Structural Theory

STRUCTURAL ANALYSIS AND DESIGN

What is this Lesson about?

Structural design is the methodical investigation of a structure's stability, strength, and rigidity.
The primary goal of structural analysis and design is to create a structure that can withstand all applied
loads without failing during its intended life. A structure's primary function is to transmit or support
loads. If the structure is incorrectly designed or fabricated, or if the actual applied loads exceed the design
specifications, the device will most likely fail to perform its intended function, potentially leading to
serious consequences. A well-engineered structure reduces the likelihood of costly failures.
What will you Learn?
At the end of this lesson, you should be able
to do the following:
✔ Understand the importance of a properly
designed structure
✔ Familiarize with the Phases in a
Structural Engineering Project
To achieve the said outcomes, this lesson is
divided into the following sub-topics:
● Structural Engineering
● Structural Analysis
● Phases in a Structural Engineering
Project
o Planning Phase
o Preliminary Structural Design
o Estimation of Loads
o Structural Analysis
o Safety and Serviceability
Checks
o Revised Structural Design

Let us READ!

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 Structural Theory

Structural Engineering
• Is the science and art of planning, Planning Phase
designing, and constructing safe and economical
• First is the planning phase, in the planning
structures that will serve their intended purposes.
phase, conceptual design is being developed
Structural Analysis here which initializes from the owner of the
building. His/her preferences, the space
• Structural analysis is an integral part of requirements, and other specifications are being
any structural engineering project, its function converted by the architect into a building or
being the prediction of the performance of the architectural plans. The owner should
proposed structure conceptualize first the design and then ask the
architects to draw the plans for them. Upon
approval of the owner, plans are then forwarded
Phases in a Structural Engineering to the civil or structural engineer for the
Project structural design. Planning comes hand and hand
with the design professionals primarily the
These are the phases in a structural engineering architect for architectural or aesthetic design.
project. The flow chart below shows the phases
on how to conceptualize up to construct an • The planning phase usually involves the
engineering project. establishment of the functional requirements of
the proposed structure, the general layout and
dimensions of the structure, consideration of the
possible types of structures (e.g., rigid frame or
truss) that may be feasible and the types of
materials to be used (e.g., structural steel or
reinforced concrete). This phase may also
involve consideration of nonstructural factors,
such as aesthetics, environmental impact of the
structure, and so on. The outcome of this phase
is usually a structural system that meets the
functional requirements and is expected to be the
most economical. This phase is perhaps the most
crucial one of the entire projects and requires
experience and knowledge of construction
practices in addition to a thorough understanding
of the behavior of the structures.

Preliminary Design
• Preliminary structural design means the
dimensions or the sizes of the structural
members are being estimated or assumed first
based on the experience of the structural
engineer from their previous projects. And of
course, considering the minimum requirements
of the structure base from our structural code. In
preliminary structural design, sizes of the

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 Structural Theory

columns, beams, slabs and other structural • The result of the analysis is used to determine
elements are being assumed first. whether or not the structure satisfies the safety
and serviceability requirements of the design
• In the preliminary design phase, the engineer
codes. If these requirements are satisfied, then
selects from the conceptual design several of the
the design drawings and the construction
structural systems that appear most promising,
specifications are prepared, and the construction
and sizes their main components. This
phase begins. However, if it does not satisfy the
preliminary proportioning of structural members
safety and serviceability requirements, then the
requires an understanding of structural behavior
next step will be revising the structural design.
and a knowledge of the loading conditions
(dead, live, wind, and so forth) that will most
likely affect the design. At this point, the
experienced designer may make a few rough
computations to estimate the proportions of each Revised Structural Design
structure at its critical sections.
• If the requirements are not satisfied, then the
Estimation of Loads member sizes are revised, and phase 3 to 5 are
repeated until all the safety and serviceability
• The computation of dead load depends
requirements are satisfied.
primarily on the weight of the structure itself or
the self-weight and also the estimation of the • In revising the structural design, the initially
live loads and other loads such as the assumed sizes of the structural members are to
earthquake, wind loads. Dead loads are be increased. To revise the structural design,
computed based on the self-weight, the partition, increase the member size, then compute the
the other superimposed loads such as the loads, the structural analysis, then if it is now
equipment, slab weight and all other finishes, safe, proceed to the construction phase. If it
slab, floor, ceiling finishes. While live loads are unsafe once again, then you have to repeat the
computed based on the type of occupancy of the from estimation of loads. It is basically a trial
structure. Might it be school, residential, and error in the design of a structural
commercial, industrial building or other types of engineering project.
buildings.
• Estimation of loads involves determination of
all that can be expected to act on the structure. EXERCISE:

