavelength using a
prism, it will produce an absorption spectrum where the dark bands correspond to the particular wavelengths the gas
absorbed.

Emission Spectrum
An emission spectrum is produced when low-density gases are heated. The heating causes the orbiting electrons in
the atom to absorb the energy and move to a higher energy level. An electron in this state is described as ‘excited’.
However, since ‘excited’ electrons are unstable the electron will return to its ground state by emitting electromagnetic
radiation in the form of light of a particular wavelength. Therefore, if the emitted ray is separated into its wavelength
using a prism, it will produce an emission spectrum where the light bands correspond to the particular wavelengths
the gas emitted.

investigate the key features of stellar spectra and describe how these are used to classify stars

Features Of Stellar Spectra

Module 8: From The Universe To The Atom 7

 From the stellar spectra, we can use key features such as the wavelength of peak intensity and appearance and the
width of spectral lines to determine their surface temperature, colour, luminosity, density, photosphere density,
chemical composition, translation velocity and rotational velocity which are all useful in stellar classification.

Surface Temperature
The light seen from stars is mostly emitted from its photosphere (surface layer). All objects including stars emit
blackbody radiation due to thermal energy. The wavelength or frequency depends almost on internal energy and not
the characteristics of the material. The peak wavelength of this radiation emitted is inversely proportional to the
blackbody's surface temperature (Wien's Law).

This relationship is called Wien's displacement law:

b
λmax =
T
where:

λmax = peak wavelength (m)

b = 2.8977729 x 10−3 m K ← Wien's Displacement Constant

T = temperature (K)

Therefore by simply measuring the peak wavelength in a star's spectrum, we can calculate its surface temperature.
The colour of the star is then indictaed by its urface temperature.

Chemical Composition
The chemical composition of the star can be determined by analysing the absorption spectral lines which indicate the
presence of elements in the star’s photosphere. The relative strength of the spectral lines is proportional to the
abundance of the element.

Module 8: From The Universe To The Atom 8

 Density
To determine the density of a star we can utilise the formula density = mass / volume. The volume of the star is
calculated using its radius found with the help of the Stefan Boltzmann Law. Then the mass is estimated using
brightness and tempeture of stars. Hence, density can then be calculated.

Density Of Photosphere
The density of the stars photosphere is indicated by the widening or narrowing of spectral lines. In a low density
photosphere, photons can travel much further before they collide with particles meaning it will produce sharper and
narrower spectral lines
In a high density photosphere, photons don't need to travel as far to collide with particles meaning it will produce
blurrier and wider spectral lines. The degree to which this widening or narrowing occurs estimates the density of the
stars atmosphere.

Translational Velocity
In 1920s, Edwin Hubble discovered that all stars are moving away from us by measuring the Doppler shift of steller
spectra. When wavelengths are slightly longer they have been red shifted. When wavelengths are slighty shorter
they have been blue shifted.
For emission and absoprtion spectrum, when a star was moving away from us, the observed spectra lines were
moved to a longer wavelength (red shifted) and when a star moved towards use the spectra lines moved to a smaller
wavelength (blue shifted). The extent of these shifts reveal how fast the star is moving

Rotational Velocity
The rotational velocity can also be measured through the Doppler effect. When a star rotates, one side is moving
towards us while the other is moving away. Hence due to rotation, light emitted from side moving towards us will be

Module 8: From The Universe To The Atom 9

 blue shifted and light emitted from side moving away from us will be red shifted.
This simultaneous red and blue shift causes the atomic absorption bands to broaden. The degree of broadening
indicates the rate of rotation.

Spectral Class
The system used to classify stars, developed by Annie Jump Cannon, categorises stars into seven spectral classes
(O, B, A, F, G, K, M) arranged by their surface temperatures where class O is the hottest and class M is the coolest.

Every spectral class is further divided into 10 subdivisions numbered from 0 – 9 where 0 denotes the hottest star in
each class and 9 donates the coolest star in each class.
Each class gives of a very specific absorptions spectra with distinct spectral lines missing showing that different
elements ionise at different temperatures. This meant that certain spectral lines only appear in a specific temperature
range as shown below.

