1.1.

1 The Three States of Matter

The Three States of Matter

 The three states of matter are solids, liquids and gases

 A substance can usually exist in all three states, dependent on temperature (and
pressure)
 Different state changes occur at the melting point and at the boiling point depending
on whether the substance is heating up or cooling down
o At the melting point
 Melting (solid → liquid) when heating up
 Freezing (liquid → solid) when cooling down
o At the boiling point
 Boiling (liquid → gas) when heating up
 Condensing (gas → liquid) when cooling down

 Individual atoms themselves do not share the same properties as bulk matter
 The three states of matter can be represented by a simple model
o In this model, the particles are represented by small solid spheres

Summary of the Properties of Solids, Liquids and Gases

Interconversion Between the States of Matter

 The amount of energy needed to change state from solid to liquid and from liquid to
gas depends on the strength of the forces between the particles
o The stronger the forces of attraction, the more energy that is needed to
overcome them for a state change to occur
o Therefore, the stronger the forces between the particles the higher the melting
point and boiling point of the substance
 When matter changes from one state to another due to changes in temperature or
pressure, the change is called an interconversion of state
 It is a physical change involving changes in the forces between the particles of the
substances, the particles themselves remain the same, as do the chemical properties of
the substance
 Physical changes are relatively easy to reverse as no new substance is formed during
interconversions of state
 The interconversions have specific terms to describe them:

A Summary of State Changes

Melting
  Melting is when a solid changes into a liquid
 The process requires heat energy which transforms into kinetic energy, allowing the
particles to move
 It occurs at a specific temperature known as the melting point which is unique to
each pure solid

Boiling

 Boiling is when a liquid changes into a gas

 This requires heat which causes bubbles of gas to form below the surface of a liquid,
allowing for liquid particles to escape from the surface and from within the liquid
 It occurs at a specific temperature known as the boiling point which is unique to
each pure liquid

Freezing

 Freezing is when a liquid changes into a solid

 This is the reverse of melting and occurs at exactly the same temperature as melting,
hence the melting point and freezing point of a pure substance are the same
o Water for example freezes and melts at 0 ºC
 It requires a significant decrease in temperature (or loss of thermal energy) and occurs
at a specific temperature which is unique for each pure substance

Evaporation

 When a liquid changes into a gas

 Evaporation occurs only at the surface of liquids where high energy particles can
escape from the liquids surface at low temperatures, below the boiling point of the
liquid
 The larger the surface area and the warmer the liquid/surface, the more quickly a
liquid can evaporate
 Evaporation occurs over a range of temperatures, but heating will speed up the
process as particles need energy to escape from the surface

Condensation

 When a gas changes into a liquid, usually on cooling

 When a gas is cooled its particles lose energy and when they bump into each other,
they lack energy to bounce away again, instead grouping together to form a liquid

Sublimation

 When a solid changes directly into a gas

 This happens to only a few solids, such as iodine or solid carbon dioxide
 The reverse reaction also happens and is called desublimation or deposition
 Interconversion between the three states of matter

Exam Tip
Solids, liquids and gases have different physical properties. The difference in these properties
comes from differences in how the particles are arranged in each state

1.1.2 Diffusion & Dilution

Diffusion & Dilution

 Diffusion and dilution experiments support a theory that all matter (solids, liquids and
gases) is made up of tiny, moving particles

Diffusion in gases

Diffusion of red-brown bromine gas

Description:

 Here, we see the diffusion of bromine gas from one gas jar to another
 After 5 minutes the bromine gas has diffused from the bottom jar to the top jar

Explanation:

 The air and bromine particles are moving randomly and there are large gaps between
particles
 The particles can therefore easily mix together

Diffusion in liquids

Diffusion of potassium manganate(VII) in water over time

Description:

 When potassium manganate (VII) crystals are dissolved in water, a purple solution is
formed
 A small number of crystals produce a highly intense colour

Explanation:

 The water and potassium manganate (VII) particles are moving randomly and the
particles can slide over each other
 The particles can therefore easily mix together
 Diffusion in liquids is slower than in gases because the particles in a liquid are closely
packed together and move more slowly

Dilution

Dissolving potassium manganate (VII) in water

Description:

 When potassium magnate (VII) crystals are dissolved in water, the solution can be
diluted several times
 The colour fades but does not disappear until a lot of dilutions have been done

Explanation:

 This indicates that there are a lot of particles in a small amount of potassium
manganate (VII) and therefore the particles must be very small

Exam Tip
Diffusion and dilution provide evidence for the kinetic theory of matter.

1.1.3 Solutions
Solutions Terminology

 You need to know all the following terms used when describing solutions:

Terminology About Solutions Table

1.1.4 Solubility
Solubility

 Solubility is a measurement of how much of a substance will dissolve in a given

volume of a liquid
o The liquid is called the solvent
o The solubility of a gas depends on pressure and temperature
 Different substances have different solubilities
 Solubility can be expressed in g per 100 g of solvent
 Solubility of solids is affected by temperature
o As temperature increases, solids usually become more soluble
 Solubility of gases is affected by temperature and pressure; in general:
o As pressure increases, gases become more soluble
o As temperature increases, gases become less soluble

Solubility Curves

 Solubility graphs or curves represent solubility in g per 100 g of water plotted against
temperature
 To plot a solubility curve, the maximum mass of solvent that can be dissolved in 100
g of water before a saturated solution is formed, is determined at a series of different
temperatures
 Solubility curve for three salts. While the solubility of most salts increases with
temperature, sodium chloride, or common salt, hardly changes at all

Worked Example
Use the solubility curve to answer these questions:

1. Determine how much potassium nitrate will dissolve in 20 g of water at 40 °C?

2. 200 cm3 of saturated lead(II)nitrate solution was prepared at a temperature of 90 °C.
What mass of lead(II)nitrate crystals form if the solution was cooled to 20 °C?

Answers

Problem 1

At 40 °C the solubility is 68 g per 100 g of water

So scaling, 68 x (20 / 100) = 13.6 g of potassium nitrate will dissolve in 20 g of water

Problem 2

Solubility of lead(II) nitrate at 90 oC is 118 g / 100 g water, and 64 g / 100 g water at 20 °C.

Therefore for mass of crystals formed = 118 – 64 = 54 g (for 100 cm3 of solution).

However, 200 cm3 of solution was prepared,

So total mass of lead(II) nitrate crystallised = 2 x 54 = 108 g

Exam Tip
As temperature increases, solids usually become more soluble and gases become less soluble.
1.1.5 Practical: Investigate the Solubility of
a Solid in Water at a Specific Temperature

Practical: Investigate the Solubility of a Solid in Water at a Specific

Temperature
Aim:

To measure the solubility of a salt at different temperatures

Method:

1. Prepare a two beakers, one as a hot water bath and one as an ice bath
2. Using a small measuring cylinder, measure out 4 cm3 of distilled water into a boiling
tube.
3. On a balance weigh out 2.6 g of ammonium chloride and add it to the boiling tube
4. Place the boiling tube into the hot water bath and stir until the solid dissolves
5. Transfer the boiling tube to the ice bath and allow it to cool while stirring
6. Note the temperature at which crystals first appear and record it in a table of results
7. Add 1 cm3 of distilled water then warm the solution again to dissolve the crystals
8. Repeat the cooling process again noting the temperature at which crystals first appear.
9. Continue the steps until a total of 10 cm3 of water has been added

Apparatus for investigating the solubility of a salt with temperature

Results:

Table of Results for Recording Solubility

Graph:

Use the results to plot a solubility curve for ammonium chloride at different temperatures.
Solubility is on the y-axis and temperature is on the x-axisConclusion:
The shape of the graph will allow to state how the solubility varies with temperature

1.2.1 Element, Compound or Mixture

Classify an Element, Compound or Mixture

 You need to know the following definitions

Classify an Element, Compound or Mixture Table

  We can represent these concepts visually:

Mixtures of elements, compounds and both at the molecular level

1.2 2 Pure Substance vs Mixture

Pure Substance vs Mixture

 In everyday language we use the word pure to describe when something

is natural or clean and to which nothing else has been added
 In chemistry a pure substance may consist of a single element or compound which
contains no other substances
 For example a beaker of a sample of pure water contains only H2O molecules and
nothing else
 If salt were added to the beaker then a mixture is produced
 A mixture consists of two or more elements or compounds that are physically
mixed together, they are not chemically combined
 The chemical properties of the substances in a mixture remain unchanged
 Substances in mixtures can be separated by physical means
 Air for example is a mixture of nitrogen, oxygen and some other gases such as carbon
dioxide and argon
 Diagram showing how to represent elements, compounds and mixtures using particle
diagrams

