Unit 5

Proximity Sensors
 Proximity Sensors
Where are Proximity Sensors used?
Proximity Sensors are widely used in industrial and manufacturing
applications, especially for safety and inventory management
applications.

In an automated production line, for example, it is used for object

detection, positioning, inspection and counting. It is also used for part
detection in an industrial conveyor system.

Proximity sensors can also be found in consumer devices. In

smartphones, proximity sensors are used to detect if a user is holding
their phone near their face. They are also used as capacitive touch
switches on consumer electronics products.

It is also used for many other different applications such as a diffuse

sensor in a public washrooms or a collision detection sensor for
robots!
 Proximity Sensors
Proximity Sensor Features
To further understand what proximity sensor is all about, we’ll take a look at
its features. The following is its features, with some uniquely seen as
compared to traditional optical/contact sensors:

Contactless sensing
Contactless proximity sensing allows for detection without touching the
object, ensuring object stays well-conditioned
Unaffected by surface conditions
Proximity sensors are nearly unaffected by surface colors of objects since it
mainly detects physical changes
Suitability for wide range of applications
Proximity sensors are suitable for damp conditions and wide temperature
range usage, unlike your traditional optical detection.
Proximity sensors are also applicable in phones as well, be it your Andriod or
IOS devices. It consists of simple IR technology that switches on and off
display accordingly to your usage. For example, it turns off your display when
a phone call is ongoing such that you wouldn’t accidentally activate
something while placing it near your cheeks!
 Proximity Sensors
Longer service life
Since a proximity sensor uses semiconductor outputs, there are no moving
parts dependent on the operating cycle. Thus, its service life tends to be
longer as compared to other sensors!
High speed response rate
Compared to switches where contact is required for sensing, proximity
sensors offer a higher-speed response rate.
Inductive Proximity Sensors
 Inductive Proximity Sensors
Inductive proximity sensors are contactless sensors used to only
detect metal objects. It’s based on the law of induction, driving a coil
with an oscillator once a metallic object approaches it.
It has two versions and comprises of 4 main components:
Versions:
•Unshielded: Electromagnetic field generated by the coil is
unrestricted, allowing for wider and greater sensing distances
•Shielded: Electromagnetic field generated is concentrated in the
front, where sides of the sensor coil are covered up
Components:
•It comprises of 4 main components as seen in the picture; Coil,
Oscillator, Schmitt Trigger, and output switching circuit
 Inductive Proximity Sensors
How do Inductive Proximity Sensors work?
1.An alternating current is supplied to the coil, generating an
electromagnetic detection field
2.When a metal object comes closer into the magnetic field, eddy currents
build-up, and result in coil inductance changes
3.When coil inductance changes, the circuit that has been continuously
monitoring, will trigger the sensor’s output switch
*Note: Even when a target is not present, inductive sensors continue to
oscillate. The switch is only triggered when an object is present.
 Inductive Proximity Sensors
Common applications:
•Industrial usages
• Production automation machines that count products, product
transfers
•Security usages
• Detection of metal objects, armory, land mines, etc.
Advantages of inductive proximity sensors
•Contactless detection
•Environment adaptability; resistant to common conditions seen in
industrial areas such as dust and dirt
•Capable and versatile in metal sensing
•Considerably cheap when it comes to price
•No moving parts, ensuring a longer service life
Disadvantages of inductive proximity sensors
•Lack in detection range, averaging a max range of up to 80mm
•Can only detect metal objects
•Performance can be affected by external conditions; extreme
temperatures,
cutting fluids or chemicals
Capacitive Proximity Sensors
 Capacitive Proximity Sensors
How do capacitive proximity sensors work?
1.Capacitive proximity sensor produces an electrostatic field
2.When an object (conductive/non-conductive) approaches the sensing
area, the capacitance of both plates increases, resulting in oscillator
amplitude gain
3.The resulted amplitude gain triggers sensor output switch
*Note: Capacitive sensors only oscillate when the target object is present
Common applications:
•Industrial usages
• Production automation machines that count products, product
transfers
• Filling processes, pipelines, inks, etc.
• Fluid level, composition, and pressure
•Moisture control
•Non-invasive content detection
•Touch applications
 Capacitive Proximity Sensors
Advantages of Capacitive proximity sensors
•Contactless detection
•A wide array of materials able to be detected
•Able to detect objects through non-metallic walls with its wide
sensitivity band
•Well-suited to be used in an industrial environment
•Contains potentiometer that allows users to adjust sensor sensitivity,
such that only wanted objects will be sensed
•No moving parts, ensuring a longer service life
Disadvantages of Capacitive proximity sensors
•Relative low range, though incremental increase from inductive sensors
•Higher price as compared to inductive sensors
 5.2 Optical Proximity sensor

