Module 3

ASEXUAL REPRODUCTION
Asexual reproduction - production of new offspring from one single parent without gamete fusion

Asexual Sexual
- One single parent organism produce - Two separate parents produce organisms
organism
- No gametes thus no fertilisation - Male and female haploid gametes fuse in
fertilisation forming diploid organism
- Mitosis - Meiosis
- Genetically identical offspring - Genetically different off spring (each parent
produced contributes 1/2 the genes of offspring)
- Rapid production of offspring - Slow production offspring

Advantages
- It produces large amounts of offspring in a short amount of time
- Less energy wasted finding a mate
- Less energy wasted forming gametes
- In stable environments, it's good that off springs are genetically identical since only successful traits will be passed on
- Off springs spread easily so species can grow in new areas

Conditions where it is advantageous

- Stable environments
- Areas with a lack of mates
- In terms of energy efficiency

Disadvantages
- No genetic variation - thus evolutionary inflexibility
- Rapid production may cause overcrowding and a shortage of resources
- Mutations are the ONLY way to create new traits and they rarely occur. If it does occur and its recessive it may not show up
- If there's a change in the environment, clones are not likely to survive since genetically identical

5 Methods of Asexual reproduction (BBFAV)

- Binary Fission
- Budding Fragmentation
- Asexual Spore formation
- Vegetative propagation

Binary fission - 5 steps

Definition: Simplest form of asexual reproduction in single celled organisms whereas cytokinesis occurs and 2 genetically identical off springs are
produced.
Favored by prokaryotes (E. Coli)

1. Circular DNA replicates before cell division.

2. Two copies separate, while held on to the cell surface membrane
 protein polymer forms between the DNAs and pushes them apart
 Or they are pulled apart
3. Parent cell elongates
4. New cell wall and plasma membrane forms across the middle of the cell
5. Divides into 2 clones (equally sized)

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 • Lag phase- DNA replication, metabolic activity , preparation for binary fission
• Exponential Phase- Binary Fission occurs, cells divide constantly and rapidly, with population doubling regularly
• Stationary Phase- Growth slows down as the amount nutrients decrease and metabolic waste increase
• Death Phase- death rate is more than birth rate due to accumulation of waste and severe lack of nutrients

Budding- think Mitosis!

Definition: small buds/outgrowth produced by mitosis
Favored by fungi (yeast, mushrooms mould), hydras

Budding in Fungi
1. 16 linear Chromosomes replicate
2. Nucleus divides by mitosis
3. Small swelling appears at side of the yeast cell to form a bud
4. One of the daughter nuclei migrates into bud
5. Bud breaks off and develops into a new organism (identical to parent)

Fragmentation
Definition - spontaneous division into sections
Favored by starfish, worms,

- Parent breaks into fragments each forming a new individual

- Each regenerates missing part

Asexual Spore Formation/ Sporulation

Definition : Formation of spores by mitosis; spores- unicellular nucleus with reproductive cells
Favored by Rhizopus, penicillin

1. Sporangiophores grow up into the air

2. Tip of the sporangiophores swell to form sporangium
3. Haploid nuclei moves from sporangiophore into sporangium and divides by mitosis to form many identical spores
4. The sporangium grows and prepares to release the spores
5. Mature sporangium bursts open releasing the spores in the air

Vegetative Propagation
Definition: Form of asexual reproduction in which the plant/new offspring grows from the vegetative part of the parent plant (usually stem, leaves,
roots)
Vegetative Parts --> stem can be leaves

Relies on Totipotency - ability of a single plant cell to develop into an entire, fully functional plant.
- unspecialized somatic cells that divide and differentiate to go through all stages of development.

Structures of the plant act as storage organs that swell with food for perennation (ability of plants to survive during unfavourable conditions by
using perennating organs that store food and nutrients)

Perennating organs - bulbs, corms, rhizomes, stolon and tubers ….

• rhizome of ginger - rhizome (terminal and axillary buds containing meristematic cells give rise to new plants- sends shoots and roots))
• eyes of potatoes - stem tubers (terminal and axillary buds give rise to new plants)
• leaf of life (bryophyllum pinnatum) - leaves (adventitious buds gives rise to new plants)
• Onions - bulbs
The bud (usually found on stems) grows and develops into a new plant and eventually detaches from the plant and lives independently

Meristematic tissue - regions of localized mitosis in shoot tips/buds

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Meristematic tissue - regions of localized mitosis in shoot tips/buds

Methods of Vegetative Propagation

- Cuttings
- Grafting
- Layering

Cuttings
1. Cut a small piece of the healthy plant (stem, leaf, root, shoot). For sugar cane -stem
- Ensure that it contains a node (meristematic tissue)
2. Place in suitable conditions (warm and moist)
3. Mitosis of cambium occurs and new roots grow
- Might need some plant hormone (auxin) or rooting powder to promote growth of roots
4. Differentiation occurs (it developing into a new plant)
5. Plant in soil