Distinguishing Purity

 Pure substances melt and boil at specific and sharp temperatures e.g. pure water has a
boiling point of 100 °C and a melting point of 0 °C
 Mixtures have a range of melting and boiling points as they consist
of different substances that tend to lower the melting point and broaden the melting
point range
 Melting and boiling points data can therefore be used to distinguish pure substances
from mixtures
 Melting point analysis is routinely used to assess the purity of drugs
 This is done using a melting point apparatus which allows you to slowly heat up a
small amount of the sample, making it easier to observe the exact melting point
 This is then compared to data tables
 The closer the measured value is to the actual melting or boiling point then the purer
the sample is

Cooling Curves

 The influence of impurities can be more clearly seen on a heating / cooling curve
 If the temperature of a liquid is measured as it cools and freezes the data can be used
to produce a graph
 The following graph shows the cooling curve for a sample of a compound
 The horizontal part of the graph shows that the compound has a sharp melting point,
so the compound is pure
 Cooling curve for a pure substance

 An impure sample of the compound would produce a gradual decrease in

temperature as it freezes as shown in the graph below
 Cooling curve for an impure substance

1.2 3 Separation Techniques

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Simple Distillation

 This is used to separate a liquid and soluble solid from a solution (e.g., water from a
solution of salt water) or a pure liquid from a mixture of liquids
 The solution is heated, and pure water evaporates producing a vapour which rises
through the neck of the round bottomed flask
 The vapour passes through the condenser, where it cools and condenses, turning into
the pure liquid that is collected in a beaker
 After all the water is evaporated from the solution, only the solid solute will be left
behind
 Diagram showing the distillation of a mixture of salt and water

Exam Tip
If asked to draw or label a diagram of simple distillation, make sure that the water goes in at
the bottom of the condenser near the collecting beaker, and comes out at the top near the
column.

Fractional Distillation

 This is used to separate two or more liquids that are miscible with one another (e.g.,
ethanol and water from a mixture of the two)
 The solution is heated to the temperature of the substance with the lowest boiling
point
 This substance will rise and evaporate first, and vapours will pass through a
condenser, where they cool and condense, turning into a liquid that will be collected
in a beaker
 All of the substance is evaporated and collected, leaving behind the other
components(s) of the mixture
 For water and ethanol
o Ethanol has a boiling point of 78 ºC and water of 100 ºC
o The mixture is heated until it reaches 78 ºC, at which point the ethanol boils
and distills out of the mixture and condenses into the beaker
 When the temperature starts to increase to 100 ºC heating should be stopped. Water
and ethanol are now separated
 Fractional distillation of a mixture of ethanol and water

Filtration

 Used to separate an undissolved solid from a mixture of the solid and a liquid /
solution ( e.g., sand from a mixture of sand and water)
o Centrifugation can also be used for this mixture
 A piece of filter paper is placed in a filter funnel above a beaker
 A mixture of insoluble solid and liquid is poured into the filter funnel
 The filter paper will only allow small liquid particles to pass through as filtrate
 Solid particles are too large to pass through the filter paper so will stay behind as a
residue
 Filtration of a mixture of sand and water

Crystallisation

 Used to separate a dissolved solid from a solution, when the solid is much more
soluble in hot solvent than in cold (e.g., copper sulphate from a solution of copper (II)
sulphate in water)
 The solution is heated, allowing the solvent to evaporate, leaving a saturated solution
behind
 Test if the solution is saturated by dipping a clean, dry, cold glass rod into the solution
o If the solution is saturated, crystals will form on the glass rod
 The saturated solution is allowed to cool slowly
 Crystals begin to grow as solids will come out of solution due to decreasing solubility
 The crystals are collected by filtering the solution, they are washed with cold distilled
water to remove impurities and are then allowed to dry
 Diagram showing the process of crystallisation

Paper Chromatography

 This technique is used to separate substances that have different solubilities in a

given solvent (e.g., different coloured inks that have been mixed to make black ink)
 A pencil line is drawn on chromatography paper and spots of the sample are placed
on it. Pencil is used for this as ink would run into the chromatogram along with the
samples
 The paper is then lowered into the solvent container, making sure that the pencil line
sits above the level of the solvent, so the samples don’t wash into the solvent
container
o The paper is called the stationary phase
 The solvent travels up the paper by capillary action, taking some of the coloured
substances with it; it is called the mobile phase
 Different substances have different solubilities so will travel at different rates, causing
the substances to spread apart
o Those substances with higher solubility will travel further than the others
 This will show the different components of the ink / dye
 If two or more substances are the same, they will produce identical chromatograms
 If the substance is a mixture, it will separate on the paper to show all the different
components as separate spots
 An impure substance will show up with more than one spot, a pure substance should
only show up with one spot
 Analysis of the composition of ink using paper chromatography

Exam Tip
Paper chromatography is the name given to the overall separation technique while
a chromatogram is the name given to the visual output of a chromatography run. This is the
piece of chromatography paper with the visibly separated components after the run has
finished.

The initial line must be drawn in pencil because if you used ink this would smudge or run in
the water!

The solvent level must not start above the pencil line, or this will ruin the chromatogram.

1.2.4 Interpreting Chromatograms

Identifying Mixtures

 Pure substances will produce only one spot on the chromatogram

 If two or more substances are the same, they will produce identical chromatograms
 If the substance is a mixture, it will separate on the paper to show all
the different components as separate spots
 An impure substance therefore will produce a chromatogram with more than one spot

Diagram showing the analysis of a mixture and pure substances using chromatography

Rf Values
  These values are used to identify the components of mixtures
 The Rf value of a particular compound is always the same but it is dependent,
however, on the solvent used
 If the solvent is changed then the value changes
 Calculating the Rf value allows chemists to identify unknown substances because it
can be compared with Rf values of known substances under the same conditions
 These values are known as reference values

Calculation

 The Retention factor is found using the following calculation:

Rf = distance travelled by substance ÷ distance travelled by solvent

 The Rf value will always lie between 0 and 1; the closer it is to 1, the more soluble is
that component in the solvent
 The Rf value is a ratio and therefore has no units

Using Rf values to identify components of a mixture

Exam Tip
For the Rf calculations, both distances are measured from the baseline.
1.2.5 Practical: Investigating Paper
Chromatography
Practical: Investigate Paper Chromatography Using Inks & Food
Colourings
Objective:

Investigate how paper chromatography can be used to separate and identify a mixture of food
colourings

Hypothesis:

Rf values can be used to identify the components of an unknown mixture by comparison with
Rf values of known substancesMaterials:

 A 250 cm3 beaker

 A wooden spill
 A rectangle of chromatography paper
 Four known food colourings labelled A–D
 An unknown mixture of food colourings labelled U
 Five glass capillary tubes
 Paper clip
 Ruler & pencil
 Diagram of the apparatus needed for paper chromatography

Practical Tip:

The pencil line must never be below the level of the solvent as the samples will be washed
away

Method:

1. Use a ruler to draw a horizontal pencil line 2 cm from the end of the chromatography
paper
2. Use a different capillary tube to put a tiny spot of each colouring A, B, C and D on the
line
3. Use the fifth tube to put a small spot of the unknown mixture U on the line
4. Make sure each spot is no more than 2-3 mm in diameter and label each spot in pencil
5. Pour water into the beaker to a depth of no more than 1 cm and clip the top of the
chromatography paper to the wooden spill. The top end is the furthest from the spots
6. Carefully rest the wooden spill on the top edge of the beaker. The bottom edge of the
paper

should dip into the solvent

7. Allow the solvent to travel undisturbed at least three quarters of the way up the paper
8. Remove the paper and draw another pencil line on the dry part of the paper as close to
the wet edge as possible. This is called the solvent front line
9. Measure the distance in mm between the two pencil lines. This is the distance
travelled by the water solvent
10. For each of food colour A, B, C and D measure the distance in mm from the start line
to the middle of the spot

Results:

Record your results in a suitable table

Evaluation:

The Rf values of food colours A, B, C and D should be compared to that for the unknown
sample as well as a visual comparison being made
Conclusion:

The use of chromatography and Rf values is a viable method of identifying unknown mixtures
given reference material

1.3.1 Atoms: Definitions & Structure

Atoms & Molecules

 It is important to understand the terms atom and molecule when referring to atomic
structure, elements and compounds

Atoms & Molecules Definitions Table

The Structure of the Atom

 Elements are made of tiny particles of matter called atoms

 Each atom is made of subatomic particles called protons, neutrons and electrons
 Their size is so tiny that we can't really compare their masses in conventional units
such as kilograms or grams, so a unit called the relative atomic mass is used
 One relative atomic mass unit is equal to one twelfth the mass of a carbon-12 atom.
 All other elements are measured relative to the mass of a carbon-12 atom and since
these are ratios, the relative atomic mass has no units
 Hydrogen for example has a relative atomic mass of 1, meaning that 12 atoms of
hydrogen would have exactly the same mass as 1 atom of carbon
 The relative mass and charge of the subatomic particles are shown below:

The Mass & Charge of Subatomic Particles Table

Exam Tip
The mass of an electron can just be stated as 'negligible' or 'very small' in an exam. You do
not need to learn the value.

