Data Communications &

Networking : An Overview

Protocols and Architecture

A Communications Model
• Source
—generates data to be transmitted
• Transmitter
—Converts data into transmittable signals
• Transmission System
—Carries data
• Receiver
—Converts received signal into data
• Destination
—Takes incoming data

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Simplified Communications
Model - Diagram

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Communication Tasks
• Transmission System utilization
• Interfacing
• Signal Generation
• Synchronization
• Exchange Management
• Error Detection and Correction
• Flow Control
• Addressing
• Routing
• Recovery
• Message Formatting
• Security
• Network Management

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Simplified Data
Communications Model

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Networking
• Point to point communication not usually
practical
—Devices are too far apart
—Large set of devices would need impractical number
of connections

• Solution is a communications network

— Wide Area Network (WAN)
— Local Area Network (LAN)

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Wide Area Networks (WAN)
• Large geographical area
• Consists of intermediate nodes
— provides switching from node to node
• Rely in part on common carrier circuits

• Implementation
—Traditionally
• Circuit switching
• Packet switching
—Recently
• Frame relay
• Asynchronous Transfer Mode (ATM)
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Circuit Switching
• Dedicated communications path established for
the duration of the conversation

• Connection oriented communication

— Establish a circuit
— Transmit messages
—Release the circuit

• Example Telephone Network

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Packet Switching

• Data sent out of sequence

• Small chunks (packets) of data at a time

• Packets passed from node to node between

source and destination

• Used for terminal to computer and computer to

computer communications

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Frame Relay
• Packet switching systems have large overheads to
compensate for errors

• Modern systems are more reliable

• Errors can be caught in end system

• Most overhead for error control is stripped out

• Frame is a variable size of data

• Intermediate node does not perform error detection &

correction
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Asynchronous Transfer Mode (ATM)
• ATM is also known as cell relay network

• Fixed packet size, called Cells

• Gives almost same overhead for error control

• It gives less processing overhead than the frame

relay

• Higher layer performs error detection & correction

• Anything from 10Mbps to Gbps

• Constant data rate using packet switching technique

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Local Area Networks (LAN)
• Smaller scope than WAN
— Building or small campus
• Usually owned by a single organization
— E.g., CS and ECE have their own LANs
• Data rates much higher than WAN

• LAN Configuration
1. Switched LANs
• Switched Ethernet LAN
– May consists of one or more switches
2. Wireless LANs
• Allow user mobility
• Ease of installation

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Metropolitan Area Networks (MAN)
• A MAN is optimized for a larger geographical area
than a LAN

• Unlike LAN, it ranges from several blocks of

buildings to entire cities

• Like LAN, a MAN might be owned and operated by a

single organization

• Often provide means for internetworking of local

networks (e.g., University entire campus network)