Structural Analysis 1. What is the first step in the planning phase of

a building project?
• In structural analysis, the values of the loads 2. Who is primarily responsible for the
are used to carry out an analysis of the structure architectural or aesthetic design during the
in order to determine the stresses or stress planning phase?
resultants in the members and the deflections at 3. What factors might affect the design during
various points of the structure. the preliminary design phase?
4. What factors contribute to the computation of
Safety and Serviceability Checks
dead load?
• If all internal forces or stresses are determined 5. How are live loads computed?
then we can now check whether the structural 6. What is the purpose of structural analysis in
members or elements are safe against the applied the context of building design?
loads and does it satisfy the serviceability
requirements.

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 Structural Theory

7. What are the safety and serviceability

requirements checked against after the
structural analysis?

References:
▪ https://www.youtube.com/watch?
v=kJZOUAf8kUY
▪ Hibbeler, R. C. (2006). Structural
analysis (6th ed). Pearson.

What is this Lesson about?

A structure refers to a system of connected parts to support a load. Before designing a structure, the
engineer must first identify what type it is depending upon its required usage or function. When designing
a structure to serve a specified function of public use, the engineer must account to its safety, aesthetics
and serviceability, while taking into consideration economic and environmental constraint. Often this
requires several independent studies of different solutions before
Lesson 2 form is the most

2
final judgement can be made as to which structural

TYPES OF STRUCTURE
appropriate. This design process is both creative and technical and requires a fundamental knowledge of
material properties and the laws of mechanics which govern material response.

o Trusses
What will you Learn? ● Examples
● Beams
At the end of this lesson, you should be able
to do the following:
✔ Differentiate the types of structure
✔ Identify the uses and functions of
structural members and elements
✔ Discuss the resistance of structural
members against possible structural
failures
To achieve the said outcomes, this lesson is
divided into the following sub-topics:

● Classification of Structures
o Tension Structures
o Compression Structures
o Shear Structures
o Bending Structures

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 Structural Theory

-Shear structures may fail in shearing due to the

action of external forces.
4. BENDING STRUCTURES- any member
subjected to bending or flexure.
-bending structures may fail in bending due to
the action of external forces.
5. TRUSSES- composed of straight members
connected at their ends by hinged connections to
form a stable configuration. Members are in
tension or in compression.
-Trusses may fail in either compression or
tension due the applied external forces.
The structural failures are greatly caused by
these external loads or external forces. The task
of a structural engineer is to resist possible
applied forces and prevent these structures from
failing. As a structural engineer, we should
design these structural members against this
possible mode of failure.
Let us READ! EXAMPLES:
Classification of Structures Tension Members
Light cables are susceptible to elongation as
5 Categories of Structures it is being subjected upon the tension force.
Tension force pulls the element away from
Structures are categorized based on the
another. When structures are subjected to pulling
resistance of these members against possible
effect, these structures should be designed to
modes of failure.
resist the action of the tensile force to prevent
1. TENSION STRUCTURES- structures
subjected to pure tension under the action of
external loads.
-Tension structures may fail due to tension or
elongation because of the applied external
forces.
2. COMPRESSION STRUCTURES- subjected
to compressive stresses under the action of
external loads.
these
-Compression structures may fail in compression
due to the action of external forces.
3. SHEAR STRUCTURES- develop mainly in
plane shear, with relatively small bending
stresses under the action of external loads.