Key Terms

 You need to know the following terms to describe the properties and characteristics of
atoms

Atomic Structure Key Terms Table

Exam Tip
The term nucleon number is an alternative to mass number and means the same thing. A
nucleon is a collective name for protons and neutrons.

1.3.2 Calculate Relative Atomic Mass

Calculate Relative Atomic Mass

 The relative atomic mass of each element is calculated from the mass number and relative
abundances of all the isotopes of a particular element
 The steps below are to calculate the relative atomic mass
 Start by finding out the mass of 100 atoms, then divide the result by 100 to get the Ar

 The top line of the equation can be extended to include the number of different isotopes of
a particular element present, so, if there were 3 isotopes present then the top line of the
equation would read:

Worked Example
The table shows information about the Isotopes in a sample of rubidium with 72% 85Rb and
28% 87Rb

Use information from the table to calculate the relative atomic mass of this sample of Rubidium.
Give your answer to one decimal place:

Answer
Relative Atomic Mass = 85.6

Exam Tip
Isotopes are easy to recognize from their notation as they have the same symbol but different
mass numbers. For example, the two stable isotopes of copper are 63Cu and 65Cu

1.4.1 Periodic Table: Basics

Arrangement of the Periodic Table

 There are over 100 chemical elements which have been isolated and identified
 Elements are arranged on the periodic table in order of increasing atomic number
o Each element has one proton more than the element preceding it
o This is done so that elements end up in columns with other elements which have
similar properties
 The table is arranged in vertical columns called groups and in rows called periods
o Period: These are the horizontal rows that show the number of shells of electrons an
atom has and are numbered from 1 - 7
o E.g. elements in period 2 have two electron shells, elements in period 3 have three
electron shells
 Group: These are the vertical columns that show how many outer electrons each atom has
and are numbered from 1 – 7, with a final group called group 0 (instead of group 8)
o E.g. group 4 elements have atoms with 4 electrons in the outermost shell, group 6
elements have atoms with 6 electrons in the outermost shell and so on
 The Periodic Table of the Elements

Exam Tip
The atomic number is unique to each element and could be considered as an element's
“fingerprint”.

The number of electrons changes during chemical reactions, but the atomic number does not
change.

1.4.2 Electronic Configurations

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Deducing Electronic Configurations

 We can represent the electronic structure of atoms using electron shell diagrams
 Electrons orbit the nucleus in shells and each shell has a different amount of energy
associated with it
 The further away from the nucleus, the more energy a shell has
 Electrons first occupy the shell closest to the nucleus which can hold a maximum of 2
electrons
 When a shell becomes full of electrons, additional electrons have to be added to the next
shell
 The second shell and third shell can hold 8 electrons each
 The outermost shell of an atom is called the valence shell and an atom is much more stable
if it can manage to completely fill this shell with electrons
 In most atoms, the outermost shell is not full and therefore these atoms react with other
atoms in order to achieve a full outer shell of electrons (which would make them more
stable)
 In some cases, atoms lose electrons to entirely empty this shell so that the next shell below
becomes a (full) outer shell

Deducing electron configuration

 You should be able to write the electron configuration for the first twenty elements
 Electronic Configuration of the First 20 Elements Table

Note: Although the third shell can hold up to 18 electrons, the filling of the shells follows a
more complicated pattern after potassium and calcium. For these two elements, the third shell
holds 8 and the remaining electrons (for reasons of stability) occupy the fourth shell first
before filling the third shell
Exam Tip
You should be able to represent the first 20 elements using either electron shell diagrams or
written electronic configuration.

Electronic Configurations & the Periodic Table

Electronic configuration: The arrangement of electrons into shells for an atom (e.g.
electronic configuration of carbon is 2 . 4)

Electronic configuration and position in periodic table

 The number of notations in the electronic configuration will show the number of shells of
electrons the atom has, showing the period
 The last notation shows the number of outer electrons the atom has, showing the group

Example: Electronic configuration of chlorine:

Shorthand electronic configuration

Period: The red numbers below the electronic configuration show the number of notations which is
3, showing that a chlorine atom has 3 shells of electronsGroup: The last notation, which is 7, shows
that a chlorine atom has 7 outer electrons matching group 7 of the periodic table

The position of chlorine on the periodic table

 The position of chlorine in the periodic table

Exam Tip
All of the shells up to the outer shell will be full. Electron transfer occurs with electrons from
the outer shell only.You can use the term ‘shell’ or ‘energy level’ to describe the space that
electrons occupy.

1.4.3 Classify Metals & Non-Metals

Classify Metals & Non-Metals

 We can use properties such as electrical conductivity and acid-base character to classify
elements as metals or non-metals

Characteristic Properties of Metals and Non-Metals

Metals & Non-Metals in the Periodic Table

 The location of the metals and non-metals shows a clear pattern when highlighted on a
periodic table
 Another thing that is striking, is that you can see that the vast majority of elements are
metals

A zig-zag line between the blue and purple elements in this diagram separates the metals
on the left, from the non-metals on the right. Elements which border the line are hard to
 classify as they have characteristics of both sides, so the term semi-metal or metalloid is
used.

1.4.4 Electronic Configuration & Reactivity

Similar Chemical Properties
Chemical properties of elements in the same group

 Elements in the same group in the periodic table will have similar chemical properties
 This is because they have the same number of outer electrons so will react and bond
similarly
 The group number of an element which is given on the periodic table indicates the number
of electrons in the outer shell (valence electrons)
o This rule holds true for all elements except helium; although is in group 0, it has
only one shell, the first and innermost shell, which holds only 2 electrons

 We can use the group number to predict how elements will react as the number of valence
shell electrons in an element influences how the element reacts.
 Therefore, elements in the same group react similarly
o By observing the reaction of one element from a group, you can predict how the
other elements in that group will react
o By reacting two or more elements from the same group and observing what
happens in those reactions you can make predictions about reactivity and
establish trends in reactivity in that group
 For example, lithium, sodium and potassium are in group 1 and can all react with elements
in group 7 to form an ionic compound
 The group 1 metals become more reactive as you move down the group while the group 7
metals show a decrease in reactivity moving down the group

Why Noble Gases are Unreactive

 The elements in group 0 of the periodic table are called the noble gases
 They are all non-metal, monatomic (exist as single atoms), colourless, non-flammable gases
at room temperature
 The group 0 elements all have full outer shells of electrons; this electronic configuration
is extremely stable
 Elements participate in reactions to complete their outer shells by losing, gaining, or
sharing electrons
o The Group 0 elements do not need to do this, because of their full outer shells which
makes them unreactive and inert
 Other than helium which has 2 electrons in its outer shell, the noble gases have eight
valence electrons (which is why you may see this group labelled “group 8”)
 Electronic configurations of the Noble gases:
o He = 2
o Ne = 2, 8
o Ar = 2, 8, 8
o Kr = 2, 8, 18, 8
o Xe = 2, 8, 18, 18, 8
 The periodic table highlighting the noble gases – they occupy the group furthest to the
right

1.5.1 Word & Chemical Equations

Writing Equations
Nothing created - nothing destroyed

 New substances are made during chemical reactions

o However, the same atoms are always present before and after reaction
o They have just joined up in different ways
o Atoms cannot be created or destroyed, so if they exist in the reactants then they
absolutely must be in the products!
 Because of this the total mass of reactants is always equal to the total mass of products
 This idea is known as the Law of Conservation of Mass

Conservation of Mass

 The Law of Conservation of Mass enables us to balance chemical equations, since no atoms
can be lost or created
 You should be able to:
o Write word equations for reactions outlined in these notes
o Write formulae and balanced chemical equations for the reactions in these notes