.
 5.2 Optical Proximity sensor
Through-beam optical sensor
This consists of two components:
-a light emitter and
-a light receiver. .
This proximity sensor is of type (i).
Figure 5.2 shows how the optical
proximity sensor works.

In a. Through-beam optical sensor , light passes across the conveyor belt

and reaches the receiver; the receiver has an in-built light sensitive circuit.

The circuit gives a voltage of a specific value. When the object passing the
conveyor interrupts the emitted light, the receiver produces a zero voltage
indicating that there was an object just passed across the optical sensor.

Thus, the optical sensor works as an optical proximity switch. Such a

switching feature is very useful in counting the objects that are passing
through the sensor.
 5.2 Optical Proximity sensor
Retro Reflective Optical Proximity Sensor-The sensor has a light
emitter and a receiver both in one module. This module is fixed at one
side of the conveyor. On the other side, a. pure light reflector (retro-
reflector) is aligned with the module. When there is no object, the
reflected light is received by the module and a voltage is produced. When
an object passes between the module and reflector, the light
is interrupted; thus no voltage is produced.
This proximity sensing loses its accuracy when the object is reflective or
transparent
.

.
 5.2 Optical Proximity sensor
Diffuse-reflective sensor : In this the senor is a single module which
has both light emitter and receiver. It is fixed at one side of the conveyor.
One requirement is that the object should. have a light reflective
surface.
The module emits light and when there is no object, the receiver in the
module does not get the reflected light. When the object is near the
sensor, the light is reflected by the object and the receiver gets the
reflected light. The receiver output indicates the presence of object
near the sensor. In addition, the accuracy of sensor diminishes if the
.
object is too near or too far from the sensor.

.
The optical encoder is a transducer
commonly used for measuring rotational
motion. It consists of a shaft connected to
a circular disc, containing one or more
tracks of alternating transparent and
opaque areas. A light source and an optical
sensor are mounted on opposite sides of
each track.
Working
Optical encoders provide digital output as a result of linear / angular displacement.
These are widely used in the Servo motors to measure the rotation of shafts.

Figure 2.3.3 shows the construction of an optical encoder. It comprises of a disc with
three concentric tracks of equally spaced holes.

Three light sensors are employed to detect the light passing through the holes. These
sensors produce electric pulses which give the angular displacement of the mechanical
element e.g. shaft on which the Optical encoder is mounted.

The inner track has just one hole which is used locate the ‘home’ position of the disc.

The holes on the middle track offset from the holes of the outer track by one-half of
the width of the hole.

This arrangement provides the direction of rotation to be determined.

When the disc rotates in clockwise direction, the pulses in the outer track lead those
in the inner;
When the disc rotates in counter clockwise direction they lag behind.
The resolution can be determined by the number of holes on disc. With 100 holes in
one revolution, the resolution would be, 360⁰/100 = 3.6⁰.
Working of Pneumatic Sensors

Pneumatic sensors are used to measure the displacement as well as to sense the
proximity of an object close to it.

The displacement and proximity are transformed into change in air pressure.
Figure 2.3.4 shows a schematic of construction and working of such a sensor.

It comprises of three ports. Low pressure air is allowed to escape through port A.
In the absence of any obstacle / object, this low-pressure air escapes and in doing
so, reduces the pressure in the port B.

However when an object obstructs the low pressure air (Port A), there is rise in
pressure in output port B.

This rise in pressure is calibrated to measure the displacement or to trigger a

switch.