Module 8: From The Universe To The Atom 10

 investigate the Hertzsprung-Russell diagram and how it can be used to determine the following about a star:

– characteristics and evolutionary stage

– surface temperature

– colour

– luminosity

The Hertzsprung – Russell Diagram

In 1911, Danish astronomer, Ejnar Hertzsprung, plotted the star luminosities (or absolute magnitude) against the
temperature (or spectral class) of several stars and analysed the pattern created to discover that the data isn’t
randomly scattered.

The majority of the stars, about 90%, lie on the main sequence band that extends from the upper left-hand corner
(hottest and brightest) to the lower right-hand corner (coolest and dimmest). Stars that lie on this band are termed
main sequence stars. They follow the trend that the bigger the star, the brighter and hotter it is.
Giants and supergiants stars are located around the upper right-hand corner of the HR diagram since they have low
surface temperatures but high luminosities. Hence, they are very large. White dwarfs are located around the lower
left-hand corner of the HR diagram since they have high surface temperatures but low luminosities. Hence, they have
very small.

Star's Evolutionary Stage

After the main sequence stage in a star's life it is closer to its death. This part of its life is now heavily dependant on
the star's mass.

Module 8: From The Universe To The Atom 11

 Low Mass Stars
Lower mass stars (M < 8 M ☉) start of towards the lower part of the main sequence band because of there small
mass and size. As the main sequence stage of the star finishes when it exhausts the hydrogen in its core, it moves
up to the to right corner of HR diagram becoming what is know as a red giant since it cools and expands.
After that, it will move to the top left corner of the HR diagram as it transforms into a planetary nebula since it
becomes highly unstable and starts to pulsate. Finally, the star will move to the lower right corner of the HR diagram
as it turns into a white dwarf since it has used all its hydrogen and is now cooling and decreasing in size.

Medium Mass Stars

☉ ☉
Medium mass stars (8 M < M < 20 M ) start of towards the higher part of the main sequence band because of
their high mass and size. Similarly to low mass stars, medium mass starts will exhaust the hydrogen in its core and
become a red giant since it cools and expands. However, medium mass stars are capable of fusing heavier elements
until they reach iron where fusion stops.
This is when it gets too intense and the star literally explodes in an event called a supernova. After the super nova, a
neutron star is left which is extremely dense and small. This is the stage where the star will live out the rest of its life.

Module 8: From The Universe To The Atom 12

 High Mass Stars

☉
High mass stars (M > 20 M ) start from the top left part of the main sequence band because of their extremely high
mass and size. Similarly to medium mass stars, high mass stars will follow the same evolutionary pathway up to the
super nova.
However, high mass stars don't leave behind a neutron star. This is because the extremely high initial mass causes
remnants of the supernova to collapse and form a black hole which is defined as an infinitely small and infinitely
dense object with a extremely high gravitational force that it even prevents light from escaping.

investigate the types of nucleosynthesis reactions involved in Main Sequence and Post-Main Sequence stars,
including but not limited to:

– proton–proton chain

– CNO (carbon-nitrogen-oxygen) cycle

The Birth Of A Star

When the force of gravity causes molecular hydrogen clouds to collapse into clumps, it forms a circular ball called a
protostar that consists of gases at extremely high temperatures. As gravity continues to cause the protostar to further
decrease in size, the protostar gets hotter due to compression and continues to pull in more hydrogen gas, resulting
in its mass to increase.

Once the temperature reaches a certain level, nuclear fusion is triggered which fuses hydrogen to form helium and
releases energy which then exerts an outward pressure opposing the force of gravity. When this outwards force
balances the gravitational force (hydrostatic equilibrium), the star stops decreasing in size and becomes a main-
sequence star.

Main Sequence Stars

Main sequence stars are stable and produce energy through fusion reactions, like the PP chain and CNO cycle, in
the core. On the condition that they produce enough energy and have sufficient fuel for nuclear fusion reactions, the
gravitational force acting inwards is balanced with the outward pressure. The mass of main-sequence stars plays an
important role and determines the star’s:

Nucleosynthesis:

A main-sequence star with a larger mass will have a hotter core that will allow the fusion of heavier elements. Hence,
different nuclear fusion reactions will dominate different main sequence stars of various masses.