Word Equations

 These show the reactants and products of a chemical reaction using their full chemical
names
 The reactants are those substances on the left-hand side of the arrow and can be thought of
as the chemical ingredients of the reaction
 They react with each other and form new substances
 The products are the new substances which are on the right-hand side of the arrow
 The arrow (which is spoken as “goes to” or “produces”) implies the conversion of reactants
into products
  Reaction conditions or the name of a catalyst (a substance added to make a reaction go
faster) can be written above the arrow
 An example is the reaction of sodium hydroxide (a base) and hydrochloric acid produces
sodium chloride (common table salt) and water:

sodium hydroxide + hydrochloric acid ⟶ sodium chloride + water

Representing reactions as equations

 Chemical equations use the chemical symbols of each reactant and product
 When balancing equations, there has to be the same number of atoms of each element on
either side of the equation in accordance with the Law of Conservation of Mass
 A symbol equation uses the formulae of the reactants and products to show what happens
in a chemical reaction
 A symbol equation must be balanced to give the correct ratio of reactants and products:

S + O2 → SO2

 This equation shows that one atom of sulfur (S) reacts with one molecule of oxygen (O2) to
make one molecule of sulfur dioxide (SO2)
 The following non-metals must be written as molecules: H2, N2, O2, F2, Cl2, Br2 and I2
 To balance an equation you work across the equation from left to right, checking one
element after another
 If there is a group of atoms, for example a nitrate group (NO3–) that has not changed from
one side to the other, then count the whole group as one entity rather than counting the
individual atoms
 Examples of chemical equations:
o Acid-base neutralisation reaction:

NaOH (aq) + HCl (aq) ⟶ NaCl (aq) + H2O (l)


o Redox reaction:

2Fe2O3 (aq) + 3C (s) ⟶ 4Fe (s) + 3CO2 (g)

 In each equation there are equal numbers of each atom on either side of the reaction arrow
so the equations are balanced

 Don't forget to add state symbols when writing balanced equations:

Balancing Equations

The best approach is to practice lot of examples of balancing equations

  By trial and error change the coefficients (multipliers) in front of the formulae, one by one
checking the result on the other side
 Balance elements that appear on their own, last in the process

Worked Example
Example 1Balance the following equation:

aluminium + copper(II)oxide ⟶ aluminium oxide + copper

Unbalanced symbol equation:

Al + CuO ⟶ Al2O3 + Cu

Answer

Worked Example
Example 2

Balance the following equation:

magnesium oxide + nitric acid ⟶ magnesium nitrate + water

Unbalanced symbol equation:

MgO + HNO3 ⟶ Mg(NO3)2 + H2O

Answer
Exam Tip
Chemical equations do not contain an equals sign between the left and right-hand sides but
are written with an arrow instead. The arrow means that the reactants have reacted together
and formed the product(s).

1.5.2 Calculate Relative Mass

Relative Formula Mass & Relative Molecular Mass

 We have seen previously that the symbol for the relative atomic mass is Ar
 This is calculated from the mass number and relative abundances of all the isotopes of a
particular element
 The symbol for the relative formula mass is Mr and it refers to the total mass of the
substance
 If the substance is molecular you can use the term relative molecular mass, but this term
should not be used for ionic compounds such as sodium chloride
 To calculate the Mr of a substance, you have to add up the relative atomic masses of all the
atoms present in the formula

Relative Formula Mass Calculations Table

  In accordance with the Law of Conservation of Mass, the sum of the relative formula masses
of the reactants will be the same as the sum of the relative formula masses of the products

Exam Tip
If you are in any doubt whether to use relative molecular mass or relative formula mass, use
the latter because it applies to all compounds whether they are ionic or covalent.

1.5.3 Moles, Mass & RFM

The Mole
The Mole

 Chemical amounts are measured in moles

 The symbol for the unit mole is mol
 One mole of a substance contains the same number of the stated particles, atoms,
molecules, or ions as one mole of any other substance
 The number of atoms, molecules or ions in a mole (1 mol) of a given substance is the
Avogadro constant. The value of the Avogadro constant is 6.02 x 1023 per mole

For example:

 One mole of sodium (Na) contains 6.02 x 1023 atoms of sodium

 One mole of hydrogen (H2) contains 6.02 x 1023 molecules of hydrogen
 One mole of sodium chloride (NaCl) contains 6.02 x 1023 formula units of sodium chloride

Exam Tip
You need to appreciate that the measurement of amounts in moles can apply to atoms,
molecules, ions, electrons, formulae and equations. E.g. in one mole of carbon (C) the
number of atoms is the same as the number of molecules in one mole of carbon dioxide
(CO2).

Linking the Mole and the Atomic mass

 One mole of any element is equal to the relative atomic mass of that element in grams or
for a compound the relative formula mass in grams
 This is called the molar mass
 If you had 6.02 x 1023 atoms of carbon in your hand, that number of carbon atoms would
have a mass of 12 g (because the Ar of carbon is 12)
 So one mole of helium atoms would have a mass of 4 g (Ar of He is 4), one mole of lithium
would have a mass of 7 g (Ar of Li is 7) and so on
 To find the mass of one mole of a compound, we add up the relative atomic masses
o So one mole of water would have a mass of (2 x 1) + 16 = 18 g
o So one carbon atom has the same mass as 12 hydrogen atoms

Exam Tip
Remember the key link between moles and mass: one mole of any element is equal to that
elements atomic mass in grams.

Moles-Mass Calculations

 Although elements and chemicals react with each other in molar ratios, in the laboratory we
use digital balances and grams to measure quantities of chemicals as it is impractical to try
and measure out moles
 Therefore we have to be able to convert between moles and grams
 We can use the following formula to convert between moles, mass in grams and the molar
mass:

Formula triangle for moles, mass and molar mass

Worked Example
What is the mass of 0.250 moles of zinc?
Answer:


o From the periodic table the relative atomic mass of Zn is 65.38
o So, the molar mass is 65.38 g mol-1
o The mass is calculated by moles x molar mass
o This comes to 0.250 mol x 65.38 g mol-1 = 16.3 g

Worked Example
How many moles are in 2.64 g of sucrose, C12H22O11 (Mr = 342.3)?

Answer:


o The molar mass of sucrose is 342.3 g mol-1
o The number of moles is found by mass ÷ molar mass
o This comes to 2.64 g ÷ 342.3 g mol-1 = 7.71 x 10-3 mol

Exam Tip
Always show your workings in calculations as its easier to check for errors and you may pick
up credit if you get the final answer wrong.

1.5.4 Calculate Reacting Masses

Calculate Reacting Masses

 Chemical equations can be used to calculate the moles or masses of reactants and products
 To do this, information given in the question is used to find the amount in moles of the
substances being considered
 Then, the ratio between the substances is identified using the balanced chemical equation
 Once the moles have been determined they can then be converted into grams using the
relative atomic or relative formula masses

Worked Example
Example 1Calculate the mass of magnesium oxide that can be made by completely burning
6.0 g of magnesium in oxygen in the following reaction:

2Mg (s) + O2 (g) ⟶ 2 MgO (s)

Answer
 Worked Example
Example 2

Calculate the mass of aluminium, in tonnes, that can be produced from 51 tonnes of
aluminium oxide. The equation for the reaction is:

2Al2O3 ⟶ 4Al + 3O2

Answer
Exam Tip
As long as you are consistent it doesn't matter whether you work in grams or tonnes or any
other mass unit as the reacting masses will always be in proportion to the balanced equation.

Balancing Equations using Reacting Masses

 If the masses of reactants and products of a reaction are known then we can use them to
write a balanced equation for that reaction
 This is done by converting the masses to moles and simplifying to find the molar ratios

Worked Example
Example 3A student reacts 1.2 g of carbon with 16.2 g of zinc oxide. The resulting products
are 4.4 g of carbon dioxide and 13 g of zinc. Determine the balanced equation for the
reaction.

Answer

Exam Tip
These questions look hard but they are actually quite easy to do, as long as you follow the
steps and organise your work neatly.

Remember the molar ratio of a balanced equation gives you the ratio of the amounts of each
substance in the reaction.
1.5.5 Calculate Percentage Yield
Calculate Percentage Yield

 Yield is the term used to describe the amount of product you get from a reaction
 In practice, you never get 100% yield in a chemical process for several reasons
 These include:
o Some reactants may be left behind in the equipment
o The reaction may be reversible and in these reactions a high yield is never possible
as the products are continually turning back into the reactants
o Some products may also be lost during separation and purification stages such as
filtration or distillation
o There may be side reactions occurring where a substance reacts with a gas in the air
or an impurity in one of the reactants
o Products can also be lost during transfer from one container to another

Actual & Theoretical Yield

 The actual yield is the recorded amount of product obtained

 The theoretical yield is the amount of product that would be obtained under perfect
practical and chemical conditions
 It is calculated from the balanced equation and the reacting masses
 The percentage yield compares the actual yield to the theoretical yield
 For economic reasons, the objective of every chemical producing company is to have as high
a percentage yield as possible to increase profits and reduce costs and waste

Percentage Yield

 The percentage yield is a good way of measuring how successful a chemical process is
 There are often several methods of creating a compound and each method is called
a reaction pathway
 Reaction pathways consist of a sequence of reactions which must occur to produce the
required product
 Companies often investigate and try out different reaction pathways and these are
then compared and evaluated so that a manufacturing process can be chosen
 The percentage yield of each pathway is a significant factor in this decision making process
 The equation to calculate the percentage yield is:

Worked Example
Copper(II) sulfate may be prepared by the reaction of dilute sulfuric acid on copper(II) oxide.
A student prepared 1.6 g of dry copper(II) sulfate crystals. Calculate the percentage yield if
the theoretical yield is 2.0 g.