These sensors are used in robotics, pneumatics and for tooling in CNC machine
tools.
Encoder
There are many different types of encoders but they basically fall
into two main sensing techniques. Those being:
– Linear
– Rotary
Within those categories, there are differing encoder measurement
types such as:
– Absolute
– Incremental
Encoder
1. Linear Encoder
First, the Linear Encoder uses a transducer to measure the distance
between two points. These encoders can use a rod or a cable that is run
between the encoder transducer and the object that will be measured for
movement.
As the object moves, the transducer’s data collected from the rod or cable
creates an output signal that is linear to the object’s movement.
As the distance is measured, the Linear Encoder uses this information to
determine the position of the object. An example of where a Linear Encoder
may be used is for a CNC milling machine where precise movement
measurements are required for accuracy in manufacturing.
Linear Encoders can be “Absolute” or “Incremental”.
Encoder
2. Rotary (Shaft) Encoder
A Rotary Encoder collects data and provides feedback based on the rotation of
an object or in other words, a rotating device.
Rotary Encoders are sometimes called “Shaft Encoders”. This encoder type can
convert an object’s angular position or motion based on the rotation of the
shaft, depending on the measurement type used.
Rotary Encoders are employed in a wide variety of application areas such as
computer input devices like mice and trackballs as well as robotics.
“Absolute Rotary Encoders” can measure “angular” positions while
“Incremental Rotary Encoders” can measure things such as distance, speed,
and position.
Rotary or Shaft encoders,
as previously stated,
may be “Absolute” or
“Incremental”.
Absolute Encoder vs. Incremental Encoder
Absolute Encoder

Fig A Fig B
To discuss the difference between absolute and incremental measurements,
we will use the Rotary Encoder type as an example.
In a Rotary “Absolute” measurement type encoder, a slotted disc on a shaft is
used in conjunction with a stationary pickup device. When the shaft rotates, a
unique code pattern is produced. This means that each position of the shaft
has a pattern and this pattern is used to determine the exact position.
e.g.Here in Fig A, for 215 degree position a binary code produced 100
Fig B, for 110 degree position a binary code produced 010
 Absolute Encoder
If the power to the encoder was lost and the shaft was rotated,
when power is resumed, the encoder will record the absolute
position as demonstrated by the unique pattern transmitted by
the disc and received by the pickup.

This type of measurement is preferred in applications requiring a

great degree of certainty such as when safety is a primary
concern. Because the encoder knows, at all times, its definitive
position based on the unique pattern produced.
Absolute Encoder
Absolute measurement encoders can be
– Single-turn Or
– Multi-turn
“Single-turn” encoders are used for measurements of short distance while
“multi-turn” would be more suitable for longer distances and more
complex positioning requirements.
Incremental Encoder

For incremental measure encoders, the output signal is

created each time that the shaft rotates a measured
amount. That output signal is then interpreted based on
the number of signals per revolution.

The incremental encoder begins its count at zero when

powered on. Unlike absolute encoders, there are no
safeguards regarding the position.

Because the incremental encoder begins its count at zero

in startup or power disruption, it is necessary to
determine a reference point for all tasks requiring
positioning.
Potentiometer Sensors(Displacement Sensor)

Potentiometer displacement sensor is a primary sensor which converts the linear

motion or the angular motion of a shat into changes in resistance.

It is a type of resistive displacement sensor.

Linear potentiometers are sensors that produce a resistance output proportional

to the linear displacement or position.

Linear potentiometers
These sensors essentially variable resistors whose resistance is varied by the
movement of a slide over a resistance element.

Rotary potentiometer
These sensors produce resistance output proportional to the angular displacement
or position. They can be either wire wound or conductive plastic, and either
rectangular or cylindrical.
Potentiometer Sensors(Displacement Sensor)-Working

Above Illustrates the basic principle of a linear potentiometer. The linear

potentiometer employs an electrically conductive linear slide member (also called
wiper) connected to a variable wire wound resistor (winding) that changes
resistance to be equated to the linear position of the device that is monitored.

As the sliding contact moves along the winding, the resistance changes in linear
relationship with the distance from one end of the potentiometer.

To measure displacement, a potentiometer is typically wired as a ‘voltage divider’ so

that the output voltage is proportional to the distance traveled by the wiper. A
known voltage is applied to the resistor ends.
Potentiometer Sensors(Displacement Sensor)-Working
The contact is attached to the moving object of interest. The output voltage at the
contact is proportional to the displacement.

A rotary potentiometer employs a rotary slide member connected to a variable wire

wound resistor that changes resistance to be equated to the angular position of the
device that is monitored.
Other principles of operations are same as that of linear potentiometer.

Applications of potentiometer
These sensors are primarily used in the control systems with a feedback loop to
ensure that the moving member or component reaches its commanded position.