Lifespan:

Module 8: From The Universe To The Atom 13

 A main-sequence star with a larger mass will perform nucleosynthesis at a faster rate, causing it to use up its fuel
more rapidly than smaller mass stars.

Proton-Proton Chain
Proton-proton chain is one type of nuclear fusion reaction that occurs to a greater extent in the cores of low and
medium mass main sequence stars since the temperature is not as high. This process involves four protons that fuse
to form a helium-4 nuclei in 3 steps.
The energy produced from this reaction is due to the mass defect between the initial 4 protons and the final helium-4
nucleus. Proton-proton chain reactions are often slow and can take millions of years since they are initiated by the
weak nuclear force.

4 11 H → 42 He + 2γ + 2v + 2e+

Carbon - Nitrogen - Oxygen (CNO) Cycle

Carbon – Nitrogen – Oxygen (CNO) cycle is another type of nuclear fusion reaction that occurs to a greater extent in
the cores of high mass main sequence stars since the temperature is higher. This process also involves four protons
that form a helium-4 nuclei in 6 steps.
The carbon, nitrogen and oxygen act as catalysts since they are not a part of the net reaction and do not get used
up. Meaning, they can catalyse more hydrogen. CNO cycle occurs in hotter stars with a high mass since more
energy is required to overcome the electrostatic repulsion between a carbon nucleus and a proton.

4 11 H → 42 He + 3γ + 2v + 2e+

Module 8: From The Universe To The Atom 14

 Post Main Sequence Stars
As nucleosynthesis occurs, more hydrogen fuses to form a helium core. During this main sequence time, helium
builds up in the core but does not undergo fusion.
Once most of the hydrogen has been used up through nuclear fusion the star is closer to its death and is now a post-
main-sequence star. The life of a post-main sequence star is determined by the mass of the star.

Low Mass Stars

Once low mass main sequence stars have used up their hydrogen, they will decrease in size as the force from
gravity overcomes the outwards pressure. However, this compression causes the temperature to increase making
the star capable of fusing helium. After an explosion called the ‘helium flash’, the helium will undergo nuclear fusion
through a reaction called the triple-alpha process where a carbon nucleus is produced.

This reaction produces an enormous amount of energy that causes the star’s luminosity to greatly increase and also
the star’s size as the outward pressure significantly exceeds the inwards force of gravity. These immense physical
changes are an indication that the star has now become a red giant.
When a medium mass post-main sequence star has depleted all its helium, its temperature is not high enough to
initiate the fusion of carbon. This results in an unstable star that repeatedly pulsates in size causing the star to

Module 8: From The Universe To The Atom 15

 transform into a planetary nebula as it ejects its outer layers into space. After this phase, the left-over core cannot
begin nuclear reactions and is now a white dwarf
High Mass Stars
Similar to low main sequence stars, high mass main sequence stars will also transform into a red giant and use the
triple-alpha process to fuse helium into carbon. However, once helium is used up and they start to collapse due to the
force of gravity, the compression significantly increases the temperature making the star viable to initiate the fusion of
heavier elements. Resulting in its luminosity and size to increase again.
When the star then runs out of its new fuel, it repeats this process continuously until the core consists of iron where
the process stops since fusion reactions after iron are endothermic and do not produce energy.

Since further nuclear reaction stop occurring, the outwards pressure decreases causing the force of gravity to
extremely compress the core. Since the star has a high mass, its gravity will also be enormously high causing the
star to collapse and in the process forcing protons and electrons to combine and releasing a substantial amount of
energy which blasts the star’s outer layers at high speeds in an event called a supernova.

After the short supernova period is complete, the remnants of the star cool down and turn into a planetary nebula rich
in heavy elements that were produced before from all those nuclear reactions. The star’s core is left behind as a
neutron star that is extremely dense and might transform into a black hole depending on the star's initial mass.