Answer


o Actual yield of copper(II) sulfate = 1.6 g
 o Percentage yield of copper(II) sulfate = (1.6 / 2.0) x 100
o Percentage yield = 80%

Exam Tip
The actual yield can be determined by experiment only, while the theoretical yield can be
calculated assuming there is 100% conversion of reactants to products.

1.5.6 Experiment: Finding Formulae of

Compounds
Formulae of Simple Compounds by Experiment
Making Careful Quantitative Measurements

 The formulae of simple compounds can be found by careful experimentation and accurate
measurements of mass changes
 The principle is to use mass measurements before and after reaction and then convert
masses into moles
 Using the moles of reactants and products it is possible to deduce molar ratios and hence an
empirical formula
 Experiments which are easier to do using this process involve gases being lost or gained
 In this example a hydrated salt is heated to drive off the water as water vapour

The Formula of a Hydrated Salt

Aim:

To determine the formula of hydrated copper sulfate, CuSO4. xH2ODiagram:

Heating a hydrated salt to remove the water of crystallisation

Method:

 Measure mass of evaporating dish

 Add a known mass of hydrated salt
 Heat over a Bunsen burner, gently stirring, until the blue salt turns completely white,
indicating that all the water has been lost
 Record the mass of the evaporating dish and contents
Practical tip:

Avoid overheating the salt as it could decompose and give you a larger mass change

Mass of the white anhydrous salt:

Measure mass of white anhydrous salt remainingMass of water:

Subtract mass of the white anhydrous salt remaining from the mass of known hydrated salt

Step 1 – Divide the mass of the copper sulfate and the water by their respective molar masses

Step 2 – Simplify the ratio of water to copper sulfate

anhydrous salt water

Mass a b

Moles a / Mr b / Mr

=y =x

Ratio 1 : x

Step 3 – Represent the ratio in the form ‘salt.xH2O’

Exam Tip
It is unlikely that you will get a whole number for the number of moles of water in the ratio,
so you will need to round up or down to the nearest whole number.

1.5.7 Practical: Determine the Formula of a

Metal Oxide
Practical: Determine the Formula of Magnesium Oxide
Aim:

To determine the empirical formula of magnesium oxide by combustion of magnesium

Diagram:
 Finding the empirical formula of magnesium oxide

Method:

 Measure mass of crucible with lid

 Add sample of magnesium into crucible and measure mass with lid (calculate the mass of
the metal by subtracting the mass of empty crucible)
 Strongly heat the crucible over a Bunsen burner for several minutes
 Lift the lid frequently to allow sufficient air into the crucible for the magnesium to fully
oxidise without letting magnesium oxide smoke escape
 Continue heating until the mass of crucible remains constant (maximum mass), indicating
that the reaction is complete
 Measure the mass of crucible and contents (calculate the mass of metal oxide by subtracting
the mass of empty crucible)

Working out the empirical formula:

Mass of metal:

Subtract mass of crucible from magnesium and the mass of the empty crucibleMass of oxygen:

Subtract mass of the magnesium used from the mass of magnesium oxide

Step 1 – Divide each of the two masses by the relative atomic masses of the elements

Step 2 – Simplify the ratio

magnesium oxygen

Mass a b

Mole a / Ar b / Ar

=x =y

Ratio x : y
Step 3 – Represent the ratio into the form ‘MxOy‘ E.g, MgO

Practical: Determine the Formula of Copper(II)Oxide

Aim:

To determine the formula of copper(II)oxide by reduction with methane

Diagram:

Finding the empirical formula of copper(II)oxide

Method:

 Measure mass of the empty boiling tube

 Place metal oxide into a horizontal boiling tube and measure the mass again
 Support the tube in a horizontal position held by a clamp
 A steady stream of natural gas(methane) is passed over the copper(II)oxide and the excess
gas is burned off
 The copper(II)oxide is heated strongly using a Bunsen burner
 Heat until metal oxide completely changes colour, meaning that all the oxygen has been
removed
 Measure mass of the tube remaining metal powder and subtract the mass of the tube

Working out empirical formula:Mass of Metal:

Measure mass of the remaining metal powder

Mass of Oxygen:
Subtract mass of the remaining metal powder from the mass of metal oxideStep 1 – Divide each of
the two masses by the relative atomic masses of elementsStep 2 – Simplify the ratio
Metal OxygenMass a bMole a / Mr b / Mr= x =
yRatio x : yStep 3 – Represent the ratio into the form ‘MxOy‘ E.g, CuO

1.5.8 Empirical & Molecular Formulae

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Empirical & Molecular Formulae

 The molecular formula is the formula that shows the number and type of each atom in a
molecule
o E.g. the molecular formula of ethanoic acid is C2H4O2
 The empirical formula is the simplest whole number ratio of the atoms of each element
present in one molecule or formula unit of the compound
o E.g. the empirical formula of ethanoic acid is CH2O
 Organic molecules often have different empirical and molecular formulae
 The formula of an ionic compound is always an empirical formula

Calculate Empirical & Molecular Formulae

Empirical formula: gives the simplest whole number ratio of atoms of each element in the
compound

 It is calculated from knowledge of the ratio of masses of each element in the compound

Example:A compound that contains 10 g of hydrogen and 80 g of oxygen has an empirical formula of
H2O. This can be shown by the following calculations:Amount of hydrogen atoms = mass in grams ÷
Ar of hydrogen = (10 ÷ 1) = 10 molesAmount of oxygen atoms = mass in grams ÷ Ar of oxygen = (80 ÷
16) = 5 moles

The Ratio of Moles of Hydrogen Atoms to Moles of Oxygen Atoms

Since equal numbers of moles of atoms contain the same number of atoms, the ratio of hydrogen
atoms to oxygen atoms is 2:1Hence the empirical formula is H2OMolecular formula: gives the exact
numbers of atoms of each element present in the formula of the compound
  Divide the relative formula mass of the molecular formula by the relative formula mass of
the empirical formula
 Multiply the number of each element present in the empirical formula by this number to
find the molecular formula

Relationship between Empirical and Molecular Formula

Worked Example
The empirical formula of X is C4H10S1 and the relative formula mass of X is 180. What is the
molecular formula of X?Relative atomic masses: carbon : 12 hydrogen : 1 sulfur :
32

Step 1 - Calculate the relative formula mass of the empirical formula

(C x 4) + (H x 10) + (S x 1) = (12 x 4) + (1 x 10) + (32 x 1) = 90

Step 2 - Divide the relative formula mass of X by the mass of the empirical formula

180 / 90 = 2

Step 3 - Multiply each number of elements by 2

(C4 x 2) + (H10 x 2) + (S1 x 2) = (C8) + (H20) + (S2)

Molecular Formula of X = C8H20S2

1.5.9 Calculate Concentrations of Solutions

Calculate Concentrations of Solutions
Expressing Concentration

 A solid substance that dissolves in a liquid is called a solute, the liquid is called a solvent and
the two when mixed together form a solution
 Most chemical reactions occur between solutes which are dissolved in solvents, such as
water or an organic solvent
 Concentration simply refers to the amount of solute there is in a specific volume of the
solvent
 The greater the amount of solute in a given volume then the greater the concentration
 A general formula triangle for concentration is thus:
 The concentration-moles formula triangle

 It is useful to a chemist to express concentration in terms of moles per unit volume

 Concentration can therefore be expressed in moles per decimetre cubed
o The units in the answer can be written as mol dm-3 or mol/dm3:

 You may have to convert from g dm-3 into mol dm-3 and vice versa depending on the question
o To go from g dm-3 to mol dm-3:
 Divide by the molar mass in grams
o To go from mol dm-3 to g dm-3:
 Multiply by the molar mass in grams

Worked Example
Example 1Calculate the amount of solute, in moles, present in 2.5 dm3 of a solution whose
concentration is 0.2 mol dm-3.