• Gives High speed and covers Large area

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Protocols and Architecture
Need For Protocol Architecture
• E.g. File transfer
—Source must activate comms. Path or inform network
of destination
—Source must check destination is prepared to receive
—File transfer application on source must check
destination file management system will accept and
store file for his user
—May need file format translation
• Task broken into subtasks
• Implemented separately in layers in stack
• Functions needed in both systems
• Peer layers communicate
Key Elements of a Protocol
• Syntax
—Data formats
—Signal levels
• Semantics
—Control information
—Error handling
• Timing
—Speed matching
—Sequencing
A Simple Protocol Architecture
• Task of communication broken up into modules
• For example file transfer could use three
modules
—File transfer application
—Communication service module
—Network access module
Simplified File Transfer
Architecture
A Three Layer Model
• Network Access Layer
— Exchange of data between the computer and the network
— Sending computer provides address of destination
— Dependent on type of network used (LAN, packet switched etc.)
• Transport Layer
— Reliable data exchange
— Independent of network being used
— Independent of application
• Application Layer
— Support for different user applications
— e.g. e-mail, file transfer
Protocol Architectures and
Networks
Addressing Requirements
• Two levels of addressing required
• Each computer needs unique network address
• Each application on a (multi-tasking) computer
needs a unique address within the computer
—The service access point or SAP
—The port on TCP/IP stacks
Protocols in Simplified Architecture
Protocol Data Units (PDU)
• At each layer, protocols are used to communicate
• Control information is added to user data at each layer
• Transport layer may fragment user data
• Each fragment has a transport header added
— Destination SAP
— Sequence number
— Error detection code
• This gives a transport protocol data unit
• Network layer adds network header
— network address for destination computer
— Facilities requests (e.g. priority)
Protocol Data Units
Operation of a Protocol
Architecture
Standardized Protocol Architectures
• Required for devices to communicate
• Vendors have more marketable products
• Customers can insist on standards based
equipment
• Two standards:
—OSI Reference model
• Never lived up to early promises
—TCP/IP protocol suite
• Most widely used
• Also: IBM Systems Network Architecture (SNA)
OSI
• Open Systems Interconnection (1984)
• Developed by the International Organization for
Standardization (ISO)
• Seven layers
• A theoretical system delivered too late!
• TCP/IP is the de facto standard
OSI - The Model
• A layer model
• Each layer performs a subset of the required
communication functions
• Each layer relies on the next lower layer to
perform more primitive functions
• Each layer provides services to the next higher
layer
• Changes in one layer should not require
changes in other layers
OSI Layers
The OSI Environment
OSI as Framework for
Standardization
Layer Specific Standards
Elements of Standardization
• Protocol specification
—Operates between the same layer on two systems
—May involve different operating system
—Protocol specification must be precise
• Format of data units
• Semantics of all fields
• allowable sequence of PCUs
• Service definition
—Functional description of what is provided
• Addressing
—Referenced by SAPs
Service Primitives and
Parameters
• Services between adjacent layers expressed in
terms of primitives and parameters
• Primitives specify function to be performed
• Parameters pass data and control info
Primitive Types
REQUEST A primitive issued by a service user to invoke some
service and to pass the parameters needed to
specify fully the requested service
INDICATION A primitive issued by a service provider either to:
indicate that a procedure has been invoked by the
peer service user on the connection and to provide
the associated parameters, or
notify the service user of a provider-initiated action
RESPONSE A primitive issued by a service user to acknowledge
or complete some procedure previously invoked by
an indication to that user
CONFIRM A primitive issued by a service provider to
acknowledge or complete some procedure
previously invoked by a request by the service user
Timing Sequence for Service
Primitives
OSI Layers (1)
• Physical
—Physical interface between devices
• Mechanical
• Electrical
• Functional
• Procedural
• Data Link
—Means of activating, maintaining and deactivating a
reliable link
—Error detection and control
—Higher layers may assume error free transmission
OSI Layers (2)
• Network
— Transport of information
— Higher layers do not need to know about underlying technology
— Not needed on direct links
• Transport
— Exchange of data between end systems
— Error free
— In sequence
— No losses
— No duplicates
— Quality of service
OSI Layers (3)
• Session
—Control of dialogues between applications
—Dialogue discipline (e.g. Full Duplex or Half Duplex)
—Grouping
—Recovery
• Presentation
—Data formats and coding
—Data compression
—Encryption
• Application
—Means for applications to access OSI environment
Use of a Relay
TCP/IP Protocol Architecture
• Developed by the US Defense Advanced
Research Project Agency (DARPA) for its packet
switched network (ARPANET)
• Used by the global Internet
• No official model but a working one.
—Application layer
—Host to host or transport layer
—Internet layer
—Network access layer
—Physical layer
TCP/IP Layers
• Physical Layer
—Physical interface between data transmission device
(e.g. computer) and transmission medium or network
—Characteristics of transmission medium
—Signal levels
—Data rates

• Network Access Layer

— Exchange of data between end system and network
— Destination address provision
— Invoking services like priority
TCP/IP Layers
• Internet Layer (IP)
— Systems may be attached to different networks
— Routing functions across multiple networks
— Implemented in end systems and routers

• Transport Layer (TCP)

— Reliable delivery of data
— Ordering of delivery

• Application Layer
— Support for user applications
— e.g. http, SMTP
OSI v TCP/IP
TCP
• Usual transport layer is Transmission Control Protocol
— Reliable connection
• Connection
— Temporary logical association between entities in different
systems
• TCP PDU
— Called TCP segment
— Includes source and destination port (c.f. SAP)
• Identify respective users (applications)
• Connection refers to pair of ports
• TCP tracks segments between entities on each
connection
UDP
• Alternative to TCP is User Datagram Protocol
• Not guaranteed delivery
• No preservation of sequence
• No protection against duplication
• Minimum overhead
• Adds port addressing to IP
TCP/IP Concepts
Addressing level
• Level in architecture at which entity is named
• Unique address for each end system (computer)
and router
• Network level address
—IP or internet address (TCP/IP)
—Network service access point or NSAP (OSI)
• Process within the system
—Port number (TCP/IP)
—Service access point or SAP (OSI)
Trace of Simple Operation
• Process associated with port 1 in host A sends
message to port 2 in host B
• Process at A hands down message to TCP to
send to port 2
• TCP hands down to IP to send to host B
• IP hands down to network layer (e.g. Ethernet)
to send to router J
• Generates a set of encapsulated PDUs
PDUs in TCP/IP
Example Header Information
• Destination port
• Sequence number
• Checksum
Some Protocols in TCP/IP Suite