These are typically used on machine-tool controls, elevators, liquid-level assemblies,

forklift trucks, automobile throttle controls.

In manufacturing, these are used in control of injection molding machines,

woodworking machinery, printing, spraying, robotics, etc. These are also used in
computer-controlled monitoring of sports equipment.
The following factors to be considered while selecting the
potentiometers:
•Operating temperature
•Shock and vibration
•Humidity
•Contamination and seals
•Life cycle

Advantages and Disadvantages of Potentiometers

Advantages:
•Easy to use
•Low cost
•High-amplitude output signal
•Proven technology
•Rugged construction
•Very high electrical efficiency
•Availability in different forms, ranges and sizes

Disadvantages
Limited band width
Frictional loading
Inertial loading
Limited life due to wear
Inductive (LVDT)- Position Sensor
Inductive position sensors detect the position of an object by changes in the
characteristics of a magnetic field that is induced in the coils of the sensor.

One type is called an LVDT, or Linear Variable Differential Transformer.

In an LVDT position sensor, three separate coils are wound on a hollow tube. One of
these is a primary coil, and the other two are secondary coils.

They are wired electrically in series, but the phase relationship of the secondary coils
is 180o out of phase with respect to the primary coil.

A ferromagnetic core or armature is placed inside of the hollow tube, and the
armature is connected to the object whose position is being measured.

An excitation voltage signal is applied to the primary coil which induces an EMF in the
secondary coils of the LVDT.

By measuring the voltage difference between the two secondary coils, the relative
position of the armature (and thus the object to which it is attached) can be
determined.
Inductive (LVDT)- Position Sensor
Figure 1 below illustrates the operation of a Linear Variable Differential Transformer,
showing the translation of the voltage measurement into an indication of position.

These types of position sensors provide good accuracy, resolution, have high sensitivity,
and offer good linearity across the sensing range. They are also frictionless and can be
sealed for use in conditions where there might be exposure to elements.

While LVDTs function to track linear movement, an equivalent device called an RVDT (for
Rotary Voltage Differential Transformer) can provide tracking of the rotational position of
an object. The RVDT functions identically to the LVDT and varies only in the specifics of
their construction.
Eddy Current proximity sensors
Eddy current proximity sensors are used to detect non-magnetic
but conductive materials.

They comprise of a coil, an oscillator, a detector and a triggering

circuit.

When an alternating current is passed thru this coil, an alternative

magnetic field is generated. If a metal object comes in the close
. proximity of the coil, then eddy currents are induced in the object
due to the magnetic field.

These eddy currents

create their own magnetic field which distorts the magnetic field
responsible of
their generation.
Eddy Current proximity sensors

.
Eddy Current proximity sensors

Eddy currents are induced currents that occur in a conductive material

that is in the presence of a changing magnetic field and are a result of
Faraday’s law of induction. These currents flow in closed loops and in turn,
result in the generation of a secondary magnetic field.

If a coil is energized by ay an alternating current to generate a primary

magnetic field, the presence of a conductive material brought near the coil
can be sensed due to the interaction of the secondary field generated by
the Eddy currents, which impacts the impedance of the coil. So, the
change in the coil impedance can be used to establish the distance of an
object from the coil.

Eddy current position sensors work with electrically conductive objects.

Most Eddy current sensors function as proximity sensors, designed to
establish that an object has approached the sensor location.
 5.2 Proximity sensor
Ultrasonic sensor:
.
The sensor emits a short duration of high-frequency
ultrasound, called burst, which travels certain distance and is
reflected back after encountering an object. The reflected
signal is received by the receiver. The time-of-flight is the
duration between the instant at which the ultrasonic signal is
. emitted and the instant at which it is received by the receiver
The distance between the sensor and the object is half of the
total distance travelled by the burst which is equal to the time-
of-flight multiplied by the speed of ultrasonic wave

Distance of Object=Time of flight x Speed of Ultrasonic Wave.

 5.2 Proximity sensor

.
Hall Effect-Based Magnetic -Position Sensors

Hall effect sensors

Hall Effect-Based Magnetic- Position Sensors
Hall effect sensors work on the principle that when a beam of charge
particles passes through a magnetic field, forces act on the particles and the
current beam is deflected from its straight line path.

