How Eighth Graders in England and the United States View Historical Significance

Author(s): Elizabeth Anne Yeager, Stuart J. Foster and Jennifer Greer

Source: The Elementary School Journal , Nov., 2002, Vol. 103, No. 2, Special Issue: Social
Studies (Nov., 2002), pp. 199-219
Published by: The University of Chicago Press

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 How Eighth Graders Abstract

in England and the Research has suggested that one way students
understand history is to assign significance to
United States View historical events. In this study, we identified and
analyzed what events 44 adolescents judged to

Historical Significance be historically significant. We also sought to de-

termine what historical events the students con-
sidered important compared to one another. Fi-
nally, we examined the criteria and reasoning
students used to construe an event to be histori-

Elizabeth Anne Yeager cally significant. Because the sample included

adolescents in 2 classes-1 in England and 1 in
University of Florida
the United States-the study offers cross-
national comparisons. Data consisted of student-
Stuart J. Foster generated lists, as well as students' choices from
a list of 47 events given to them, of the 10 most
Institute of Education, University of London, and
historically significant events of the twentieth
University of Georgia
century. From their self-generated lists, students
were asked to select the event they considered
Jennifer Greer most important and to explain why. In addition,
7 students from each class participated in a
University of Florida
group interview. We found that the students
showed an inclination to understand and learn
from history and to find ways to conceptualize
historical significance. Many were able to assign
significance to major events, even though they
had not studied them in depth in school. The
study also sheds light on issues of national/cul-
tural bias, personal relevance, and lessons to be
learned from history as lenses through which to
view historical significance, and it offers insights
into the relation among national culture, school
curriculum, and the perceptions of young people.

Recent studies represent a growing interest

in the way young students think about and
learn history (Barton, 1997; Barton & Lev-
stik, 1996; Foster & Yeager, 1999; Levstik,
2000; Seixas, 1994; VanSledright, 1995;
VanSledright & Brophy, 1992). These stud-
The Elementary School Journal ies examined topics that range from stu-
Volume 103, Number 2
? 2002 by The University of Chicago. All rights reserved. dents' understanding of historical time
0013-5984/2003/10302-0007$05.00
(Barton & Levstik, 1996) to their ability to

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200 THE ELEMENTARY SCHOOL JOURNAL

construct historicalcounters
interpretations
with history" (p. 5). This view
usingis
primary documents related
(Barton, 1997;
to Vansledright's idea ofFoster
"historical &
Yeager, 1999). All sought
positionality" orto
"howgain
things past,a present,
better
and future hang together"
conception of how children process (p. 4). The rela-
histori-
cal information and assign
tion between meaning
historical positionality and to
events of the past. One
historicalgoal of
significance canthe research
offer insight into
the design
is to contribute to the best ways to teach
of students history.
a curriculum
that will enable students to make
Delving further meaning-
into the complexity of
ful connections between the past
historical significance, and
Lee et al. the
(in press)
present. The studies notedrevealed that
the importance of asking even
the right
fairly young students kindsapproach
of questions regarding
thethe signifi- of
study
history with a base cance
of of knowledge
a historical event. Theyand a ca-
asked read-
pacity for understanding historical infor-
ers to consider: What sort of significance?
mation and inquiry.For what theme? For what timescale? For
VanSledright and Brophy
what questions?(1992)For whom?exam- Further, they
argued that
ined the way 10 students significance
they can take many
interviewed
at the end of fourth forms,
grade including
and contemporary,
early in causal, fifth rev-
grade learned and elatory,
understood history.
intrinsic, and symbolic. For exam-
They found that students often first
ple, Neil Armstrong's drew steps onon thea
variety of sources, moon
including
arguably had prior knowl-
enormous symbolic sig-
edge, when discussing
nificance inwhat they
terms of America's knew
technical
and global
about the past. When superiority
students at the
are end of the
taught
history in context and provided
twentieth aevent
century. But as an frame-
that pro-
foundlythey
work for understanding, shaped the lives make
can of millions, its in-
bet-
ter connections between historical events trinsic, causal, or revelatory significance is
and avoid misinterpretation and "fanciful highly debatable.
elaboration." Barton (1997) and Foster and Seixas (1994) examined high school stu-
Yeager (1999) studied 12-year-old students'dents' views of events they considered to be
understanding of historical evidence and
historically important. Fourteen tenth-
found that even these students who had lit- grade students were asked to choose three
tle exposure to academic history had a ru-of the most significant historical events of
dimentary understanding of how differentthe last 50 years. Most students selected
people can have different views of history.events with broad historical significance
Research has suggested that one waythat could easily be linked with the present,
such as the world wars and the rise and fall
students understand history is to assign sig-
nificance to historical events (Barton, 1998;of communism. They saw history as a pro-
Barton & Levstik, 1998; Cercadillo, 2001; gression toward improvement in human
Epstein, 1994, 1997; Lee, Ashby, & Dickin- development-for example, the develop-
son, in press; Levstik, 2000, 2001; Seixas, ment of Western intellectual thought. Seixas
1994, 1997). Historical significance is a com- pointed out that many social studies curric-
plex concept. For example, Cercadillo ula emphasize events in history that affect
(2001) and Lee et al. (in press) noted that the majority of people and events that can
historical significance is not a fixed entity easily be related to current issues. At the
but one that can mean diverse things to same time, he acknowledged the difficult
various people in different eras. Barton task curriculum planners have, in that a
(1998) argued, "people attend to the aspects simple framework of historical content does
of history they consider important, and thus not necessarily provide students with a sig-
the means by which they judge importance nificant past, no matter how well chosen
constitutes the foundation for all further en- that framework may be. To keep up with

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 HISTORICAL SIGNIFICANCE 201

Importance
the "new history," he stated, of Studying Conceptions
curriculum
of Historical
planners should be encouraged to Significance
broaden
their view of what is historically significant.
Understanding children's conceptions of his-
The curriculum should build on students'
torical significance more robustly is impor-
knowledge and help them expand ontant thisfor two reasons. First, close analysis of
base of knowledge through participation in conceptions indicates how students'
these
activities such as theme-based units. An ex- historical consciousness and historical un-
ample of this approach would be a unit derstandings
on are shaped in educational set-
the rise of democracy, with the goal of pro-
tings. In other words, what children con-
viding students with a more effective way sider important or significant in history
to link the present with the future. Seixasdoes not occur by accident but rather is
also argued, however, that finding out whatformed partly on the basis of lessons or in-
students believe to be historically signifi-
formation learned in school. Thus, chil-
cant is the smaller task; the larger one isdren's
to conceptions of what is historically
discover how they think about historical significant may provide evidence of the ef-
significance and how to foster that thinking.
fect that history learned in school has on
In our study, we conceptualized histori-
young people. By listening to the voices of
cal significance in a narrow sense. We
children and analyzing what they consider
aimed to identify and analyze what eventsimportant in history, researchers may learn,
adolescents judge to be historically signifi-
by extension, what policy makers, textbook
cant from their contemporary perspective.publishers, curriculum designers, and pow-
We also sought to determine what historical
erful interest groups consider important.
events students consider important com- They may understand more clearly what
pared to one another. Finally, we soughthistorical
to information is privileged and
understand the criteria and reasoning stu-
what information is suppressed in schools.
dents use to construe an event to be his-
Researchers may form some sense of which
torically significant. historical stories are told and which are not.
The research cited above provides
And, perhaps more important, researchers
much-needed information about the teach-
may learn to appreciate whose history is
ing and learning of history because the is- rendered significant to students and whose
sue of historical significance is important in
history is not.
assessing students' understanding of his- Understanding such issues as these in
tory. A well-established body of research two countries can provide richer detail
exists on younger students' (upper elemen- about how conceptions of historical signif-
tary through middle grades) understand- icance develop. For, as Levstik (2000) ar-
ings and capabilities in the study of history, gued, ideas of historical significance are cul-
but the issue of their conceptions of histori- tural constructs transmitted to members of
cal significance merits more attention. Thesociety in a variety of ways, and this is es-
present study was an attempt to extend cur- pecially the case for national history. Lev-
rent research by examining which events instik contended that, in the era of fragile
nation-states, nationalist forces often influ-
history eighth graders, whose history study
has been minimal, consider to be histori- ence what version of history schools convey
cally significant. Furthermore, because theto, or indoctrinate in, young people. Given
study focuses on how adolescents in En- the intense ideological battles over the na-
gland and the United States conceptualize tional history standards in the United States
historical significance, it offers insights intoand the introduction of national curriculum
the perspectives of students from different
history in England (Foster, 1998), research
countries.
on students' appreciation of historical sig-