Hormone Stimulation - needed to promote growth of the new plant from cuttings.
- Examples: auxin (promotes root growth), cytokinin (promote shoot growth)

Advantages Disadvantages/Limitations
- Since they are clones- uniform - No genetic variation increases vulnerability
appearance to pests
- Genetically favourable traits are passed - No genetic variation, if environment
(since off spring are clones) changes then all will die

- Can produce plants with no viable seed - More technical method than seed planting
(bananas and seedless grapes) (grafting, cutting, layering)
- Can be done at any time of year - Needs controlled environments(warm and
moist) which might be expensive
- Faster and more efficient than seed - Overtime plants may weaken or produce
propagation less

*linked adv and disadv in table

*General disadvantages: tubers rot easily and are disease prone

Tissue Culture
In vitro (labs) there is aseptic cultivation of plant parts on a nutrient medium
- clone cells/explants (small pieces of plant tissue) placed in agar gel with nutrients and growth regulators and produces thou sands of
genetically identical plants

Conditions
1. Hormone stimulators (cytokinin and auxin) --> growth regulators of plant part
2. Aseptic conditions - (contamination free, sterile medium/equipment used)

4 Stages: preparation, establish, multiplication, acclimatize (PEMA)

Stage 1 (prepare)
- Select source of explant (with favourable traits)
- Remove the explant and ensure its free from pathogens
- Sterilize surface of the explant with diluted bleach

Stage 2 (establish culture medium)

- Establish the aseptic culture medium: growth regulators, organic nutrients and inorganic ions, ensure its aerated
- Mix in agar to form gel
- Place explants in media using sterile techniques and seal in clear container
- Incubate for 3-9 weeks, 15 - 30°C with light for 10 – 14 hours/day
-control: humidity, temperature light intensity
- As mitosis occurs, a callus grows
- Induce shoot then root formation using balance of auxin and cytokinin

Stage 3 (multiplication)
- Cut the shoots into smaller pieces to make plantlets
- Keep in cold storage for bulk supply

Stage 4 (acclimatize)
- Grow plantlets in increasing concentrations of agar to make them stronger
- Cultivate in light at suitable temperature

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 - Cultivate in light at suitable temperature
- Keep plantlets moist since root not sturdy
- Transfer to sterilized soil through hardening process

Pros Cons
- fast - Hard to maintain sterilized conditions
- economical - Specialized training needed
- Can be produced any time of the year - No variation since limited gene pool
Good survival rate - Problems with transitioning to soil

PLANT SEXUAL REPRODUCTION

Sexual reproduction - production of offspring as a result of the fusion of 2 haploid gametes forming a diploid zygote
* Unisexual - organism has either male or female game
* Hermaphrodite - organism has both male and female gametes

Alternation of Generations- (2n) spore producing generation alternates with (n) gamete producing generation

Sporophyte stage (2n) - zygote --> embryo (undergoes mitosis) --> mature plant --> flower
Flower: pistil (female organ) --> ovule --> megaspore
Flower: stamen (male organ) --> anther

Male gametes--> form inside the pollen grains as microgametophytes

Female gametes--> form inside the embryo sac in the ovule as megagametophytess

Hermaphrodite --> flower has both male and female organs

Dioecious- plant has either male or female organs
Monoecious - plant has both male and female organs but on different flowers.. The flowers are unisexual but the plant is bisexual

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Pollen grain production

1. Diploid pollen mother cell divides by meiosis to form 4 haploid daughter cells
2. Each of haploid daughter cells form micro spores (immature pollen grains)
3. As the microspores mature, they form protective layers of exine and intine.
4. The haploid nuclei also mitotically divides to form a generative nucleus and a pollen tube nucleus
5. When pollen grains are mature, the anther dries up and releases pollen grain (dehiscence)
6. After pollination occurs the generative nucleus mitotically divides to form 2 male gametes

Ovule production

1. The megaspore mother cell meiotically divides to form 4 haploid daughter cells
2. 3 of the degenerate and one moves on to form the embryo sac
3. The remaining haploid daughter cell divides mitotically to form 8 haploid cells which arrange themselves to form 1 egg cell, 3 antipodal cells,
2 synergids and 2 polar nuclei which an fuse to form a triploid endosperm

Self-pollination - pollen grains travel from anther to stigma on the same flower or different flower of same plant
Cross-pollination - pollen grains travel from anther to stigma on flower of a different plant

Self-pollination- advantageous where there are no pollinators or the plant is scarce

- No smell, no vivid colors since it does not need pollinators

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 - No smell, no vivid colors since it does not need pollinators
- Leads to higher frequency of recessive traits