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 Structural Theory

struts. Due to the nature of this load, these

members are rather slender, and are often chosen
from rods, bars, angles, or channels
The image above is an example of a
suspension bridge. This bridge is constructed Another example of the tension member is a
using towers and the main cable which is tie rod. The purpose of this is to prevent trusses
anchored to the end of the roadway or the deck. or rafters from bending out due to the wind or
other loads.
Compression Members

Then the hangers are being suspended from

Figure 1:Golden Bridge, California, USA

Subjected to compressive stresses under the

action of external loads.

Column is a compression member

because of the loads that being transferred by the
beam and the slab. There are two types of
columns; column and beam column. Columns
these cables to support the bridge deck. The are straight members subjected to axially
main cable transfers its loads to the tower, the compressive loads. In an axially loaded column
tower then transfers the weight of the deck and the point of application of the compressive load
the loads that it carries to the foundation. In this is located at the center of the cross section. The
type of structure, the hangers are highly stressed possible failure of this column is due to
because of the weight of the bridge deck. The compression only. Beam-Column subjected to
weight of the bridge deck rests on the hangers. both an axial load and a bending moment. The
Therefore, the tension members are the hangers. factors that could cause the buckling of the
column are slenderness and if the point of
Tie Rods application has an eccentricity.
Structural members subjected to a tensile
force are often referred to as tie rods or bracing

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 Structural Theory

If the cable is in tension, arch is in

compression because of the load in the
superstructure and the loads that is being
transmitted by the vertical members.

Trusses
Composed of straight members connected at
Figure 4: Column and their ends by hinged connections to form a stable
configuration. Members are in tension or in
Beam Column
compression.

Arches
The arch achieves its strength in
compression, since it has a reverse curvature to
that of the cable. The arch must be rigid,
however, in order to maintain its shape, and this
results in secondary loadings involving shear
and moment, which must be consider in its
design. Arches are frequently used in bridge
structures, dome roofs, and for openings in
masonry walls. Figure 7: Trusses

Truss members are either in tension or in

compression depending on the structural
configuration.
Figure 5: Arches
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 Structural Theory

Bending Structures
Bending structures develop mainly bending
stresses under the action of external loads
Examples: beams, rigid frames, slabs, plates, and
shells
In the building frame, beams are subjected
to downward loads because of the slab weight at
Shear Structures the top of the beam and the other loads in the
higher floors. Also, vertical downward forces are
A typical example of a shear structure is a
caused by the partitions and the beam weight.

reinforced concrete wall because it provides

lateral stability and resist wind, earthquakes, and
seismic activity.

This is an example of a shear wall located

at the base of the building. It is typically located
beside the stairs has a higher live load. The other
use of RC shear wall is for the elevator shafts to
resist the vibration caused by the movements of
the elevators and vibration.
Figure 6: RC Shear Wall
Figure 8: Reinforced Concrete Wall
The primary
Figure failure isatshearing
7: Shearing the baseat the base
of the building due to lateral loads. The shaded Figure 9: Bending Slab
portion are the regions of required special
This is an example of slab that bends
reinforcement of our boundaries.
because of the loads it carried.

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 Structural Theory

Beams

Figure 12: Types of Beams

The beams are rigidly attached to the
column because in a typical reinforced concrete
beam, the beams are being poured
monolithically with the column.

Figure 10: Building Frames

Beams are usually straight horizontal

members used primarily to carry vertical loads.