Answer

Worked Example
Example 2Calculate the concentration of a solution of sodium hydroxide, NaOH, in mol dm-
3
, when 80 g is dissolved in 500 cm3 of water.(Na= 23, H= 1, O= 16)

Answer
Exam Tip
Don't forget your unit conversions:

To go from cm3 to dm3 : divide by 1000

To go from dm3 to cm3 : multiply by 1000

1.5.10 Calculate Volumes of Gases

Calculate Volumes of Gases
Avogadro's Law

 Avogadro’s Law states that at the same conditions of temperature and pressure, equal
amounts of gases occupy the same volume of space
 At room temperature and pressure, the volume occupied by one mole of any gas was found
to be 24 dm3 or 24,000 cm3
 This is known as the molar gas volume at RTP
 RTP stands for “room temperature and pressure” and the conditions are 20 ºC and 1
atmosphere (atm)
 From the molar gas volume the following formula triangle can be derived:
Formula triangle showing the relationship between moles of gas, volume in dm3 and the
molar volume

 If the volume is given in cm3 instead of dm3, then divide by 24,000 instead of 24:

Formula triangle showing the relationship between moles of gas, volume in cm3 and the
molar volume

 The formula can be used to calculate the number of moles of gases from a given volume or
vice versa
 Simply cover the one you want and the triangle tells you what to do
To find the volume

Volume = Moles x Molar Volume

Examples of Converting Moles into Volumes Table

To find the moles

Moles = Volume ÷ Molar Volume

Examples of Converting Volumes into Moles Table

1.6.1 Formation of Ions

Formation of Ions

 An ion is an electrically charged atom or group of atoms formed by

the loss or gain of electrons
 This loss or gain of electrons takes place to obtain a full outer shell of electrons
 The electronic structure of ions of elements in groups 1, 2, 3, 5, 6 and 7 will be the same as
that of a noble gas - such as helium, neon, and argon
 Negative ions are called anions and form when atoms gain electrons, meaning they have
more electrons than protons
  Positive ions are called cations and form when atoms lose electrons, meaning they have
more protons than electrons
 All metals lose electrons to other atoms to become positively charged ions
 All non-metals gain electrons from other atoms to become negatively charged ions

Diagram showing the formation of the sodium ion

Diagram showing the formation of the chloride ion

Exam Tip
The number of electrons that an atom gains or loses is the same as the charge.

For example, if a magnesium atom loses 2 electrons, then the charge will be 2+, if a bromine
atom gains 1 electron then the charge will be 1-.
1.6.2 Common Ions
Common Ions
How to deduce the charge of an ion

 Find the number of electrons in the outer electron shell

 Find out if it is easy for the atom to gain electron or to donate electron (in most cases atoms
that have fewer than four electrons, donate electrons and atoms that have more than 4
electrons, receive electrons)
 Atoms that gain electrons become negative ions and atoms that donate electron forms
positive ion
 You also need to learn the formula of compound ions, that is, ions made from more than
one element

The Charges of Common Positive Ions Table

The Charges of Common Negative Ions Table

1.6.3 Formulae for Ionic Compounds
Formulae for Ionic Compounds

 The formulae of simple ionic compounds can be calculated if you know the charge on the
ions
 Below are some common ions and their charges:

Common Ions & Their Charges Table

 For ionic compounds you have to balance the charge of each part by multiplying each ion
until the sum of the charges = 0
 Example: what is the formula of aluminium sulfate?
o Write out the formulae of each ion, including their charges
 o Al3+ SO42-
 Balance the charges by multiplying them out:

Al3+ x 2 = +6 and SO42- x 3 = -6; so +6 – 6 = 0

 So the formula is Al2(SO4)3

Exam Tip
Another method that also works is to 'swap the numbers'. In the example above the numbers
in front of the charges of the ions (3 and 2) are swapped over and become the multipliers in
the formula (2 and 3). Easy when you know how!

1.6 4 Ionic Bonds: Dot & Cross Diagrams

Ionic Bonds: Dot & Cross Diagrams
Deducing Dot & Cross Diagrams for Ionic Compounds

 Sodium is a group 1 metal so will lose one outer electron to another atom to gain
a full outer shell of electrons
 A positive sodium ion with the charge 1+ is formed
 Chlorine is a group 7 non-metal so will need to gain an electron to have a full
outer shell of electrons
 One electron will be transferred from the outer shell of the sodium atom to the
outer shell of the chlorine atom
 A chlorine atom will gain an electron to form a negatively charged chloride ion
with a charge of 1-

Formula of ionic compound: NaCl

 Sodium chloride ionic bonding

Exam Tip
For exam purposes you need only show the outer electrons in dot & cross diagrams.You
should be able to draw dot & cross diagrams for combinations of ions from groups
1,2,3,5,6 and 7.

Magnesium Oxide Dot & Cross Diagram

 Magnesium is a group 2 metal so will lose two outer electrons to another atom to
have a full outer shell of electrons
 A positive ion with the charge 2+ is formed
 Oxygen is a group 6 non-metal so will need to gain two electrons to have a full
outer shell of electrons
 Two electrons will be transferred from the outer shell of the magnesium atom to
the outer shell of the oxygen atom
 Oxygen atom will gain two electrons to form a negative ion with charge 2-

Formula of ionic compound: MgO

 Diagram showing the dot-and-cross diagram of magnesium oxide

Exam Tip
When writing about ions, we use the notation 1-, 2+ etc. to describe the charge of the
ion, with the number first followed by the sign (+/-). It is incorrect to write them the other
way around as this refers to the oxidation state, not the charge.

1.6 5 Ionic compounds: Bonds, Structure &

Properties
Ionic bonding

 The positive and negative charges are held together by the strong electrostatic forces
of attraction between oppositely charged ions
 This is what holds ionic compounds together
 Electrostatic forces hold the ions together in sodium chloride

Giant Ionic Lattices

 Ionic compounds are made of charged particles called ions which form a giant lattice
structure
 Ionic substances have high melting and boiling points due to the presence
of strong electrostatic forces acting between the oppositely charged ions
 These forces act in all directions and a lot of energy is required to overcome them

Strong electrostatic forces act in all directions in an ionic solid such as sodium chloride

 Ionic compounds are usually solid at room temperature and are non-volatile
 They are usually water soluble as both ionic compounds and water are polar substances
 Ionic compounds are soluble in water because the ions are easily hydrated by polar water
molecules

Exam Tip
Ions with higher charge have stronger electrostatic forces and will thus have higher melting
and boiling points.

Conductivity & Ionic Compounds

 For electrical current to flow there must be present freely moving charged particles such as
electrons or ions
 Ionic compounds can conduct electricity in the molten state or in solution as they have ions
that can move and carry charge
 They cannot conduct electricity in the solid state as the ions are in fixed positions within the
lattice and are unable to move

Molten or aqueous particles move and conduct electricity but cannot in the solid state

Exam Tip
Remember that in ionic lattice structures, positively charged and negatively charged ions are
arranged in an alternating pattern.
1.7.1 Formation of Covalent Bonds
Formation of Covalent Bonds

 Non-metal atoms can share electrons with other non-metal atoms to obtain
a full outer shell of electrons
 When atoms share pairs of electrons, they form covalent bonds
 Covalent bonds between atoms are very strong
 When two or more atoms are chemically bonded together, they form ‘molecules’
 Covalently bonded substances may consist of small molecules or giant molecules
 Weak intermolecular forces exist between individual molecules
o E.g. Each liquid water molecule consists of two hydrogen atoms covalently bonded
to an oxygen atom, and in between two individual water molecules there are weak
intermolecular forces
 Shared electrons are called bonding electrons and occur in pairs
 Electrons on the outer shell which are not involved in the covalent bond(s) are called non-
bonding electrons
 Simple covalent molecules do not conduct electricity as they do not contain free electrons

Diagram showing covalent bonding in a molecule of chlorine (Cl2)

Exam Tip
A key difference between covalent bonds and ionic bonds is that in covalent bonds the
electrons are shared between the atoms, they are not transferred (donated or gained) and no
ions are formed.