Thus one side of the disc will become negatively charged and the other side
will be of positive charge .

This charge separation generates a potential difference which is the measure

of distance of magnetic field from the disc carrying current.

The typical application of Hall effect sensor is the measurement of fluid level
in a container. The container comprises of a float with a permanent magnet
attached at its top. An electric circuit with a current carrying disc is mounted
in the casing.

When the fluid level increases, the magnet will come close to the disc and a
potential difference generates. This voltage triggers a switch to stop the fluid
to come inside the container
Velocity Sensors
Tacho Generator

Principle of working of Techogenerator [1]

Tachogenerator works on the principle of variable reluctance.
It consists of an assembly of a toothed wheel and a magnetic circuit as shown in figure
2.4.1.
Toothed wheel is mounted on the shaft or the element of which angular motion is to be
measured.
Magnetic circuit comprising of a coil wound on a ferromagnetic material core. As the wheel
rotates, the air gap between wheel tooth and magnetic core changes which results in cyclic
change in flux linked with the coil.
The alternating emf generated is the measure of angular motion. A pulse shaping signal
conditioner is used to transform the output into a number of pulses which can be counted
by a counter.
Tacho Generator

Figure 2.4.2 Construction and working of AC generator

An alternating current (AC) generator can also be used as a techognerator. It comprises of
rotor coil which rotates with the shaft. Figure 2.4.2 shows the schematic of AC generator.

The rotor rotates in the magnetic field produced by a stationary permanent magnet or
electromagnet.
During this process, an alternating emf is produced which is the measure of the angular
velocity of the rotor.

In general, these sensors exhibit nonlinearity error of about ± 0.15% and are employed for the
rotations up to about 10000 rev/min.
 Tactile Sensors
? Tactile sensors are the devices which indicates
contact between themselves and some other object.
? They are divided into two classes :-
⚫ Touch sensors
⚫ Force Sensors
? Touch sensors only gives binary o/p means whether
contact has been made or not with the object
? Force sensors indicate not only the contact but also
the magnitude of the contact force between the
objects .

43
 Touch sensors
A touch (or tactile) sensor generally is a form of a switch. It is expected that the touch on
the sensor is made with a minimum force. A simple microswitch with a projecting pin can
be used as a tactile sensor. Alternatively, pins with their tiny switches at one end can be
arranged in a regular matrix to form a tactile pad. The number of tactile sensors on the pad
per unit area is known as the space resolution of the sensor. The shape of a manufactured
product can be determined by placing it on the pad. A tactile pad attached to the fingers
of a robot gripper provides information about the shape of a grasped object. The pad with
mechanical pin arrangement cannot give high space resolution. In addition, there can be
switch contact problems when the pad is used repeatedly for a longer time. A typical tactile
pad to check the shape of a large size object is shown in Figure 5.7.
 Touch sensors
Working Principle
Tactile sensors of today use resistive-based technologies where the sensor acts
as a Variable resistor in an electrical circuit.

There are several types of pressure sensitive resistors which can be integrated
into a pad.
A small deflection on the sensor pad causes implanted resistors to exhibit
changes in ohmic values.

The sensor converts this change into a voltage that is interpreted as a discrete
or continuous tactile pressure reading.

When the sensors in the tactile pad are unloaded, their resistances become
very high. Their resistances decrease as the amount of exerted force on each
sensor increases.
Force Sensor
There are some concepts related to force including torque, thrust,
and drag –
-thrust increases the object’s velocity,
-while drag reduces velocity, and
-torque generates changes in the object’s rotational speed.

When there’s a balanced distribution of forces in the object, there is

acceleration. If you want to monitor the force on an object, you need
a device called a force sensor.

Force sensors are responsible for measuring the force acting on an

object. As a golden rule, both tensile and pressure forces, as well as
elastic deformations are measured.
Force Sensor
There are several types of force sensors for various applications.
Some of these include the following:

•Simple Pressure Force Sensors – These are known as mechanical

pressure sensors. Generally, they’re not suitable for precision
measurements, but good for detecting force.

•Strain Gauge Force Sensors – These use simple principles and most
of them are used in robotics research. The two forms of strain gauge
force sensors are multi-axis force sensors and single-axis load cells.