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202 THE ELEMENTARY SCHOOL JOURNAL

ings, data
nificance can provide national culture,
on the and the teaching and
extent to
which nationalistic learning
history of school history.
achieves promi
nence in the minds of young people.
Method
The second reason for studying chil-
Sample
dren's conception of historical significance is
The 23 American students
related to the first. Although it is who partici-
widely ac-
pated in this study
cepted that school history attended a middle shapes
instruction
students' historicalschool
knowledge, a growing
in a city of approximately 100,000 in
number of researchers also have revealed Florida. The school enrolled about 800 stu-
how other sociocultural factors affect stu-
dents from grades 6-8. Considerable socio-
dents' appreciation of history. Indeed, in-
economic diversity and, to a lesser extent,
creasing evidence has suggested that class,
some ethnic diversity were reflected in the
student population. The student partici-
race, family history, popular culture, the me-
dia, and other social and cultural forces are
pants were all eighth graders, born in either
important influences (Barton & Levstik, 1986 or 1987 (ages 13-14), in a mixed-ability
1998; Epstein, 1994, 1997; Seixas, 1994, 1997).
class of U.S. history. Of the 23 participants,
Levstik's (2000) research, for example, hasfour were African American, one was His-
shown that students from diverse ethnic panic, one was Asian, and 17 were Euro-
pean American. Although there were 24
backgrounds often possess historical under-
standings that conflict with mainstreamstudents
ver- in the class, one student indicated
sions of America's past. Rather than viewing that he did not wish to participate; thus, 23
American history as a triumphant celebra- participants completed the survey tasks de-
tion of emancipation, progress, and excep- scribed below.
tionality, many understand a different his- The 21 English students who partici-
tory, one that involves racism, injustice,pated and in the study attended a comprehen-
hardship. Attention to student understand- sive high school situated in a small historic
ings of what is important in history, there- town. The school has a student population
fore, can also show the extent to which of someapproximately 750 and includes students
students understand an alternative historical from ages 11 through 18. The participating
story. Additionally, it may help to answer students were selected from year 8 mixed-
questions such as, To what extent and ability in history classes. All the students were
what manner do students view events be- white, and the vast majority were born in
yond mainstream history as important?
1987 (age 14). In general, academic stan-
How do popular culture and the mass dards
me- at this publicly funded high school
dia affect children's understandings ofare
his-
above average. However, the students
torical significance? How and why dosampled
stu- in this study spanned the ability
dents in different countries vary in range.
their
interpretation of what was significant dur-
ing the twentieth century? What role do Students' Knowledge
personal and family history play in shapingTo understand students' prior knowl-
children's understandings of historicaledge
sig- of history, we (a) conducted a series
of semistructured
nificance? Of necessity, detailed analysis of interviews with a sam-
ple of 14 students and (b) examined the his-
each of these questions and issues is beyond
tory curriculum these students had en-
the scope of this study. However, attention
to conceptions of historical significance
countered in their respective countries. In
from two different groups of students in of the participants' prior knowledge,
terms
two countries offers some important points
the following points appear relevant. First,
of departure for further investigation of
at the
the time of the study, all of the American
intersection between student understand- students had nearly completed their state-

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 HISTORICAL SIGNIFICANCE 203

the Depression"). TwoU.S.

and district-required eighth-grade students
his- enjoyed
tory course, which spanned
watching the one
History semester
Channel (a cable tele-
rather than a full year because
vision channel of
featuring the
documentaries
school's block scheduling. The course
and historically com-
based movies) and had re-
prised a chronological cently
survey from
seen a program preco-
related to the Amer-
lonial America to World icanWar
space program.
II, with All stated
a ped- that they
agogical format that used combined
the Internet forlecture,
school history assign-
discussion, textbook readings and related
ments, but they mentioned that it was "easy
to get lost on-line....
assignments, and cooperative learning Doing aac-search is
overwhelming and repetitious.... It's eas-
tivities. For historical events that took place
after World War II, instructional
ier just to go to the time
library." was
They appeared
relatively brief because the end of and
much more enthusiastic the confident
se-
mester was near; the teacher
about assigned
background knowledge they ha
group projects and presentations focusing
gained from family and, to a lesser exte
on major postwar events in order to television, than from Internet sources.
"cover" this material. With regard to the English participant
Interviews with American students re- prior knowledge, it is important to note th
vealed that most of their history semester
all students of compulsory school age in
had focused on "the Revolutionary War gland follow the prescribed mandates of
and becoming a nation," the Industrial Rev-
national curriculum. As a consequence, t
olution, and the Civil War; then it culmi-
year 8 students in this study, as those in
nated in World War II. They considered
other schools across England and Wal
some of the earlier American history, "like had not yet studied the twentieth century
the French and Indian War," less important secondary school. Rather, historical stud
and wanted to spend more time on more was limited to the Romans, native peop
recent history, especially World War II of andAmerica, and selected aspects of Briti
beyond. One student, Mark, stated that stu- history before the Industrial Revolution
dents had learned some historical trivia that The only formal teaching of any twentie
was not important, "like that one president century topic would have occurred in y
liked to go skinny-dipping." 5 when they studied the evacuation
The American students who were inter- young children from urban and industr
viewed unanimously agreed that theyareas of Britain during the Second Wor
learned more about history in school thanWar. Therefore, the ability of English st
outside of school. However, all stated that dents to precisely identify events from
some of their historical background knowl-twentieth century may have been limited b
edge came from sources outside school, andtheir lack of familiarity with them.
they cited three main ones: family, televi- However, all seven English students i
sion, and the Internet. Two said that their terviewed believed that they learned m
fathers loved history and frequentlyabout history outside than inside school.
quizzed them on it at mealtimes; four citedclaimed to watch historical programs
influential grandparents ("My grand-television, to use the Internet to find ou
mother is a professor and a history freak.about history, to have discussed histori
... I went to Boston with her and learned events with their parents and families, a
all about the American Revolution"; "My to have read books on historical topics.
grandfather was a World War II veteran Closer examination of this tendency to find
and loves history"; "My grandfather came out about history from sources outside the
here from Cuba after Castro took over, andclassroom revealed that students often
I did an oral history interview with him";leaned toward more populist accounts
"My great-grandmother likes to talk about history. For example, three had engaged