Electrostatic Attractions

 There is a strong electrostatic attraction between the shared pair of electrons and the nuclei
of the atoms involved, since the electrons are negatively charged and the nuclei are
positively charged

The attraction between the shared pair of electrons and the nuclei of the atoms involved in
a covalent bond

 In a normal covalent bond, each atom provide one of the electrons in the bond. A covalent
bond is represented by a short straight line between the two atoms, H-H
 Covalent bonds should not be regarded as shared electron pairs in a fixed position; the
electrons are in a state of constant motion and are best regarded as charge clouds
 Sharing electrons in the covalent bond allows each of the 2 atoms to achieve an electron
configuration similar to a noble gas
o This makes each atom more stable

1.7.2 Covalent Bonds: Dot & Cross

Diagrams
Covalent Bonds: Dot & Cross Diagrams

 Covalent substances tend to have small molecular structures, such as Cl2, H2O or CO2
 These small molecules are known as simple molecules
 Small covalent molecules can be represented by dot and cross diagrams
 You need to be able to describe and draw the structures of the following molecules using
dot-and-cross diagrams: hydrogen (H2), chlorine (Cl2), oxygen (O2), nitrogen (N2), hydrogen
chloride (HCl), water (H2O), ammonia (NH3) and methane (CH4)
 The correct dot and cross diagrams for these molecules are shown below:

Diatomic Molecules
Dot & cross representation of a molecule of hydrogen

Dot & cross representation of a molecule of chlorine

Dot & cross representation of a molecule of oxygen

Dot & cross representation of a molecule of nitrogen

 Dot & cross representation of a molecule of hydrogen chloride

Inorganic Molecules

Dot & cross representation of a molecule of water

Dot & cross representation of a molecule of ammonia

 Dot & cross representation of a molecule of carbon dioxide

Organic Molecules

Dot & cross representation of a molecule of methane

Dot & cross representation of a molecule of ethane

Dot & cross representation of a molecule of ethene

Exam Tip
Simple covalent molecules are small and can be separated into individual molecular units
without breaking any chemical bonds (although there will still be strong covalent bonds
holding the atoms in each individual molecule together) Giant ionic and covalent structures
form huge continuous networks of atoms that are bonded together and cannot be separated
into individual units without breaking bonds.

1.7.3 Simple Molecular Structures

Simple Molecular Structures

 Simple molecular structures have covalent bonds joining the atoms together, but
intermolecular forces that act between neighbouring molecules
 They have low melting and boiling points as there are only weak intermolecular forces
acting between the molecules
 These forces are very weak when compared to the covalent bonds and so most small
molecules are either gases or liquids at room temperature
o Often the liquids are volatile
 As the molecules increase in size the intermolecular forces also increase as there are more
electrons available
 This causes the melting and boiling points to increase

Covalent bonds are strong but intermolecular forces are weak

Exam Tip
The atoms within covalent molecules are held together by covalent bonds while the
molecules in a covalent substance are attracted to each other by intermolecular forces.

Melting & Boiling Point Patterns

Melting and Boiling Point of Simple Compounds in Relation to
Molecular Mass

 As the relative molecular mass of a substance increases, the melting and boiling point will
increase as well
 An increase in the relative molecular mass of a substance means that there are more
electrons in the structure, so there are more intermolecular forces of attraction that need to
be overcome when a substance changes state
  So larger amounts of heat energy are needed to overcome these forces, causing the
compound to have a higher melting and boiling point
 The family of organic molecules called alkanes show a clear increase in boiling point as the
size of the molecule increases

Graph showing the increase in boiling point as the molecular size increases

Conductivity & Covalent Compounds

 They are poor conductors of electricity as there are no free ions or electrons to carry the
charge
 Most covalent compounds do not conduct at all in the solid state and are thus insulators
 Common insulators include the plastic coating around household electrical wiring, rubber
and wood

The plastic coating around electrical wires is made from covalent substances that do not
allow a flow of charge

Exam Tip
When a covalent molecule melts or boils the covalent bonds do not break, only the
intermolecular forces. If you think about it, when you boil a kettle full of water you are not
generating large volumes of hydrogen and oxygen gas in your kitchen – this might give you
an interesting unwanted chemical reaction ! Boom !
1.7.4 Giant Covalent Structures
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Giant Covalent Structures

 Covalent bonding can be responsible for substances that have many different structures and
therefore different physical properties
 We have already seen how small molecules such as H2O and N2 are simple units made from
covalently bonded atoms
 These simple molecules contain fixed numbers of atoms
 Giant covalent structures on the other hand have a huge number of non-metal atoms
bonded to other non-metal atoms via strong covalent bonds
 These structures can also be called giant lattices and have a fixed ratio of atoms in the
overall structure
 Three common macromolecules you should know about are diamond, graphite and
C60 fullerene

Exam Tip
Giant covalent structures can also be called macromolecules.

Diamond, Graphite & C60 Fullerene

Diamond

 Diamond and graphite are allotropes of carbon

 Both substances contain only carbon atoms but due to the differences in bonding
arrangements they are physically completely different
 In diamond, each carbon atom bonds with four other carbons, forming a tetrahedron
 All the covalent bonds are identical, very strong and there are no intermolecular forces
 Diagram showing the structure and bonding arrangement in diamond

Properties of Diamond

 Diamond has the following physical properties:

o It does not conduct electricity
o It has a very high melting point
o It is extremely hard and has a density of 3.51 g / cm3 – a little higher than that of
aluminium
 All the outer shell electrons in carbon are held in the four covalent bonds around each
carbon atom, so there are no freely moving charged particles to the current
 The four covalent bonds are very strong and extend in a giant lattice, so a very large amount
of heat energy is needed to break the lattice
 Diamond ́s hardness makes it very useful for purposes where extremely tough material is
required
 Diamond is used in jewellery and for coating blades in cutting tools
 The cutting edges of discs used to cut bricks and concrete are tipped with diamonds
 Heavy-duty drill bits and tooling equipment are also diamond tipped

Exam Tip
Diamond is the hardest naturally occurring mineral, but it is by no means the strongest.
Students often confuse hard with strong, thinking it is the opposites of weak. Diamonds are
hard, but brittle – that is, they can be smashed fairly easily with a hammer. The opposite of
saying a material is hard is to describe it as soft.

Graphite

 Each carbon atom in graphite is bonded to three others forming layers of hexagons, leaving
one free electron per carbon atom
 These free electrons migrate along the layers and are free to move and carry charge, hence
graphite can conduct electricity
  The covalent bonds within the layers are very strong, but the layers are attracted to each
other by weak intermolecular forces, so the layers can slide over each other making
graphite soft and slippery

The structure and bonding in graphite

Properties of Graphite

 Graphite has the following physical properties:

o It conducts electricity and heat
o It has a very high melting point
o It is soft and slippery and less dense than diamond (2.25 g / cm3)
 The weak intermolecular forces make it a useful material
 It is used in pencils and as an industrial lubricant, in engines and in locks
 It is also used to make inert electrodes for electrolysis, which is particularly important in the
extraction of metals such as aluminium

C60 fullerene

 Fullerenes are a group of carbon allotropes which consist of molecules that form hollow
tubes or spheres
 Fullerenes can be used to trap other molecules by forming around the target molecule and
capturing it, making them useful for targeted drug delivery systems
 They also have a huge surface area and are useful for trapping catalyst molecules onto their
surfaces making them easily accessible to reactants so catalysis can take place
 Some fullerenes are excellent lubricants and are starting to be used in many industrial
processes
  The first fullerene to be discovered was buckminsterfullerene which is affectionately
referred to as a “buckyball”
 In this fullerene, 60 carbon atoms are joined together forming 20 hexagons and 12
pentagons which produce a hollow sphere that is the exact shape of a soccer ball

The structure n bonding in C60 fullerene - the football shaped molecule

Exam Tip
Don’t confuse pencil lead with the metal lead – they have nothing in common. Pencil lead is
actually graphite, and historical research suggests that in the past, lead miners sometimes
confused the mineral galena (lead sulfide) with graphite; since the two looked similar they
termed both minerals ‘lead’.The word graphite derives from the Latin word ‘grapho’ meaning
‘I write’, so it is a well named mineral!