Module 8: From The Universe To The Atom 16

 Structure Of The Atom

investigate, assess and model the experimental evidence supporting the existence and properties of the
electron, including:

– early experiments examining the nature of cathode rays

– Thomson’s charge-to-mass experiment

– Millikan's oil drop experiment

Cathode Ray Tubes (CRT)

The discovery of the electron began with the cathode ray tube. A cathode ray tube (CRT) is a sealed glass vacuum
tube that produces images using an electron gun and a phosphorescent. When a potential difference is applied,
electrons are emitted from the cathode and travel towards the anode creating a fluorescent glow. The fluorescence
was a property of the glass, but scientists would often coat the wall with chemicals such as zinc sulfide to emphasise
the glow.
During the early developments of cathode-ray tubes, the nature of their rays was uncertain as different scientists
supported different theories. German physicists like Eilhard Wiedermann, Heinrich Hertz, and Eugen Goldstein
supported that the cathode rays were a type of electromagnetic radiation while British physicists including William
Crookes, J. J. Thomson and Arthur Schuster suggested that they were charged particles. Therefore, it was important
to conduct experiments to know the nature of these cathode rays

The Nature Of Cathode Rays

Experimental Evidence for Particle Theory

1. Maltese Cross Experiment

The Maltese cross experiment involved positioning a Maltese cross at the receiving end of the tube causing a
sharp shadow of the cross to cast onto the glass. This indicated that cathode rays travelled in straight lines which
supported both theories.

2. Paddle Wheel Experiment

The paddle wheel experiment involved a paddle wheel that was positioned inside the CRT, causing it to rotate in
the direction of the cathode rays. This indicated that cathode rays contained momentum and hence mass.

3. Magnetic Field Experiment

The magnetic field experiment involved positioning an external magnetic field perpendicular to the trajectory of
cathode rays. It was observed that the cathode rays were diverted indicating that they experienced a force while
travelling through the magnetic field. Hence, they must be charged particles.

Module 8: From The Universe To The Atom 17

 4. Electric Field Experiment
The electric field experiment involved utilising an external electric field that would also cause the cathode rays to
divert indicating that cathode rays experienced a force in the electric field. Initially, this experiment supported the
wave nature of cathode rays as it was observed that cathode rays were unaffected by electric fields.

However, this was fixed when Arthur Schuster and J.J. Thompson redid the experiment but lowered the pressure
more. The reason for the initial false result was caused when the residue gas in the CRT ionised causing
charges to gather near the electric plates and blocked the electric field.

Experimental Evidence for Wave Theory

1. Metal Foil Experiment

The metal foil experiment involved positioning a thin metal foil in the CRT. It was observed that cathode rays
passed through the thin metal foil without damaging them. Back then it was thought that if cathode rays were
charged particles, then they would have been stopped by the foil or would have punctured holes in it. However,
later on, it was clear that particles can also pass through a thin metal foil.

Thomson's Charge-To-Mass Experiment

J.J Thompson was a British physicist notably known for his discovery of the electron. Thompson went on to
determine the charge-to-mass ratio of these newly discovered subatomic particles in 1897. He was able to do this by
utilising the fact that moving charged particles experienced a force in a uniform external electric (F = qE) and
magnetic field (F = qvBsinϴ).

In his experiment, Thompson placed a CRT between two magnets providing an external magnetic field which caused
the electron beam to divert. Then he also positioned two parallel electric plates such that the electric field would also
divert the electron beam but in the opposite direction to the magnetic field. He adjusted both external fields until the
electron beam travelled in a straight line and wasn’t deflected.
FE = FB
qE = qvB
v = E/B
Following this, the electric field is then removed causing the electrons to divert in a circular path due to the magnetic
field. Therefore, the centripetal force in electrons is provided by the Lorentz force due to the magnetic field.

Module 8: From The Universe To The Atom 18

 FB = FC
qvB = mv2 /r
q/m = v/Br
q/m = E/B2 r
E and B are controlled, while r can be measured, allowing Thompson to successfully determine the charge-to-mass
ratio of an electron. He determined it to be 1.759 x 10^11 C/kg and concluded electrons were negatively charged.
This suggested that electrons weren’t atoms but the first subatomic particles to be discovered.

Millikan's Oil Drop Experiment

Robert Millikan was an American experimental physicist credited for his oil-drop experiment which determined the
charge of an electron which can then be used with Thompson charge-to-mass results to calculate the mass of an
electron.
In his experiment, he sprayed small oil droplets into a chamber that became charged due to ionisation from x-rays
and friction with the air. Below are two parallel electrical plates with the top plate being positively charged and the
bottom plate being negatively charged. This meant that an upwards force was experienced by the oil droplets that
enter the electric field.