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204 THE ELEMENTARY SCHOOL JOURNAL

of the
historical computer twentieth century. on
simulations Students were
topics
such as the race to save the Titanic or stra- asked to place a check mark by the 10
events from that list that they considered
tegic battles of the Second World War. Sim-
ilarly, six students claimed to have readtoabe the most significant of the twentieth
popular series of books titled "Horrible century; then, they ranked the events se-
lected from 1 (most significant) to 10 (least
History" that recount the most lurid parts
significant).
of British history, including stories of war,
torture, and execution. However, students Asking students to write down the his-
also reported watching more serious pro- torical events that they considered signifi-
grams such as the Discovery Channel and cant without being influenced by an "offi-
British Broadcasting Corporation (BBC)
cial list" allowed them freedom in their

documentaries, typically viewing News-

selections. Following this activity with on
round (a television magazine program pro- in which students were asked to select from

duced by the BBC aimed at school children a list of events enabled us to compare the
and often providing historical context), selections.
and Additionally, it provided in-
frequently discussing world events with sights into which "mainstream" historical
adults. Thus, despite the fact that these event students considered most important.
seven students had no access to twentieth- We compiled the list of historical events in
appendix A based on three procedures.
century historical events through the formal
curriculum, they appeared to be familiar
First, those topics accorded most attention
with many twentieth-century topics. in textbooks and curriculum documents in

both countries were selected (e.g., World

Procedure
War II, the Cold War, Communist revolu-
Listing and ranking historical events. tion in China). We paid attention to com-
We followed the same procedure in the mon two events that textbook publishers and
schools. The first and second steps took state and national curriculum developers in
about 1 hour and were completed in both the countries considered important. Sec-
same class period. First, the students wereond, we selected events that were featured
given a "free form" piece of paper regularlyand in textbooks and curriculum doc-
asked simply to list up to 10 of what they uments in one country but were less obvi-
considered to be the most historically ous sig-in the other (e.g., the Falklands War, the
nificant events of the twentieth century. Challenger
If explosion). Finally, we also in-
they were unable to think of 10, they were serted a few recent events not yet estab-
to list as many as they could. The studentslished in all textbooks but ones likely to be
did not have to rank events on their list, considered
but important by young adolescents
they were asked to circle the one event (e.g.,
that the death of Princess Diana, the Bos-
they viewed as the most significant of nian the and Kosovo conflicts). Admittedly, our
century and, in a few sentences, to explainselection of events was subjective and is
why they made this choice. In this part of to charges that some of the events in
open
the task, students were given no prompts theor list are ones we might construe to be
other information; everything they listed significant. However, in part because two of
came from their own background knowl- the researchers are American and one En-
edge and opinions. Second, students were glish, we believed that an appropriate se-
given a handout we had developed (see lection could be achieved. Indeed, in order
app. A). We explained that this handout
to understand more fully what students
contained 47 "official" events that histori-
considered important, we thought it pref-
ans, teachers, students, and others in both
erable to insert these choices and give stu-
the United States and Great Britain mightdents an opportunity to select or reject them
view as some of the most significant events
rather than to ignore them.

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 HISTORICAL SIGNIFICANCE 205

Group interviews. The student responses

final step to the
insamethequestions or
procedure was a group tasks, identified patterns
interview. We in the responses,
asked
seven students from each and then searched
class to forpartici-
examples and nonex-
pate after the surveysamples were of the overall patterns orall
completed; categories.
who were asked agreed. Selection was not
Results and Discussion
completely random; we chose students in
order to reflect a diversity EnglishofStudents
ideas about
historically significant events. Survey/lists.
In Initially,
particular, students found
the sample included (a)problematic students who
the task listed
of listing 10 significant
multiple events on theevents free-form listing;
from the twentieth century. Indeed
(b) students who found it difficult to list only five of the 21 students sampled actu
ally cataloged 10 events. However, al-
multiple events; (c) students whose lists ap-
peared representative of other students'; though two students enumerated only four
and (d) students who selected atypicalevents, on average most offered six or
events (i.e., events that most other students seven. Eighteen students said that World
Wars I and II were among the 10 most sig-
had not considered significant). We did not,
however, know the particular students wenificant events of the century, and 14 stu-
dents believed the death of Princess Diana
were selecting. As it turned out, each group
reflected a balance between boys and girls,was of primary significance. These three
and the American group included one self-generated choices appeared far more
African-American female and one Hispanic frequently than any others, with "the first
female. The interview lasted for about 1/2 man on the moon," "the invention of the
hours and took place in a vacant classroomtelevision," and "England's victory in the
where the students sat with the researchers 1966 Soccer World Cup final" each listed by
in a circle (see app. B for the interview pro-
five students. Other events offered by more
tocol). Although some students naturally than one student included the war in Ko-
were more vocal than others, all studentssovo (four students), the building of Lon-
participated in the interview and wanteddon'sto millennium dome (four students), the
Persian
talk about a variety of topics related to his- Gulf War (two students), the elec-
tory, including some that were not part tion of of Prime Minister Tony Blair (two stu-
the interview protocol. dents), the coronation of Queen Elizabeth II
We tallied and categorized the survey (two students), the Irish Republican Army's
(lists) data, transcribed the interviews, and
(IRA) cease-fire (two students), and the re-
drew conclusions about the survey and in- cent murder of BBC news presenter Jill
terview data through a process of analytic Dando, chosen by two students.
induction. We analyzed the data in two Many English students listed events
from their own personal or family life as
phases. First, we read the surveys and tran-
significant. Eleven students included in
scripts individually in order to classify stu-
dents' responses. We individually recorded their list of 10 events something personal to
a rationale for our classifications and pre-
them such as the death of a family member
pared a research memo in which we devel- or pet, the marriage of their parents, or the
oped broad coding categories for the surveyday they started school. Five students in-
responses and interviews based on emerg- dicated that the day they were born was of
ing patterns from the data. Then, we sharedmajor historical importance. One student
our analyses. Together we refined and even considered the day that she broke her
merged our coding categories and used wrist to be one of the most significant
cross-case analysis and constant compari-
events of the twentieth century. Laura (all
names are pseudonyms), who wrote that
son to analyze the coded data further. We
the day she was born was the most signifi-
categorized the data on the basis of different

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206 THE ELEMENTARY SCHOOL JOURNAL

cant event of the century, justified

tainly, the intensive her
media coverage se-
and the
lection by arguing that
outpouringunless she
of grief that existed,
occurred on an un-
precedented
she could not experience scale in
the the Unitedand
world Kingdombe
in a position to make following Diana's death may
judgments explain the
about his-
torical significance; dramatic
therefore, she
imprint that the event reasoned
made on the
that her birth had tominds
beofthe
these students.
most important
event of the century. The students interviewed found it diffi-
When students were cult toasked
justify theto spaceidentify
race as a primary
and explain the single selection.
most Some made vague observations
important event
of the twentieth century, such as "The journey
a similarinto space pattern
helps us to
emerged. Six students knowselected
more about lifethe death
on other of
planets" or
Princess Diana, another six students fo- "It helps to increase the speed of travel."
Moreover, although two students were
cused on World Wars I and II, and four stu-
dents regarded the first man on the moon clear that "the race" was between "Russia"

and "America" because "they don't like

as the most significant event of the century.
Students' responses to the researcher-
each other," others appeared to lack an un-
generated list of events echoed manyderstanding
of of why these two countries
their free-response choices. World War were II competing.
received 18 top-10 selections; World War I A significant number of students consid-
(17 selections), the space race (16 selections),
ered technological innovations (12 students)
and the death of Princess Diana (14 selec- and scientific and medical discoveries (nine
tions) consistently appeared as among thestudents) to be of major historical signifi-
most significant events of the twentieth cen-cance in the twentieth century. The students
tury. Student choices of the single most sig-who were interviewed were able to explain
nificant event of the twentieth century from in detail why these innovations and discov-
the researcher-generated list consistently eries were important in the century. In par-
reflected self-generated events. Six students
ticular, they believed that the invention of
selected World War II as the most impor-the TV, the computer, and advanced tele-
tant event of the twentieth century, three communications were responsible for "mak-
students considered both the coronation of ing life easier," for "helping people com-
Queen Elizabeth and the death of Princess municate more easily," and for "providing
Diana to be of primary historical signifi- great opportunities for education and enter-
cance, and two students opted for the Ho- tainment." One student made the point that
locaust and scientific/medical discoveries.
technological innovations, transportation
Interviews. The seven students who
development, and the improvement of
were interviewed were able to explain in
household appliances "just made life eas-
some detail why they believed theiertwo
and better for people today than in days
world wars and the death of Princess Diana
gone by." Others further agreed that ad-
vances in medicine made modern life
were of particular importance. They were
much more comfortable and worthwhile
not surprised to learn that the death of Prin-
cess Diana appeared as one of the most fre-
than the lives of people in previous centu-
ries.
quent student selections of the most signifi-
cant event of the twentieth century. Students Explaining students' responses. Most
argued that because she was "internation-
students' choices reflected their English
ally famous," "she died in such a sudden
background. Fifteen students, for example,
and tragic way," "the media coverage was
believed England's victory in the 1966
so enormous," and "it all happened so World
re- Cup soccer finals to be of major his-
cently," it was inevitable that students
torical importance because, as Kate ob-
would select her death as a major event. Cer-
served, "Football's such a big deal in Eng-