1.8.1 Metallic Bonding

Metallic Bonding
 Metal atoms are held together strongly by metallic bonding
 Within the metal lattice, the atoms lose their valence electrons and
become positively charged
 The valence electrons no longer belong to any metal atom and are said
to be delocalised
 They move freely between the positive metal ions like a sea of electrons
 Metallic bonds are strong and are a result of the attraction between the
positive metal ions and the negatively charged delocalised electrons

Diagram showing metallic lattice structure with delocalised electrons

Exam Tip
The properties of metals can be modified, sometimes significantly, by mixing it with another
metal or non-metal to create and alloy

Explaining the Properties of Metals

The link between metallic bonding and the properties of
metals
 Metals have high melting and boiling points
o There are many strong metallic bonds in giant metallic structures
o A lot of heat energy is needed to overcome forces and break these bonds

 Metals conduct electricity

o There are free electrons available to move and carry charge
o Electrons entering one end of the metal cause a delocalised electron to
displace itself from the other end
o Hence electrons can flow so electricity is conducted
 Metals are malleable and ductile
o Layers of positive ions can slide over one another and take up different
positions
o Metallic bonding is not disrupted as the valence electrons do not belong to
any particular metal atom so the delocalised electrons will move with them
o Metallic bonds are thus not broken and as a result metals are strong
but flexible
o They can be hammered and bent into different shapes without breaking

Summary Table of the Physical Properties of Metals

1.9.1 Explaining Conductivity
Conductivity of Covalent Compounds
 Electric current is the flow of charged particles
o This usually refers to electrons, but it could also mean the flow of
ions
o Collectively, they can be termed freely moving charged particles
 Most covalent compounds do not conduct electricity as they have no
freely moving charged particles to carry the current
 They act as insulators and have many applications which rely on that
property
 Covalent substances are used as electrical insulators in solid, liquid and
gaseous form
o For example, sulfur hexafluoride is a dense gas used to insulate
electrical transformers
o Silicone oils and liquid hydrocarbons are also used in electrical
equipment
 Common insulators include the plastic coating around household
electrical wiring:

Covalent compounds are used as insulating materials

 There are some exceptions to conductivity in covalent compounds

o Organic polymers have been developed which have multiple adjacent double bonds
that allow electrons to migrate along the length of the polymer chains
o These unusual materials have potential uses as electronic components and
biomedical applications
Conductivity of Ionic Compounds

 Ionic compounds can conduct electricity in the molten state or in solution as they have ions
that can move and carry charge
 They cannot conduct electricity in the solid state as the ions are in fixed positions within the
lattice and are unable to move

Molten or aqueous particles move and conduct electricity but cannot in solid form

Anions & Cations

 During electrolysis the electrons move from the power supply towards the cathode
 Electron flow in electrochemistry thus occurs in alphabetical order as electrons flow from
the anode to the cathode
 Positive ions within the electrolyte migrate towards the negatively charged electrode which
is the cathode
 Negative ions within the electrolyte migrate towards the positively charged electrode which
is the anode

Diagram showing the direction of movement of electrons and ions in the electrolysis of
NaCl
Exam Tip
When a metal conducts it is the electrons that are moving through the metal. When a salt
solution conducts it is the ions in the solution that move towards the electrodes while
carrying the electrons.

1.9.2 Electrolysis Experiments

Electrolysis of Molten Compounds

 Lead(II) bromide is a binary ionic compound meaning that it is a compound consisting of just
two elements joined together by ionic bonding
 When these compounds are heated beyond their melting point, they become molten and
can conduct electricity as their ions can move freely and carry the charge
 These compounds undergo electrolysis and always produce their corresponding element
 To predict the products of any binary molten compound first identify the ions present
 The positive ion will migrate towards the cathode and the negative ion will migrate towards
the anode
 Therefore the cathode product will always be the metal and the product formed at
the anode will always be the non-metal

Diagram showing the electrolysis of lead(II) bromide

Method:

 Add lead(II) bromide into a crucible and heat so it will turn molten, allowing ions to be free
to move and conduct an electric charge
 Add two graphite rods as the electrodes and connect this to a power pack or battery
 Turn on the power pack or battery and allow electrolysis to take place
 Negative bromide ions move to the positive electrode (anode) and lose two electrons to
form bromine molecules. There is bubbling at the anode as brown bromine gas is given off
  Positive lead ions move to the negative electrode (cathode) and gain electrons to form grey
lead metal which deposits on the bottom of the electrode

Electrode Products:

Anode: Bromine gas

Cathode: Lead metal

Exam Tip
Remember electrodes need to be inert such as graphite or platinum so that they don’t
participate in a side reaction with the electrolyte.

Electrolysis of Aqueous Solutions

Rules:

 Aqueous solutions will always have water present

 Some water molecules split up into hydrogen and hydroxide ions, H+ and OH–, which
participate in the electrolysis reactions

Positive Electrode

 OH– ions and non-metal ions are attracted to the positive electrode
 Either OH– or non-metal ions will lose electrons and oxygen gas or a non-metal is released
e.g. chlorine
 The product formed depends on which ion loses electrons more readily

Negative Electrode

 H+ ions and metal ions are attracted to the negative electrode but only one will gain electrons
 Either hydrogen or a metal will be produced
 If the metal is above hydrogen in reactivity series, hydrogen will be produced – bubbling will
be seen at the cathode

The electrolysis of aqueous solutions

  The apparatus can be modified for the collection of gases by using inverted test tubes over
the electrodes
 The electrodes are made from graphite which is inert and does not interfere with the
electrolysis reactions

Exam Tip
Once you have identified the ions, the next step is to decide towards which electrode will
they be drawn and identify the product formed. It helps if you recall the reactivity series.

1.9.3 Writing Half-Equations

Writing Half-Equations

 In electrochemistry we are mostly concerned with the transfer of electrons, hence the
definitions of oxidation and reduction are applied in terms of electron loss or gain rather
than the addition or removal of oxygen
 Oxidation is when a substance loses electrons and reduction is when a substance gains
electrons
 As the ions come into contact with the electrode, electrons are either lost or gained and
they form neutral substances
 These are then discharged as products at the electrodes
 At the anode, negatively charged ions lose electrons and are thus oxidised
 At the cathode, the positively charged ions gain electrons and are thus reduced
 This can be illustrated using half equations which describe the movement of electrons at
each electrode

Electrolysis of molten lead(II) bromide

 In the electrolysis of molten lead(II) bromide the half equation at the negative electrode
(cathode) is:

Pb2+ + 2e– ⟶ Pb Reduction

 At the positive electrode (anode) bromine gas is produced by the discharge of bromide ions:

2Br– – 2e– ⟶ Br2 Oxidation

or

2Br– ⟶ Br2 + 2e–

Exam Tip
At the anode, it doesn't matter whether you subtract the electrons on the left or add them on
the right. Most chemists prefer to add them on the right, because chemical equations, by
convention, generally involve the addition of materials rather than the subtraction.

Electrolysis of aqueous sodium chloride

  In the electrolysis of aqueous sodium chloride the half equation at the negative electrode
(cathode) is:

2H+ + 2e– ⟶ H2 Reduction

 At the positive electrode (anode) chlorine gas is produced by the discharge of chloride ions:

2Cl– – 2e– ⟶ Cl2 Oxidation

or

2Cl– ⟶ Cl2 + 2e–

Electrolysis of dilute sulfuric acid

 In the electrolysis of dilute sulfuric acid the half equation at the negative electrode (cathode)
is:

2H+ + 2e– ⟶ H2 Reduction

 At the positive electrode (anode) oxygen gas is produced by the discharge of water
molecules:

2H2O – 4e– ⟶ O2 + 4H+ Oxidation

or

2H2O ⟶ O2 + 4H+ + 4e–

Electrolysis of aqueous copper(II) sulfate

 In the electrolysis of aqueous copper(II)sulfate the half equation at the negative electrode
(cathode) is:

Cu2+ + 2e– ⟶ Cu Reduction

 At the positive electrode (anode) oxygen gas is produced by the discharge of water
molecules:

2H2O – 4e– ⟶ O2 + 4H+ Oxidation

or

2H2O ⟶ O2 + 4H+ + 4e–

Exam Tip
In electrode half equations the charges on each side of the equation should always balance.It
may seem odd that water molecules are discharged and not hydroxide ions, but remember
that acidic solutions will not contain any hydroxide ions. Even copper(II)sulfate is slightly
acidic in water, so will not contain hydroxide ions.
1.9.4 Practical: Investigate the Electrolysis
of Aqueous Solutions
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Practical: Investigate the Electrolysis of Aqueous Solutions

Aim:

To electrolyse aqueous solutions of sodium chloride, sulfuric acid and copper(II)sulfate, and
to collect and identify the products at each electrode

Diagram:

Electrolysis cell for collecting gaseous products from aqueous solutions

Method:

 Add the aqueous solution to a beaker and cover the electrodes with the solution
 Invert two small test tubes to collect any gaseous products
 Connect the electrodes to a power pack or battery.
 Turn on the power pack or battery and allow electrolysis to take place
 Observations at each electrode are made
 Gases collected in the test tube can be tested and identified
 If the gas produced at the cathode burns with a ‘pop’ when a sample is lit with a lighted
splint. This shows that the gas is hydrogen
 If the gas produced at the anode relights a glowing splint dipped into a sample of the gas.
This shows that the gas is oxygen
 If the anode gas bleaches of a piece of litmus paper this indicates chlorine is the product
 If a solid forms around the electrode, the metal have been formed. The colour can indicate
the metal

Results:
Conclusions:

1. Sodium chloride solutions produces hydrogen at the cathode and chlorine at the anode
2. Dilute sulfuric acid produces hydrogen at the cathode and oxygen at the anode
3. Copper(II)sulfate solution produces copper at the cathode an oxygen at the anode