•Multi-axis Force Sensors use different strain gauges to detect every

force applied to the sensor in 6 axes. On the other hand, single-axis
load cells are common in some fields like physics and mechanical
engineering. They also use a single strain gauge for measuring force
in 1 axis.
Force Sensor-How a Force Sensor Works
-The working principle of a force sensor is that it responds to the applied
force, as well as converts the value to a measurable quantity.

-Most force sensors are created with the use of force-sensing resistors.
Such sensors consist of electrodes and sensing film.

-Force-sensing resistors are based on contact resistance. These contain a

conductive polymer film, which changes its resistance in a predictable way
once force is applied on the surface.

-This film includes non-conducting, micro sized, and electrically conducting

particles, which are arranged in a matrix.

-If force is applied to the film’s surface, microsized particles touch the
sensor electrodes, which change the film’s resistance.

-The amount of change may alter the resistance value that provides a
measure of the applied force.
Force Sensor-Benefits of Force Sensors
Force sensors are beneficial in various industries. These have diverse areas
of application in work.
-A crucial focus is force measurement in manufacturing companies, where
force transducers are frequently used to determine the force for weight
measurement or in the process of production.

-In road traffic, force measurement plays an essential role. For instance,
force sensors are being used in trucks. This means that the axle load may
be determined precisely to enable effective and fast monitoring.

-Different force sensors are in use in automobiles. For instance, force

sensors in the area of trailer couplings offer the possibility to know the
trailer’s load, and to determine static information in relation to dynamic
driving behavior on the road.It means that control technology within the
vehicle may react faster and more effectively behind the wheel.

-Force sensors are used in several applications in the railway industry. They
determine freight weights and passenger cars or the drawbar’s tractive
forces.
Torque Sensors

It converts a torque measurement (reaction, dynamic or rotary) into

another physical variable, in this case, into an electrical signal that
can be measured, converted and standardized.
As the torque applied to the sensor increases, the electrical output
signal changes proportionally
Torque Sensors Working
Like many other kinds of sensors, torque
transducers use strain gauge
technology for measurement.

The sensor consists of a measuring body,

generally of metal, on which strain gauges
(SG) are mounted.
These consist of a thin foil and an
electrical conductor that is firmly
connected to the foil.

As the foil – and therefore the conductor –

changes shape, the electrical resistance
also changes.
Metal foil strain gauge is a force
transducer whose electrical resistance If a strain gauge is compressed, its
varies with applied force. In other words, electrical resistance (Ω) decreases; if it is
stretched, the resistance increases.
it converts strain derived from force into a
change in electrical resistance, which can
then be standardized for measuring
torque.
Torque Sensors –Types
a) Rotational sensors (or dynamic torque sensor)

Rotational sensors (or dynamic torque sensor) are utilized in applications

where the torque measurement must be taken at a spinning shaft, engine or a
stationary motor. In this case, the transducer must rotate in-line attached to
the shaft. A rotary torque transducer is fitted with a slip ring or wireless
electronics to transmit the torque signal while rotating (non-contact sensor).
Rotary Torque Transducers are frequently used as testing/auditing tools for
motors, torque measuring tool, turbines, and generators to
measure rotational torque.
Torque Sensors –Types
b)Reaction Torque Meters (static)
In some applications, the torque measurement taken with an in-line rotary
sensor may be measured at the point where the torque is transferred to the
ground using a reaction torque transducer (static torque measurement).
A reaction torsion meter (not LVDT displacement sensors) has two mounting
flanges (flange-to-flange sensor). One face is fixed to the ground or a rigid
structural member and the other to the rotating shaft or rotary element.
Rotation generates shear forces between the flanges, which is captured by
the foil strain gauges bonded to the sensor beams and transduced into
electrical current by the Wheatstone bridge.
Summary
• Proximity sensors, uses & features of proximity sensors.
• Inductive proximity sensors, working, applications, advantages and disadvantages.
• Capacitive proximity sensors working, applications, advantages and disadvantages.
• Optical proximity sensors & their types
• Optical encoders and their working
• Pneumatic sensors and their working
• Encoder, Linear and rotary encoder
• Absolute encoder and incremental encoder
• Potentiometer displacement sensors, working, factors for selection, advantages and
disadvantages.
• LVDT Sensor
• Eddy current sensor and ultrasonic sensor
• Hall Effect based magnetic position sensors and Tacho Generator
• Touch and Force sensors
• Torque sensors working & its types