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 HISTORICAL SIGNIFICANCE 207

Coldto
land; it's so important War,sothe Chinese
many Communist Revo-
people."
Others added that thelution,
event the risewas
of fascism
soandstriking
Nazism, the
fall oftime
because it was the only the Berlin that
Wall, the demise
Englandof the So-
was a world champion viet Union,
andand the Arab-Israeli
that defeatingconflict
"the best countries in the
failed world
to make is impor-
any student's list of top-10
events. Perhaps
tant to our country." Other choices morereflected
surprising, no stu-
a similar national/cultural bias. For exam- dent considered the formation of the Euro-
ple, students considered the coronation of pean Union to be a top-10 event of the twen-
Queen Elizabeth II (nine choices), the death tieth century. In a similar vein, apart from
of Queen Victoria (seven choices), and thenoting the "first man on the moon," English
election of Winston Churchill (seven choices)students largely omitted any reference to
to be more significant than, for example, the
major events in U.S. history such as the civil
Holocaust (four choices), the Vietnam Warrights movement, the death of Martin Luther
(three choices), the Cold War (one choice),King, Jr., Watergate, and the Great Depres-
the end of South African apartheid (one sion. The two exceptions were one student
choice), and the Great Depression (onewho listed "the assassination of President
choice). Kennedy" and who suggested that "Bill
Some students tended to be influenced Clinton having an affair" warranted selec-
by their own cultural upbringing. For tion ex- among the top-10 events of the twenti-
ample, one student, whose father livedeth in century. Clearly students cited more
Iran, included the Iran-Iraq war as one English of and British historical events than Eu-
the most significant events of the twentieth ropean, American, or other international
century. Similarly, Julie, who was born in
ones.

South Africa, regarded the end of apartheid Students' primary attention to

there as of primary importance, and Sean's or British history may be explained
decision to select the Irish Republican Army factors. First, in England, national
cease-fire as the most significant eventlum of history chiefly focuses on Br
the century was influenced, he believed,tory. by As stated, students in year
the fact that his father was Irish. Overall, have encountered few aspects of w
however, many students' choices appeared tory and would have had limited
to be a reflection of English culture twentieth-century
and history throug
what English television presented as signifi- ficial school curriculum. Moreover, it is
cant. Apart from the selection of majorlikely in- that the formal curriculum would in-
ternational events such as the two world fluence students' understandings of what
wars, the Gulf War, the war in Kosovo, is and
historically significant. Second, the sam-
the first man on the moon, most selections ple of English students was drawn from a
were British related. For example, the school elec- in a geographical area steeped in
tion of Prime Ministers Thatcher and Blair, British history. Blenheim Palace, a magnifi-
the coronation of the queen, the building centofeighteenth-century edifice, birthplace
the controversial millennium dome, the of Sir Winston Churchill and home to suc-
death of Princess Diana, the murder of Jill ceeding generations of British nobility, is in
Dando, and the IRA cease-fire all reflected walking distance of the school. Addition-
a distinctly British view of historical signif- ally, Oxford, a living monument to the En-
icance. glish past, is only a few miles away. One
Another revealing aspect of the survey may reasonably assume, therefore, that the
and interviews was the extent to which ma- existence of so many tributes to British his-
jor international events were omitted fromtory and culture in the local area must affect
English students' choices. Such dramatic oc-students' historical appreciation. Finally, all
currences as the Russian Revolution, the of the students in the school were white and

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208 THE ELEMENTARY SCHOOL JOURNAL

from predominantly deaths of John F. Kennedy, Jr.,or

middle-class and golfer
lower
middle-class families. With
Payne Stewart, the few
murder ofexceptions
John Lennon,
the students and their families had been the sinking of the Titanic, the O. J. Simpson
born and reared in England and under-
trial, the Super Bowl, and President Clin-
ton's sex
standably projected a view of history in scandal.
Only three students included an event
keeping with their heritage. English stu-
dents from other ethnic backgrounds may
that did not take place in the twentieth cen-
have provided different results. tury: the publication of Harriet Beecher
Stowe's Uncle Tom's Cabin, the American
American Students
Revolution and the framing of the Consti-
tution, and the Civil War.
Survey/lists. With regard to the student-
initiated listing of twentieth-century signifi-World War II received seven first-place
cant events, 16 of the 23 students who re- votes, with the Depression and space race
sponded were able to list 10 events; the
at four each, the Holocaust with two, and
other seven listed from one to six events. one vote each for the Persian Gulf War, the
Y2K "scare," "more peace between na-
Most students, regardless of how many
events they listed, made choices that
tions," the Harlem Renaissance and devel-
seemed reasonable. Students listed World
opment of jazz, and World War I. One stu-
War II 20 times; the Great Depression dent(15),
did not indicate a first choice. Many of
World War I (14), the space race andthe moon
rationales for the choices were logical
landing (12), developments related toand articulate: World War II "involved
trans-
portation (11), the assassination ofmuchPresi-
of the world . . . and stopped the Nazi
dent Kennedy (8), various technological
threatin-from spreading.., it was the turning
novations (e.g., telephones, radios, movies,
point of the twentieth century because of
air conditioning, computers) (7), Vietnam
the invention of the first nuclear weapon...
(7), the Holocaust (6), the atomic bomb
thereand
were so many deaths, especially of so
nuclear arms race (6), the Cold War (6),
many theinnocent people"; the Great Depres-
civil rights movement (6), and specific
sionsci-
was "the worst position the U. S. has
ever
entific and medical developments (e.g., been in, so many people had to do
Ein-
stein's theories, cloning) (5). Other events
without.., it changed our economy.., we
were listed less often (two to four students):
learned that bad things can happen to
events and issues related to racism in Amer- things that seem foolproof"; the Holocaust
caused "the persecution of over six million
ica, the influx of immigrants into the United
States, the development of new weapons
Jews, and this is something that a person
and military technology, Martin Luther
can never forget"; the space race "may
King, Jr.'s "I Have a Dream" speech, the fall
someday be the gateway to living on other
of communism in Eastern Europe ("fall planets
of when Earth becomes overpopulated
the Berlin Wall," as some put it), the Wa-... it gave us many of our modern-day tech-
tergate scandal, the Harlem Renaissancenologies"; the Persian Gulf War "could
and development of jazz, other develop-have resulted in World War III with all the
new weapons of mass destruction." Four
ments in popular music (particularly rap,
which was mentioned twice), the increase
students either gave no explanation for
in school violence as exemplified in the Col-
their first choice or had difficulty articulat-
umbine High School murders, the women's ing a rationale; for example, one student
rights movement, and the Korean War. said A the Holocaust was "the most horrible
few items listed once likely reflected thething that happened" but did not explain
contemporary media culture in which
the comment, and another said that the
many young people are immersed: the Y2K
Great Depression was the most significant
"scare," the JonBenet Ramsey murder, the
event because "a lot of bad things hap-