Cleistogamy - type of self-pollination where the flower buds never open. (flowers - hermaphrodites)
- Increases homozygosity so recessive traits are more common
- Promotes inbreeding
- Less variation - smaller gene pool.. No new genes introduced since it's from one parent

Cross pollination-
- Less reliable
- More waste of pollen and energy
- May lose advantageous phenotype

- Increases heterozygosity
- Expands gene pool thus more variation thus it can better adapt to changes is environment
- Can reduce harmful recessive traits

Wind pollinated Insect Pollinated

- Dull small petals - Bright and large petals to attract insects
- Large branched feathery stigma large surface area - Small and sticky stigma deep within flower
- Relatively light pollen so it can easily be carried by - Relatively sticky and large pollen grains
the wind
Stamens hang outside flower - Enclosed stamen
- Large amounts of pollen produced - Small amounts of pollen produced
- Anthers only attached at tip of filament so it can - Anther fixed/fused to filament can't move
swing freely

Promotion of cross pollination

- Dichogamy - protandry- anther releases pollen before stigma can accept it while protogyny- anther releases pollen after the stigma was
available
- Dioecy- male/female parts on separate plants… self fertilisation impossible
- Insect pollination - insects able to bring pollen of one flower to stigma of different flower
- Heterostyly- two types of flower on same species. e.g flower with long anther and short stigma vs. flower with short anther and long stigm a
can cross pollinate
- Self- incompatibility- uses genes that prevents fertilization from occurring
- It can do this by: inhibiting pollen penetration, preventing/slowing growth of the tube nucleus
- If the pollen grain and the stigma have matching alleles then it slows/prevents growth of tube nucleus

Self-incompatibility - if the s allele on the pollen grains matches the s allele on the stigma, no fertilization can occur so eiter it slows down/prevents
the tube nucleus growth or it prevents penetration OR if germination does occur no zygote development

For germination to occur:

1. It has to have compatible ridges and grooves
2. It has to be chemically compatible
3. The stigmas has to have the right range of sugar solution
If its compatible then the pollen grain will absorb the water from the stigma (remember sugar solution)
The pollen grain will then swell and the exine will burst thus the pollen tube emerges (pollen the carries the 2 male gametes t ovule)

Double fertilisation
- When the pollen grain lands on the stigma and absorbs the water then swell and exine bursts, the pollen tube emerges facilita ting the transport
of the generative nucleus and the pollen tube nuclei. The pollen tube nuclei at the tip secretes pectinase a digestive enzyme that digests it was
down to the ovule (think chemotropic). As its going down the generative nuclei splits by mitosis to form 2 male gametes. When the tube
nucleus arrives it enters through the micropyle. The tube nuclei degenerates and one of the male gametes fertilize the egg ce ll firming a diploid
zygote (2n) while the other fertilizes the 2 polar nuclei to form a triploid endosperm (3n) (nutritious tissue)

Development of the seed

- Zygote divides and develops into the embryo
- The triploid endosperm becomes the endosperm tissue which nourishes the zygote
- Integuments - seed coat (testa)
- The overall ovule becomes the seed
- The ovary itself develops into the fruit with the ovary wall acting as the pericarp (fruit wall)

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 HUMAN SEXUAL REPRODUCTION
Male Reproductive system
Male Gonad: testes
Male gamete: sperm cell

Function of male reproductive system:

1. To produce sperm
2. To provide testosterone
3. To deliver sperm in the semen to the vagina

Testes
Function
- Site of spermatozoa and testosterone production
Structure:
- 3cm in diameter
- Surrounded by a fibrous coat
- Testes are divided into lobules (sections) by septa. The lobules contain seminiferous tubule
- Suspended by spermatic cord containing vas deferens, blood vessels and nerves

Seminiferous tubules
- 50 cm long, coiled
- LEYDIG cells between the tubules which produce testosterone
- Germinal epithelium - produces sperm in the seminiferous tubule
- Merges to form vasa efferentia which also merges to form epididymis

Epididymis

- Coiled tube
- Where sperm is stored
- Sperm becomes more concentrated and gains motility here

Scrotum

- Extension of the abdomen wall

- Outside of the body because it needs to keep sperm cooler than body for efficient sperm production. (2 -3 degrees cooler

Glands (PCS)

- Prostate gland - secretes mucus and chemicals which activate the sperm cell
- Cowper's gland (cleaner)- cleans, lubricates and neutralizes the urethra
- Seminal vesicle - secretes the seminal fluid which contains glycoproteins
- secretes fructose for energy of the sperm cell increasing motility
- seminal fluid is alkaline to neutralize the contents of the vagina

diaphragm cup - prevents sperm from enetring uterus

Condom - prevent sperm from enetering vagina
Intrauterine device - prevents implantation
Contraceptive pill - secretes oestrogen/progestorone to stopovulatio

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