Figure 13:Reinforced Concrete

Beams

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 Structural Theory

Considering the pictures shown above, we Answer: B

have section a, b, and c. Section B is the midspan,
3.What is the name of the structural members
section C and A are the supports of the beam. At the
that are often used as tie rods or bracing struts?
midspan, the beam at the bottom has more
reinforcing bars compared to the top. This is because A) Cables
the section of the beam at the midspan is under
tension. Meanwhile, at the support, the upper side of B) Arches
the beam is in tension while the lower side is in C) Trusses
compression.
D) Columns
Answer: A
4.What is the advantage of using arches in
At the midspan, the bottom of the beam bridge structures and dome roofs?
will be under tension and the top of the beam
will be under compression. Concrete is rich in A) They achieve strength in compression
compression but poor in tension. Therefore,
B) They have a reverse curvature to that of the
there is no need to provide a reinforcing bar at
cable
the top, only the minimum number of
reinforcing bar is required by the code. The C) They are rigid and maintain their shape
bottom of the beam experiences tension, tensile
forces, therefore there is a need to provide D) All of the above
tension bars to resist the tensile effect in that Answer: D
portion.
5.What type of structure is a reinforced concrete
wall that provides lateral stability and resists
EXERCISE: wind, earthquakes, and seismic activity?

1.What are the two types of columns according A) Tension structure

to the data? B) Compression structure
A) Tension and compression columns C) Shear structure
B) Axial and eccentric columns D) Bending structure
C) Column and beam-column Answer: C
D) Shear and bending columns
Answer: C ASSESSMENT:
2.What is the possible mode of failure for 1. Discuss briefly why structures are being
tension structures? classified/named after the internal
A) Buckling forces/stresses?

B) Tension or elongation 2. From the moment diagram in the cantilever

beam carrying a vertical downward load, what
C) Shearing does the maximum bending moment at its fixed
end empty?
D) Bending

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 Structural Theory

3. What are the causes of buckling or bending in

a column?

References:
● https://www.youtube.com/watch?
v=pbUJWh3Qs3Y&feature=youtu.be
● Hibbeler, R. C. (2006). Structural
analysis (6th ed). Pearson.

What is this Lesson about?

An analytical model in structural engineering is a simplified representation of a real structure
used for analysis. The model's goal is to simplify the analysis of a complicated structure by representing
the behavioral characteristics of the structure of interest to the analyst as accurately as practically
possible, while discarding much of the detail about the members, connections, and so on that is expected
to have little effect on the desired characteristics. The creation of the analytical model is one of the most
important steps in the analysis process, requiring experience and knowledge of design practices, as well
as a thorough understanding of structural behavior.
The loaded area represented by the analytical model contributes to the load on the member
supporting that area. When loads are distributed evenly across a
Lesson
surface, it is often possible to "assign" 3 the load to the
portions of

3 ANALYTICAL MODELS
various structural elements that support that surface by subdividing the total area into tributary areas
corresponding to each member. The tributary area is a loaded area that adds to the load on the member
that supports it.
The analytical model is used in structural analysis to calculate the load transfer from the slab to
the column as well as the responses of the column's framing beams. When used correctly and with care,
the analytical model is a powerful tool for finding solutions to specific problems. It is applicable on any
scale and in almost every aspect of business management. It can be used to make data-driven decisions,
structure information logically, and create a common ground for discussion among a diverse group of
people.
✔ Identify the three-dimensional structural
system which can be subdivided to plane
What will you Learn?
structures for the purpose of analysis.
At the end of this lesson, you should be able ✔ Construction line diagram of the
to do the following: structure.

11
 Structural Theory

✔ Sketch an ideal structure based on members necessary to resist the lateral wind
connections and supports loads to provide stability by dash lines. For the
load path, the deck of the bridge is supported by
To achieve the said outcomes, this lesson is the stingers. These streamers or longitudinal
divided into the following sub-topics: secondary beams are beams supported by the
● Definition of Analytical model/idealized floor beams. Then the floor beams transmit the
structure
● Line Diagram
● Connections
● Supports