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 HISTORICAL SIGNIFICANCE 209

pened." Finally, one student students, the U.S. students'

selected World focus was de-
War I but seemed to conflate it with the
cidedly not on a number of significant in-
ternational events; none of the American
Civil War, arguing that "we won, stopped
slavery, and it defined our countrystudents
and circled the following: the Chinese
made us proud." Communist Revolution, the Northern Ire-
land conflict, African civil wars and the end
In the researcher-generated list, the most
frequently circled events were: World Warof colonialism, the formation of the Euro-
pean Union, the Chernobyl nuclear acci-
II (22 times), World War I (17), the Great
Depression (17), the space race and moon
dent, the end of South African apartheid,
and the Balkan conflicts in Bosnia and Ko-
landing (16), the women's rights movement
(15), the assassination of President John F. Nor did the American students select
sovo.
Kennedy (14), various technological inno-
any British-related events on the list, except
vations, ranging from the car to television
for the death of Princess Diana. Finally, they
to the computer and Internet (14), thedid
civil
not list any events from their personal
rights movement (12), the Holocaust (10),
lives or family histories as the English stu-
dents
the assassination of Martin Luther King, Jr.did.
(10), the development of the atomic bomb Interviews. Overall, the American stu-
and the nuclear arms race (10), the Vietnam
dents' choices were somewhat less culture
War (9), the invention of the airplanebound (9), than the English students'. The ma-
scientific and medical discoveries (9), jorityand chose events that tended to affect
the Cold War (9). The Korean War was cir- more people around the world on a large
cled twice, as were the Russian Revolution, scale, such as world wars, the Depression,
the rise of global terrorism, and the famines the space race, the Holocaust, the atomic
in Africa. Items that were not mentioned in bomb and nuclear arms race, and transpor-
the student-initiated responses but were cir-tation and technological developments that
cled somewhat frequently on the research- brought people around the world, in a
ers' survey included the AIDS epidemic (8), sense, closer together. However, their writ-
the death of Princess Diana (5), the rise of ten statements and interview responses in-
Nazism and fascism (4), and the 1960s mu-dicated that they tended to view these
sic and fashion cultural movement (4). Gan- events mainly in terms of American in-
dhi and Indian independence were circledvolvement or effects (e.g., "If the U.S.
once, as were the Challenger explosion andhadn't won World War II, we would be
the Arab-Israeli conflict. speaking another language right now"; the
Gulf War was "a big deal because Iraq
In terms of the single most significant
event of the twentieth century, from the re-could have bombed America"; the space
searchers' list six students selected World race resulted "in the National Aeronautical
War II, five selected the Great Depression,
and Space Administration (NASA) invent-
three selected the space race and/or mooning things for us" and "Neil Armstrong go-
landing, two selected the Holocaust, and ing to the moon"; "World War II was the
one vote each went to World War I, the first
in- time we used the bomb"; the Great De-
vention of the airplane, the atomic bombpression "changed our economy" and was
and nuclear arms race, the Cold War, the "the worst position the U.S. has ever been
AIDS epidemic, scientific and medical dis-
in; it was our lowest moment in history").
coveries, and the assassination of JFK. American students repeatedly used the pro-
Some of the students' choices were es- nouns "we," "our," or "us" to describe oc-
sentially American: events related to the
currences in American history. As Levstik
civil rights and women's rights movement,
(2000) has argued, using history taught in
Martin Luther King, Jr., Vietnam, and the
school to establish a collective "community
of identification" is a powerful force in
death of JFK. Interestingly, like the English

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210 THE ELEMENTARY SCHOOL JOURNAL

America. Despitewhy
research showing
you are here ... without history we t
many students understand wouldn't know anything about ourselves."
American hi
tory to be plagued Linda
by believed that it was important
injustice, brutalito
and discrimination, know about "change and appear
students development." will
to share overtly in the Historical significance: Most and
collective least
celebrat
of America's past important by employingtopics. Students were also asked
pronou
such as "our" and "we." to explain what in their view made some-
In the group interview, students thing significant or important in history.
elabo-
rated on their explanations of whyThey partic-
agreed that a significant event has to
ular events were historically significant, have an effect on more than one person and
and most students demonstratedusually a good on large numbers of people. From
grasp of some of what happenedthe during
English group, Charles suggested that
World War I and World War II, the events
Holo-of major significance affect "millions
caust, the Great Depression, and the of space
people," possibly including the deaths of
race. For example, they talked about the large numbers of people. Not surprisingly,
sig-
nificance of the use of atomic weaponry therefore,
in in many student selections from
World War II, the brutality of trenchboth groups, World Wars I and II appeared
warfare
in World War I, the factors that led the to be of primary significance. Another Eng-
United States in and out of the Depression,lish student, Sean, noted with great insight
and the horrors and persecution in the Ho-that the two world wars influenced "the
locaust under the Nazi regime. Additional land that countries owned, religion, lan-
student insights and issues that arose fromguage, and the way people lived their lives
the follow-up interview are discussed below.for years to come." Interestingly, English
students considered history associated with
Follow-up Interview the British royal family to be of most im-
In the follow-up interview, students portance in the study of the past (before
were asked if it was important to study his-circa 1750). Most believed that the "Gun-
tory and to explain why or why not. They powder Plot," the English Civil War, and
were also asked to describe topics they had the rule of the Tudors and Stuarts were of
studied the most in their history class thisprimary significance. Students appeared
year and what they viewed as the most andless concerned with aspects of British social
least important topics. history. Nevertheless, two students com-
The importance of studying history. Theplained that they had repeatedly been told
American students all asserted that historyabout Henry VIII and his six wives and that,
study was important, giving various rea- as one student put it, "after a while it be-
sons consistent with VanSledright's (1997) comes boring."
findings: "We need to learn from our mis- The English students interviewed also
takes," "We need to stop doing the sameconstrued significance in terms of the fact
stupid things," "You learn how badly peo- that history is an evidence-based discipline.
ple have been treated in the past so we don'tIn discussing what makes an event signifi-
do the same things to people again." They cant, one of them remarked, for example,
also said that "it's interesting" and "youthat events of significance typically have
find out things you didn't know." Five of "tons of evidence to tell you about what
the English students interviewed echoed happened." One English student also noted
the remarks of their American counterparts. "you can tell if an event is important by
For example, Pete noted that "history how much has been written about it and
teaches you lessons ... you can learn from how often it has been studied." The stu-
past mistakes." Sean also commented that dents interviewed appeared equally aware
"history makes you aware of your roots andof and comfortable with the notion that his-

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 HISTORICAL SIGNIFICANCE 211

torians disagree overstudents

what interviewed commented
actually on how
hap-
pened in the past andother
thatnotable
"neweventsevidence
affected lives today.
For example, Julie
can change our understanding believed that the end of
of events."
None of the American students articulated
apartheid in South Africa was important in
showing the world that "racism was not
this viewpoint. English students' attention
good"
to the construction of history is perhaps not and that "all people should have
surprising, given the emphases of nationalequal opportunities." Sean hoped that th
curriculum history. Fundamental to IRA cease-fire would mean that "no more
teach-
ing and learning school history in Englandbombs would be exploded" and that people
on both sides might now "live in peace."
is that students appreciate the disciplinary
Charles also noted, with some sophistica-
nature of the subject. Unlike typical practice
in many American schools, in all years of that the landing on the moon captured
tion,
compulsory education in England students the imagination and "makes you think
are continually engaged in the analysis about
of people's potential to achieve things."
historical evidence and the evaluation of Notably, one of the English students took
historical interpretations. pains to point out that, because of the huge
Three American students offered addi- sums of money collected for charity as a re-
sult of the tragedy, Princess Diana's death
tional conceptions of historical significance.
had
Violeta stated that significance is related to the salutary effect of "helping thou-
"a hero or major figure, especially onesands
in- of unfortunate people live better
volved in a tragedy, like JFK or Martinlives."
Lu- Another commented, "Millions of
ther King." However, she also explained people
that continue to be personally affected by
her death."
"just because someone is famous doesn't
mean it's important," citing the O. J. Simp-The American students, in contrast,
son trial as relatively insignificant in seemed
the less certain about the effects on peo-
scope of twentieth-century history. Tiffany
ple today of some of the events they named,
especially the world wars, likely because
argued that there must be "a lot of bad stuff
happening, like in the Depression or theboth
Ho- wars were fought on distant territory
locaust," and Linda said that "it's about and
the the human toll seemed more remote.
Still, they believed that World War II con-
amount of money spent, like on space explo-
ration." tinued to be a cause of suffering for some
people in Japan, and they said Americans
Additional Interview Findings should remember that "we should never do
Current relevance of historical events.it again; we should avoid war." Although
All of the students interviewed provided in-World War I received many votes for his-
sights on the relevance or effects today of torical significance, no one viewed it as hav-
many events they had listed, but there were ing any effect on people today. The Depres-
some key differences between English and sion "taught us to be smarter about our
American students. Two English students money, to protect it more and have bank
thought World War I had significance forinsurance," but some thought that most
their lives. Pete, for example, believed that
people still had not learned much about fi-
"we'd be speaking German now if we had nancial management. The space race, as Tif-
lost the war." Linda also commented that fany put it, "is not even a race anymore be-
"the map of Europe would look very dif- cause now we are helping each other in
ferent if the result had been different," space,
and and we may need to live there some
Julie stated that "without World War I, day when it gets too crowded here." The
World War II would never had happened,Holocaust, according to Tiffany, "means
and so many people in our families would that we need to make sure our leaders are
have been spared their lives." The English not insane"; Violeta added, "We should be-