Millikan used a microscope to adjust the potential difference until the upward electrical force on the oil droplet
balances the downward gravitational force causing the oil droplet to levitate between the electric plates.
Fg = FE
mg = qE
mg = qV /d
q = mgd/V
Since g, d and V were known, m had to be calculated. Millikan determined the mass of the oil droplets by measuring
their terminal velocity. Assuming, these droplets were spherical, Millikan was able to find the radius then calculate the
mass using the density of the oil.

After repeating this experiment numerous times, Millikan observed that the charges he measured were quantised
values and were integer multiples of a certain base value (magnitude of the charge of an electron) which he
calculated to be 1.5924 x 10^19 C. Using this value and Thompson’s charge-to-mass ratio, the mass of an electron
can be determined.

investigate, assess and model the experimental evidence supporting the nuclear model of the atom, including:

– the Geiger-Marsden experiment

– Rutherford’s atomic model

– Chadwick’s discovery of the neutron

Module 8: From The Universe To The Atom 19

 Thomson's Plum Pudding Model
After discovery of electron in 1897, two properties of atoms were known:

electrons are negatively charge subatomic particles

atoms have no net electric charge

This led Thomson to propose his 'plum-pudding' model of the atom in 1904. This atomic model proposed that an
atom was spherical consisting of a cloud of uniform, low density positive charge, in which were embedded negative
charged electrons. This model of the atom meant the atom is a low-density neutral particle.

Geiger - Marsden Experiment

Between 1908 and 1913, a series of experiments were performed by Hans Geiger and Ernest Marsden under the
direction of Ernest Rutherford to test Thomson’s plum pudding model. These experiments, called the Geiger –
Marsden experiments would ultimately disprove Thomson’s model and initiate the proposal of the Rutherford model.

These experiments involved firing positively charged alpha particles at extremely thin gold foil. A detecting screen
was placed around the experiment to analyse this interaction. Based on Thomson’s plum pudding model, it was
expected to observe that majority of the alpha particles would pass straight through the gold foil with minimal
deflections due to the assumed low density.

It was observed that most alpha particles went straight through with little or no deflection but about 1 in 10 000
particles were consistently deflected back to an angle greater than 90 degrees. This indicated that while most of the
atom must be empty space since a majority of the alpha particles passed undeflected there must exist a sufficiently
dense positive mass inside the atom causing the alpha particles to rebound, leading Rutherford to propose his
atomic model.

Module 8: From The Universe To The Atom 20

 Rutherford's Atomic Model
In 1911, Rutherford outlined his atomic model based on the experimental results of Geiger and Marsden. It proposed
that an atom consists of a dense positively charged centre, the atomic nuclei, surrounded by orbiting negatively
charged electrons.

Chadwick's Discovery Of The Neutron

Throughout the 1920s, scientists hypothesised that the nucleus consisted of ‘proton-electron pairs’ to make up for the
larger mass of the nucleus compared to its charge and also these electrons would reduce electrical repulsion
between protons. This theory was supported by the experimental observation of beta radiation as electrons were
emitted from the nucleus of radioactive elements. However, it was inconsistent with the observed energy levels of
molecules. Other scientists, like Rutherford and James Chadwick, believed that another distinct subatomic particle
with similar mass to a proton and neutral charge existed within the nucleus. This particle is the neutron.
In 1930, Walter Bothe observed that Beryllium metal would emit a high penetrating neutral radiation when it was
bombarded with alpha particles. The neutral charge of the radiation was evident as it would not be deflected by an
electric field. Thus, Bothe suggested that this unknown radiation was a form of gamma rays despite its incredibly high
energy. However, in 1932 Irene Joliot Curie and Frederic Joliot demonstrated that if this unknown radiation was
emitted into paraffin wax, protons of high energy would be ejected which disproved that this unknown radiation was a
form of gamma rays as gamma rays don’t possess this high quantity of energy.
In 1932, James Chadwick proposed these unknown radiation emissions were neutrons and conducted an identical
experiment to the paraffin wax which quantitatively analysed this radiation and the mass of the proposed neutrons.
When he repeated the experiment, he bombarded beryllium with alpha particles causing it to emit the unknown
radiation which was then allowed to come in contact with paraffin wax.