loads of the stringers from the bridge deck to the

joints of this primary or main member. The main
member is known as the truss bridge. Since the
load are being transferred in each of the trusses.
We can consider each truss separately for the
analysis.
Next is the line diagram of the structure. We
consider the truss as a single structure for the
purpose of analysis. Line diagram is represented
by merely simple lines. The web members, top
Let us READ! and bottom parts are represented by the single
lines. The joints are pinned and are represented
by a small circle which symbolizes the hinge or
pinned connection. Next is to convert the actual
bolted connection into idealized hinged
connection. The example shown above is the
third joint from the left. It involves four
members as the actual bolted connection. This
should be converted into idealized hinged
connection.
Figure 6: Analytical Models
The picture above shows a space structure of
F
the bridge. Identify whether the space structure
can be subdivided into plane or two-dimensional Idealized Structure
structures. Consider the main bridge framing
system in the image above, the main members of To model or to idealize a structure so
the system designed to support vertical loads are that structural analysis can be performed.
shown by solid lines. The secondary bracing EXAMPLES OF IDEALIZED STRUCTURE

12
 Structural Theory

The high-rise building is being converted to Floor System

an idealized structure. Vertical simple lines
The floor system consists of girders and
represent the columns while the horizontal lines
columns using structural shapes. The solid
represent the beam and the floor of the building.
horizontal structure is the slab. If it is converted
Idealized structure of the beam into an idealized framing line, the column has a
web and a flange. The girder from A to B in the
The components when converted into
idealized framing plan is a continuous line since
idealized beam must be represented by a simple
girder is stronger than the secondary member.
line with no thickness.
Girder is always supported at both ends with
columns. The horizontal lines at the middle are
the secondary beams or the joist. Joists are being
supported by the girder.
Monolithic slab and column

The squares in each corner represents the

column while the broken line represents the
beam under the slab.
Timber Slab
Figure 16: Idealized Structure of The solid lines in the middle are the beams
Idealized structure of a frame
the Beam while the lines at the edge represents the walls.
The support A can be modeled as a fixed
Figure 17: Monolithic Slab and Column
structure. The picture on the left side is the
actual components and the picture on the right is
the idealized components of the given structure.

Figure 193: Idealized framing plan

Figure 18: Idealized structure of a Connections

1. Rigid Connection

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 Structural Theory

2. Flexible or hinged connection The beams and columns of this building is

monolithic with each other. The joints are
Rigid Connection
considered to be rigid joints or fixed.
-A rigid connection or joint prevents relative
translation and rotations of the member ends
connected to it; that is, all member ends
connected to a rigid joint have the same
Flexible or Hinged
translation and rotation.
A hinged connection or joint prevents only
relative translations of member ends connected
to it; that is, all member ends connected to a
hinged joint have the same translation but may
have different rotations. Such joints are thus
capable of transmitting forces but not moments
between the connected members.

Figure 20: Rigid

Connection
The picture shown is a representation of Figure 21: Flexible or Hinged
one frame from the typical RC Frame Building. Connection

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 Structural Theory

Trusses in the bridge are designed as

bolted or hinged because of the moving loads
such as vehicles. It will break easily if it is fixed.

Supports for Various Structures

Idealization of Support Connections

● Pin Connection (allow slight
rotation)
● Roller Support (allow slight
translation/rotation)

● Fixed Joint (allow no rotation

/translation)

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 Structural Theory

EXERCISE: References:
1. What is an analytical model in the context ● https://www.youtube.com/watch?
of structural analysis? v=YZhM4W6Oa1o&feature=youtu.
be
2. How is a line diagram represented in
● Hibbeler, R. C. (2006). Structural
structural analysis?
analysis (6th ed). Pearson.
3. What are the main members of a bridge
structure designed to support?
4. What is the role of secondary bracing
members in a bridge structure?
5. What does the floor system consist of?
6. What is the difference between a rigid
connection and a hinged connection?
7. What kind of movements does a rigid
connection prevent?
8. What kind of movements does a hinged
connection prevent?