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212 THE ELEMENTARY SCHOOL JOURNAL

ware of worshipping a leader,

Downey, 1995; Foster &and
Yeager, beware
1998; Por-
of how cruel people can
tal, 1987; beFoster,
Yeager, ... we need to
Maley, Anderson,
remember we are all united in our human- & Morris, 1998). Historical empathy and
perspective taking emphasize students'
ity, and that everyone can suffer the same
way." Interestingly, although Shakira char-
complex understandings of why particular
acterized the Y2K issue as highly significant
historical actors did what they did in certain
"because it is scary right now and I'm living
situations, without trying merely to sym-
right now," and others dismissed it as "bo-
pathize or overidentify with their feelings.
gus ... the media just scared people In
into
the interviews, four American students
wasting money on it and made stupid mov- mentioned empathy-related issues that
ies about it," discussion of Y2K led to ru- seemed to make particular events stand out
minations on students' fears of "Armaged- for them, especially those with moral di-
don," asteroids, and the uncertainty of mensions. For example, in a discussion of
future human existence. World War I, Violeta wondered what it was
Events not deemed important. When
like for a soldier to meet the enemy face to
asked to consider events that individual face in a trench and have to kill him; she
students had listed on only a few occasions,
wanted to know how this could happen and
the American students seemed to consider what the soldiers went through during and
them carefully and eventually attributed after the war. Similarly, three others wanted
more significance to them than they had to know why and how the U.S. government
originally assumed. For example, the Har-decided to use the atomic bomb on Japan,
lem Renaissance "affects our music today why Germans "let Hitler do the things he
... it was a rebirth of black culture, which
did," and "what possesses kids to take guns
was needed in America ... the poemstoby
school and shoot their classmates."
Langston Hughes said important stuffStill, although students from both coun-
about racism." Watergate was understood
tries who participated in the interviews
were interested in moral issues and had ear-
as an event resulting in the first presidential
resignation, but it was also about "how lier
the expressed the hope that history study
president is not always perfect and can'twould
get teach people to learn from their mis-
away with everything." Watergate alsotakes led and moral failings, they did not frame
to a discussion of President Clinton; Tiffany
historical significance in terms of morality,
expressed anger that "he was fooling aroundfairness, and justice issues as explicitly as
while we were paying him to work for the us."students in Levstik's (2001) New Zea-
Finally, the discussion of school violence,land
es- study did. Nor did they view history
pecially Columbine, focused on "how some as a progression toward equity and justice.
kids don't get enough attention from theirIn fact, they doubted that people learned
parents" and on "things that go on at school
moral lessons from history, as evidenced in
that people don't know and that (school comments
of- such as, "in some places Jews are
ficials) try to hide." To Violeta, Columbine
still being persecuted today"; "we didn't
was about "hate. Those kids (who commit- learn anything from the Depression about
ted the murders) didn't pay enough atten-
how to use our money wisely"; "some peo-
tion in history class because they didn't learnple just don't care and are taught to hate";
anything about hatred and suffering." "we still treat immigrants bad"; "those kids
Moral issues. In addition, some Ameri- [who committed the murders at Columbine
can students attached historical significance
High School] didn't pay enough attention
to events that facilitated what researchers in history class because they didn't learn
have termed "historical empathy" and
anything about hatred and suffering."
"historical perspective taking" (e.g., Ashby Vivid events. The interviews of students
& Lee, 1987; Davis, Yeager, & Foster, 2001;from both countries revealed an affinity for

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 HISTORICAL SIGNIFICANCE 213

vivid historical facts and details that were

rather than "cramming in as much as pos-
sometimes the "triggers" that helped sible."
them They dismissed their textbooks as
"useless
to recall and characterize the significance of and boring; you don't learn any-
events. For example, they talked about thing
the from it and it's not interesting. It
assassination of Archduke Franz Ferdi- doesn't give enough details. The good stuff
nand, the Zimmerman telegram, the Lusi-
is not even in there, like what happened in
the war-
tania, the use of poison gas, and trench bombings in World War II." Fred as-
fare as part of World War I. They recounted
serted that "you can learn fine without the
"gross" stories of "rats in the trenches," but if you have a good teacher."
textbook
they also broadly characterized the entire
war as wasteful, brutal, and traumatic on a Conclusion
scale never seen before. Sometimes, how- Many of the students in this study had
ever, the vivid facts were all that the stu- good grasp of the concept of historical si
dents could remember and representednificance, as well as of events that could rea
their entire characterization of an event. For
sonably be considered historically signif
example, when the Holocaust came up, stu-cant in the twentieth century. In additio
dents seemed to miss the "big picture" of several interesting issues emerge from th
why and how it happened and launched di- study that warrant consideration as part
rectly into descriptions of "Jews havingthe discussion on history for middle scho
their heads shaved and gold fillings takenstudents.
from their teeth ... lining up people and
shooting them ... putting them in showers Official History
and turning on the gas." First, it was noteworthy that the student-
Overgeneralization. Some students also generated lists of events in both groups re-
tended to oversimplify or overgeneralize flected "official" history to a great extent-
some historical events in the interview dis- in other words, "the authoritative grand
cussions. For example, in the discussion of narrative of 'really' significant history"
the Holocaust, although they knew a lot (Seixas, 1997, p. 27). The students' choices
about how the Jews were persecuted, some from our list also emphasized many promi-
expressed a view of Hitler as the only rea- nent events from the "official" history or
son for the Holocaust, and the Holocaust "grand
as narratives" of U.S. and British his-
being solely about Jewish persecution;tory.
as This tendency was true for both groups
one student said, "Hitler was mean and stu-
despite their disparate experiences with
pid because he blamed a Jewish doctor for
twentieth-century history study. That is, the
letting his mother die." As for the Depres-
American students had studied this century
sion, although the American students, forin school, whereas the English students had
example, could talk about "Hoovervilles,"
not. Moreover, the Americans claimed to
bank reforms, and Social Security, they have learned most of their history in school
agreed that "Hoover got us into it, and FDRand the English to have learned most of it
got us out of it." outside of school. This result at least sug-
Interest. Finally, the American studentsgests the possibility that an "authoritative
initiated a tangential discussion about what
grand narrative" pervades a given society or
made history study interesting, not just im-
culture and is consistently reinforced in the
portant or significant. They liked their cur-official school curriculum.
rent U.S. history teacher because "she The data from the English students re-
groups things and covers things so you can
veal the effects of curriculum on young peo-
cover what you need to and still go deep ple's
on perceptions of the past. Despite the
the good stuff." All agreed that they would
claim of English students that they learned
prefer depth about "interesting stuff"
more about history outside than inside