Paraffin wax is high in hydrogen which made it suitable for this experiment. Using a detector he was able to measure
the energy and velocity of the ejected protons from the paraffin wax. His observed experimental results agreed with
the results of Irene Joliot Curie and Frederic Joliot causing him to conclude that the unknown radiation were neutral
particles – neutrons.

Module 8: From The Universe To The Atom 21

 The nature of these neutrons was still debated as it was speculated that the neutron is a composite particle
composed of a proton and electron. However, this was resolved by Chadwick in 1935 with an experiment that would
further validate his conclusion about the neutron. Firstly, he examined the interaction between the unknown radiation
and atoms when it was pumped through various gases including hydrogen, helium, oxygen and argon.

The results from this investigation supported his theory that the unknown radiation were neutrons. Secondly,
Chadwick utilised the law of conservation of energy and the law of conservation of momentum to calculate the mass
of these neutrons. He repeated the paraffin wax experiment except with boron instead of beryllium because the
masses of boron and the reaction product nitrogen were known.
This led Chadwick to successfully prove the existence of neutrons and observe their mass to be slightly heavier than
the proton, too heavy to be an electron-proton composite particle. With this conclusion, it was final that the nucleus is
made up of both neutrons and protons.

Quantum Mechanical Nature Of The Atom

assess the limitations of the Rutherford and Bohr atomic models

Limitations Of the Rutherford Atomic Model

Rutherford’s atomic model, in 1911, which was heavily based on the experimental evidence failed to explain many
aspects of the atom like:

The exact composition of the nucleus since there wasn’t any experimental evidence supporting the existence of
protons and neutrons.

The electron configuration around the nucleus.

However, the main complication that arose with the Rutherford model was related to the orbiting electrons.
Rutherford’s atomic model outlined that negatively charged electrons move in a circular motion about the nucleus.
For an object to be moving in a circular motion, it must be experiencing a centripetal acceleration. According to
Maxwell’s theory of electromagnetism, accelerating charges will emit electromagnetic radiation causing them to shed
energy.

Hence, electrons will constantly be emitting electromagnetic radiation as they orbit the nucleus. This loss of energy
comes from the electron’s kinetic energy causing the electrons to slowly lose speed and collapse into the nucleus.
The Bohr Atomic Model was developed to overcome these deficiencies.

Bohr’s Atomic Model

After the inconsistencies that arose from Rutherford’s atomic model, Danish physicist, Niels Bohr, proposed his
atomic model in 1913 that can be summarised by the following postulates:

1. There exist stationary orbits which occur at specific distances from the nucleus. Electrons can only exist in these
stationary orbits and not in between. The electrostatic attraction between the nucleus and electron cause
electrons to travel in circular orbits without losing nor radiating any energy.

2. These stationary orbits are attained at discrete radial distances which is given by:

Module 8: From The Universe To The Atom 22

 nh
r=
2πme v

where:

me = Mass of electrons
v = Velocity of electron

r = Radial distance of energy level

n = Principal quantum number (n = 1, 2, 3, …)

h = Planck’s constant

3. Electrons possess the ability to ‘jump’ in between the existing discrete energy levels through absorbing or
emitting electromagnetic radiation of a specific frequency that is determined by the energy difference between
the two stationary orbits.

ΔE = Ei –Ef = hf

where:

ΔE = Energy released

Ei = Initial energy level

Ef = Final energy level
h = Planck’s constant

f = frequency of electromagnetic radiation

Limitations Of the Bohr Atomic Model

Bohr’s Atomic Model, in 1913, explained some of the limitations found in the Rutherford model using a quantum
physics approach. Despite its success, the Bohr model still contained many limitations because of the uncertain
nature of quantum physics during the development of this atomic model.

No reasonable explanation was provided for the existence of stationary orbits and energy shells/levels

It incorrectly predicted the angular momentum for ground-state. Experimental results showed that ground-state
angular momentum is zero but the Bohr model predicts it is h / 2π.

It can only be applied accurately to an atom with a single electron. Experiments showed the Bohr model poorly
predicted higher energy orbits of atoms with more than one electron

It was unable to explain the phenomena termed hyperfine structure splitting. This phenomenon occurs when
spectral lines shift by minuscule amounts.