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214 THE ELEMENTARY SCHOOL JOURNAL

school, they nevertheless As noted appeared

previously, many toEnglish
be in-stu-
fluenced by their school's dents tendedhistory
to ascribe major curricu-
historical sig-
lum. As such, many nificanceBritish historical
to their own personal or family
events-covered extensively life. Responses such inas year
these may8 be and
viewed
preceding years-were two featured
ways. On the onein hand,student
they may be
choices of historically significant
interpreted as evidence of events.
a self-absorbed,
The fact that thesenaive, students
or even whimsical had not
response yet
to the in-
studied global eventsterview of the twentieth
questions. On the other hand, cen-they
tury appeared to have mayinfluenced
reflect the students' their per-
belief that because
ceptions of the world theyandare partperhaps
of history, their limited
history and
their view of the pastthe to history
a more of theirnationalistic
families have as much
and insular one. One wonders about the ex- significance as anyone else's history. When
the English students were asked why their
tent to which their view of historical signif-
icance in the twentieth century may change fellow students had listed events from their
at the end of year 9 when all English stu- personal lives (e.g., the death of a relative,
dents study the twentieth century in some the first day at school), the explanations
depth. Similarly, attention to the issue proved
of revealing. One student agreed with
historical evidence-a strong implicit fea- Laura that history is "about ordinary peo-
ture of the English national history curric-ple, not just about well-known people."
ulum-appeared to influence students' Others
ap- similarly stated that they had
preciation of the past. Overall, therefore, the
learned in history that "all people were im-
students seemed acutely aware that an
portant" and suggested that they enjoyed
event's significance often is determined studying
by how "normal people" went about
how historians and others use historical evi-
their day-to-day lives. Pete further com-
dence to portray the past. mented, "We are all a part of history, so
why not write about our lives? In some
Unofficial History ways they might turn out to be as signifi-
However, there was also a good deal of cant as anyone else's [life]."
"unofficial" history in the student-generated Indeed, Seixas (1997) argued that stu-
lists of English and American students thatdents -especially minority students learn-
was drawn from various sources: family,ing history within the context of the domi-
the media, and/or events they had read,nant culture-can "build a significant past
heard, or studied in an anecdotal way that around (their) own particularistic con-
had some sort of personal resonance. Forcerns" rather than relegating themselves to
example, many English students listed the margins of "significant" history (p. 27).
events from their own lives; also, students Levstik and Barton (1997) have emphasized
from both countries listed sporting events the importance of personal histories as a
and prominent media stories; and someway of engaging all students in history
American students listed the Columbine study and helping them to see that they are
High School shootings, developments
"in"inhistory. Levstik and Barton also noted
popular music, events, or trends related to the use of personal history can intro-
that
duce students to key elements of disci-
minority groups in the United States (e.g.,
the Harlem Renaissance, immigration, plined
ra- inquiry, particularly the idea of sig-
cism), Y2K (which segued into a discussion
nificance. Students can learn through their
of their fears of the end of the world),investigations
and that history is not necessar-
even air conditioning (perhaps mentionedily everything that ever happened but is
more about events that have considerable
humorously as a significant issue for young
people growing up in the southern Unitedinfluence. Also, they can learn to view his-
States). torical information critically, keeping in

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 HISTORICAL SIGNIFICANCE 215

vance of historical events to

mind the essential "significance" the world to-
question,
"So what?" day. We posed this question in the inter-
views because we wondered if students
Significance would consider this type of relevance im
We also noted that many students un- portant and related to "significance." Th
derstood ideas about significance and sig- American participants interviewed did
nificant events that their school history seem concerned about relevance to toda
study had not emphasized as much as it did but the lack of it did not diminish their en-

other historical topics. The English students thusiasm for history. When one researcher
had had little school experience with asked a probing question about relevance,
twentieth-century history, whereas the the American students responded, "We
American students spent a preponderance don't need history to be relevant, just inter-
of their eighth-grade history semester
esting. .... We like the stories our teacher
studying events prior to World War II, then told us."
had to cover the war, the Holocaust, and Indeed, these students liked the vivid
postwar history quickly in the remaining 2 stories and details of history-and some-
or 3 weeks of the semester in an indepen- times got lost in them. The fascination with
dent study/group project format. Still, narrative and historical detail has both ad-
many were able to conceptualize signifi- vantages and disadvantages to which
cance and to assign significance to major teachers will need to attend; Barton (1997),
events, even though they had not studied for example, cautioned that "the uncritical
them in depth in school. In other words, presentation of stories about the past has se-
they somehow knew, perhaps partly be- rious drawbacks" (p. 424). Among them are
cause of their knowledge of history ob- concerns that students will oversimplify
tained outside school, that some events historical events like the Holocaust and

were important. Furthermore, they tried to Great Depression, as some students in th

distinguish between legitimate historical study did, that they will not have access
significance and media hype and to providealternative or more complex historical i
rationales for their thinking. For example,terpretations, or that they will not learn
examine the historical evidence on which
the death of a celebrity was not necessarily
stories and details are based and the
significant on the grounds that "just be-
cause someone is famous doesn't make himbroader significance of the events t
important," although some English stu- study. Undoubtedly, the interesting st
dents viewed the death of Princess Diana in and details are fun and are what draw stu-
terms of its broader meaning and how it re- dents in. However, teachers may wish to
flected what was happening in society.
consider how to use this material appropri-
Also, the American students recognized
ately so that students also can learn to think
that the Columbine murders had been a me- critically about historical information, to
dia obsession focusing on the personalities frame and critique multiple interpretations
of the killers and their victims, but they also of history, and to build a "big picture" of
believed that there were larger moral issuessignificance into which historical events fit.
underpinning the tragedy and that the mur- By and large, historical significance for
ders reflected "something wrong" in Amer-these students also seemed simply to mean
ican society. that history fit into their lives somewhere-
Additionally, although many students that they may not actually use it, but some-
seemed confident in explaining why and how it resonates with them and helps them
how events were significant in twentieth- to understand aspects of history. As Shakira
century history, they were sometimes less put it, "some of this stuff just sticks with
certain and less articulate about the rele- you." A number of students mentioned ex-

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216 THE ELEMENTARY SCHOOL JOURNAL

rences as the
amples of how history fitRussian Revolution,
into the Cold fami
their
War, the Chinese Communist Revolution,
relationships and conversations, as well a
lessons learned about human behavior the rise of fascism and Nazism, the Holo-
through their history study. caust, the fall of the Berlin Wall, the demise
History's lessons about humanofbehav-
the Soviet Union, and the Arab-Israeli
ior-both optimistic and pessimistic- conflict failed to be itemized by any of
seemed to offer students an important lensthe English students in their lists of top
through which to view historical signifi- 10 events. Like the English students, the
cance. In their responses to the first follow-Americans did not focus on significant in-
up interview question, the American stu- ternational events; none of the American
dents emphasized that history study helpsstudents chose the following from the re-
people learn from their mistakes and facili-searchers' survey: the Chinese Communist
tates understanding so that particular Revolution, the Northern Ireland conflict,
groups of people will never again be per-African civil wars and the end of colonial-
secuted as they have been in the past. Later,ism, the formation of the European Union,
all seven of the American students elabo-
the Chernobyl nuclear accident, the end of
rated in the interview on some insight theyAfrican apartheid, and the Balkan
South
had gained-not all of it hopeful, conflicts
but at in Bosnia and Kosovo. Further-
least explanatory-about behavior and/or
more, although the English students men-
the moral lessons that history teaches. Fora few events that involved the
tioned
example, the Holocaust serves as a caution- United States (Vietnam, JFK's assassina-
ary tale about hatred, prejudice, andtion, blind
the Clinton scandal), the American
obedience of a leader; World War II was a
students did not select any British-related
human tragedy because of the first use of
events on the list, except for the death of
the atomic bomb and as an exemplar of why Princess Diana.
war must be avoided in the future; the Col-
Barton and Levstik's (1998) and Lev-
umbine murders were a reminder of what
stik's (2001) research on national identity
happens when students do not learn the
and historical significance indicated that a
right things at home and at school; and the
nation's "geoposition" influences under-
Depression and New Deal were a case
standings of history; in other words, where
study of economic failure through which
a nation is situated in a global sense, its re-
people should learn the importance of af-
lations with other countries, and its prox-
fording more protection from this type of
imity to centers of power shape how history
disaster in the future. Clearly, this is tricky
is taught and learned in that nation. Levstik
territory, and few would argue that history
study is a panacea that can erase hatred(2001)
and argues that American students, in
particular,
prejudice. Today, teachers may find them- tend to focus on their own na-
tional
selves walking a fine line between giving history and on their country's role in
major
students a realistic understanding of some world events, and they view them-
of the more brutal and shameful historical selves as "teachers of the world" on his-

human behaviors that seem to be repeated torical issues, as having little to learn from
and facilitating students' insight into wherethe rest of the world. One could reasonably
progress has been made, wrongs righted, assume that this focus would appear in any
and justice achieved. nation whose "geoposition" places it in the
Perhaps most important, both groups' center of world power. The tendency to fo-
responses suggest that students lacked per- cus on one's national history and national
spective on significant international events role in world affairs clearly was present in
unrelated to their national/cultural biases. both the English and American groups in
As stated previously, such dramatic occur-this study.

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 HISTORICAL SIGNIFICANCE 217

The students in this perceptions

study,of however,
historical significance and
demonstrated little inclination to view their their relation to national identity.
countries as "teachers of the world" or as
Appendix A
case studies of gradual progress on social
justice issues. Indeed, the students ap-
Researcher-Generated List of Events
peared eager to understand history, toBelow
ex- are some of the events that historians,
plore why significant events had hap-
teachers, students, and others in both the United
States and Great Britain selected as some of the
pened-both in their country and in other
countries-that had caused injustice, most
suf-important events/happenings of the twen-
tieth century. Place a CHECK MARK by the TEN
fering, sadness, as well as more positiveevents
de- from this list that you think are the most
velopments such as social justice or important.
eco- Then for each event you selected,
nomic progress. Because of their lackplace
ofnext to it a number ranking from one to ten
(1 = most important, 10 = least).
exposure to many of the internationally sig-
nificant events in the survey, they did not Death of Queen Victoria/End of Victorian
have the background knowledge to articu- Age
Vietnam War and Anti-War Movement
late perspectives on those topics or on what
World War I
could be learned from them. From this Civil Rights Movement
Russian Revolution
study, we are cautiously optimistic that, for
Assassination of Martin Luther King, Jr.
these groups of young students, the incli-
Wright Brothers and Charles Lindbergh Pio-
nation to understand and learn from historyneer the Airplane
Northern
and to conceptualize historical significance Ireland Conflict and Peace Accord
is there. What these students seem to need Space Race/First Moon Landing
Women's Rights Movement
is the opposite of what Levstik envisioned Watergate Scandal/President Nixon Resigns
for New Zealand children-that is, theyStock Market Crash/Great Depression
need a broader curriculum that facilitates Arab-Israeli/Middle East Conflict
Rise of Nazism/Fascism
the study of historical significance outside
Margaret Thatcher Elected Prime Minister
one's own country. World War II
A central goal of history study is to help Falklands War
Holocaust
students appreciate not only that certain
African Civil Wars/End of Colonialism
events are considered important but also
Winston Churchill Elected Prime Minister
why they are (and were) considered signifi-
Technological Innovations (e.g., car, radio,
cant by interpreters of the past. To under- TV, computer, Internet, etc.)
Armenian Genocide
stand the how is to understand more about
Establishment of National Health Service
the discipline of history and how the past isFormation of the European Union
constructed. For example, the fact that theGandhi's Leadership of Independence for
India
American Revolution is not considered sig-
Scientific/Medical Discoveries (polio vac-
nificant enough to be mandated in the En-
cine, penicillin, DNA, Einstein theories)
glish national history curriculum says aMao Leads Chinese Communist Revolution
great deal about the relative value of his- Korean War
Rise of Terrorism around the World
torical significance. Our study offers some
Coronation of Queen Elizabeth II
intriguing insights into the relation between Chernobyl Nuclear Accident
national culture, school curriculum, and the Cold War/Anti-Communist Movement
perceptions of young people. Additional AIDS epidemic
Development of Nuclear Weapons/Drop-
studies using larger samples of students
ping of Atomic Bombs on Japan/Nuclear
from diverse locations may further clarify Arms Race
and extend the understanding of students' Challenger Explosion

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218 THE ELEMENTARY SCHOOL JOURNAL

Famine in Africa C. Portal (Ed.), The history curriculum for

Assassination of President John F. Kennedyteachers (pp. 62-68). London: Falmer.
Persian Gulf War Barton, K. C. (1997). "I just kinda know": Ele-
1960s-"Swinging '60s" Music and Fashion mentary students' ideas about historical evi-
Movement/Beatles dence. Theory and Research in Social Education,
Breakup of the British Empire 25, 407-430.
England Wins the Soccer World Cup Barton, K. C. (1998, April). The cultural context of
Breakup of Soviet Union/Fall of Berlin Wall historical understanding among children in
Cambodian Genocide under Pol Pot Regime Northern Ireland. Paper presented at the an-
South Africa Apartheid Ends/Nelson Man- nual meeting of the American Educational
dela Research Association, San Diego.
Death of Princess Diana Barton, K. C., & Levstik, L. S. (1996). "Back when
Balkan Conflicts/Bosnia and Kosovo Crises God was around and everything": Elemen-
tary children's understanding of historical
Appendix B time. American Educational Research Journal,
33, 419-454.
Interview Protocol Barton, K. C., & Levstik, L. S. (1998). "It wasn't
a good part of history": National identity
1. Why is it important to study history? Or
and students' explanations of historical sig-
is it important? If not, why not?
nificance. Teachers College Record, 99, 478-
2. What were the most important things/top- 513.
ics that you studied the most in your history
class this semester? Cercadillo, L. (2001). Significance in history: Stu-
dents' ideas in England and Spain. In A.
3. What are some of the least important
Dickinson, P. Gordon, & P. J. Lee (Eds.), In-
things you've learned about history? Why are
ternational review of history education (pp. 116-
these things not important?
145). London: Woburn.
4. What makes an historical event important?
Davis, O. L., Yeager, E. A., & Foster, S. J. (Eds.).
5. Where do you learn more about history-
in school or outside of school? If outside, where (2001). Historical empathy and perspective tak-
ing in the social studies. Lanham, MD: Row-
do you get your information about history? (Pos- man & Littlefield.
sible prompts-TV, Internet)
Downey, M. T. (1995, April). Perspective taking
6. If outside, what are the most important
and historical thinking: Doing history in a fifth-
things you've learned about history outside of
school? grade classroom. Paper presented at the an-
7. Here are some of the events that ranked nual meeting of the American Educational
Research Association, San Francisco.
highly in the survey. Tell us briefly what you
know about each of them. Epstein, T. L. (1994, April). "Makes no difference if
8. You've explained what each of these you're black or white?" African American and
European American adolescents' perspectives on
events was about and what happened. Now let's
historical significance and historical sources. Pa-
go back through this list and tell me how each
per presented at the annual meeting of the
of the events affects/impacts us today.
American Educational Research Association,
9. All of you listed as the number 1 event of New Orleans.
the twentieth century something that a lot of oth-
Epstein, T. L. (1997). Sociocultural approaches to
ers might also list (historians, etc.). Let's go
young people's historical understanding. So-
around the group and each of you tell why you cial Education, 61, 298-311.
put this specifically as number 1-that is, The
Foster, S. J. (1998). Politics, parallels, and peren-
biggest event of the twentieth century.
nial curriculum questions: The battle over
10. Some who answered the survey listed
some other events in their list of the most im- school history in England and the United
States. Curriculum Journal, 9, 153-164.
portant of the century. Just picking some at ran-
Foster, S. J., & Yeager, E. A. (1998). The role of
dom, can you tell why these might have been
empathy in the development of historical un-
included on the top 10 list?
derstanding. International Journal of Social
Education, 13, 1-7.
Foster, S. J., & Yeager, E. A. (1999). "You've got
References to put together the pieces": English 12-year-
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Ashby, R., & Lee, P. J. (1987). Children's concepts 14, 286-317.
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 HISTORICAL SIGNIFICANCE 219

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