It doesn’t account for the varying intensities of spectral lines suggesting that some transitions are favoured over
others.

It cannot explain the Zeeman effect. This phenomenon occurs when spectral lines split due to the presence of an
external magnetic field. This effect arises from the interaction of the electron’s spin and orbital angular momenta
with the external magnetic field.

It cannot explain molecular bonding

Module 8: From The Universe To The Atom 23

 investigate the line emission spectra to examine the Balmer series in hydrogen. Relate qualitatively and
quantitatively the quantised energy levels of the hydrogen atom and the law of conservation of energy to the
line emission spectrum of hydrogen using:

– 𝐸=ℎ𝑓

– 𝐸=ℎ𝑐𝜆

– 1/𝜆=𝑅[1/𝑛𝑓2−1/𝑛𝑖2]

Hydrogen Spectra

An emission spectrum of an element shows the specific wavelengths of light the electron emits when it returns to
ground state after being in an unstable ‘excited’ state. The emission spectra produced by hydrogen played a crucial
role in the validating Bohr model of the atom.

The spectral lines on the emissions spectra of hydrogen are named after the scientists who discovered them.

The Balmer Series

After observing the emission spectra of hydrogen, John Balmer in 1855 developed a formula that accurately
predicted the wavelength of four of the emission lines in the visible spectra of hydrogen. These spectra lines
collectively know as the Blamer series are named H-α, H-β and so on from right to left.

Balmer’s equation is:

hm2
λ=
m2 − n2
where:

λ = wavelength
h = constant equal to 364.50682 nm

m = an integer equal to 3,4,5 or 6

n=2

Rydberg Formula

In 1888, Swedish physicist Johannes Rydberg generalised Balmer’s equation and developed the Rydberg formula
which much more accurately accounted for the other spectral lines in the emission spectrum of hydrogen.

1 1 1
= R[ 2 − 2 ]
λ nf ni

where:

λ = wavelength
R = Rydberg constant

ni , nf = integers > 0

Module 8: From The Universe To The Atom 24

 There is also Fredrick Sumner Brackett and August Herman Pfund who also discovered the spectral lines now called
the Brackett series and Pfund series. The Lyman series can be obtained when nf = 1, the Balmer series when nf = 2,
the Paschen series when nf = 3, the Brackett series when nf = 4 and finally the Pfund series when nf = 5. It is
important to know that the Rydberg formula cannot successfully predict the spectral lines for multi-electron atoms.

Bohr's Explanation

Although Rydberg and Balmer have developed formulas that accurately predicted the wavelength of spectral lines of
hydrogen, there still wasn’t a clear theoretical explanation on why this occurred in the first place until in 1913 Bohr
proposed his atomic model of the atom.

As discussed before, one of Bohr’s postulates states:

Electrons possess the ability to ‘jump’ in between the existing discrete energy levels through absorbing or emitting
electromagnetic radiation of a specific frequency that is determined by the energy difference between the two
stationary orbits.
ΔE = Ei – Ef = hf

Using this postulate, Bohr was able to deduce that the emission spectrum of hydrogen is produced due to electron
relaxation and that the spectral lines correspond to the energy emitted when an electron jumps down to a lower
energy level.

The diagram shows the energy levels of hydrogen and the difference in energy between each level. The first energy
level where n = 1 is referred to as ground state since it is the lowest energy state an electron can exist in. Hydrogen’s
ground state occurs at -13.6 eV. The negative sign is present because the point of zero energy is when an electron is
an infinite distance from the nucleus where it is unaffected by its influence.
As you can see, the energy levels approach each other as the quantum number, n, increases indicating that an
electron transition that ends with a higher energy level will have a longer wavelength since frequency decreases.
This is evident through the Lyman, Balmer, Paschen, Brackett and Pfund series.
Suppose an unstable electron is in an ‘excited’ state in any one of those energy levels except ground state. When the
electron ‘jumps’ down to a lower energy level, it will emit electromagnetic radiation with a specific energy that is equal
to the difference in energy between the electron’s final energy level and initial energy level, ensuring that the law of
conservation is maintained.

Module 8: From The Universe To The Atom 25