ASSESMENT:
1. From your reference architectural plan,
sketch/construct the various analytical
models/idealized structure.
a) Rigid Frames (must be labeled with the
grid lines)
b) Floor Framing

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 Structural Theory

What is this Lesson about?

Once the dimensional requirements for a structure have been defined, it becomes
necessary to determine the loads the structure must support. Often, it is the application of the
various loads that will be imposed on the structure that provides the basic type of structure that
will be chosen for design. For example, high-rise structures must endure large lateral loading
caused by wind, and so shear walls and tubular frame systems
Lesson
are selected, whereas buildings located 4 to earthquakes
in prone

4 TYPES OF LOADS
must be designed having ductile frames and connections.
Once the structural form has been determined, the actual design begins with those
elements that are subjected to the primary loads the structure intended to carry, and proceeds in
sequence to the various supporting members until the foundation is reached. Thus, a building
floor slab would be designed first, followed by the supporting beams, to the columns, and last,
the foundation footings. In order to design a structure, it is therefore necessary to first specify the
loads that act on it.
The design loading for a structure is often specified in codes. In general, the structure
engineer works with two types of codes: general building codes and design codes. General
building codes specify the requirements of governmental bodies for minimum design loads on
structures and minimum standards for construction. Design codes provide detailed technical
standards and are used to establish the requirements for the actual structural design. However,
code provide only a general guide for design. The ultimate responsibility for the design lies with
the structural engineer.
✔ Identify the types of loads in a structure
✔ Familiarize with estimating such loads
What will you Learn?
based on the code
At the end of this lesson, you should be able
To achieve the said outcomes, this lesson is
to do the following:
divided into the following sub-topics:

17
 Structural Theory

● Dead Loads
● Live Loads
● Wind Loads
● Earthquake Loads
● Exercise

Let us READ!

Dead Loads
Live Loads
Dead load is a gravity load of
constant magnitudes and fixed positions that
act permanently on the structure. It consist
of the weight of all materials of construction
incorporated into the building or other
structure, including but not limited to walls,
floors, roofs, floor ceilings, stairways, built Live loads can vary both in their
in partitions, finishes, cladding and other magnitude and location. They may be
similarly incorporated architectural and caused by the weights of the objects
structural items, and fixed service temporarily placed on a structure, moving
equipment, including the weight of the vehicles, or natural forces.
cranes.

Wind Loads
Wind loads result from forces
exerted by the kinetic energy of the moving
mass of air, which can produce a
combination of direct pressure, negative
pressure or suction, and drag forces on
18
 Structural Theory

buildings and other obstacles in its path. It is 6. Live loads can vary both in their _______
typically assumed to be applied normal, or and location.
perpendicular to the affected building.
7. Wind loads result from forces exerted by
Earthquake Loads the kinetic energy of the moving mass of
_______, which can produce a combination
Earthquake produce loadings on a
of direct pressure, negative pressure or
structure through its interaction with the
suction, and drag forces on buildings and
ground and its response characteristics.
other obstacles in its path.
These loadings result from the structure’s
distortion caused by the ground’s motion 8. Earthquake produce loadings on a
and the lateral resistance of the structure. structure through its interaction with the
Their magnitude depends on the amount and _______ and its response characteristics.
type of ground accelerations and the mass
stiffness of the structure.
Key to Correction:
1. Once the dimensional requirements for a
structure have been defined, it becomes
necessary to determine the loads the
structure must support.
2. High-rise structures must endure large
lateral loading caused by wind, and so shear
walls and tubular frame systems are
selected.
EXERCISE:
3. Buildings located in areas prone to
1. Once the dimensional requirements for a earthquakes must be designed having ductile
structure have been defined, it becomes frames and connections.
necessary to determine the ______ the
structure must support. 4. The design loading for a structure is often
specified in codes.
2. High-rise structures must endure large
lateral loading caused by _______, and so 5. Dead load is a gravity load of constant
shear walls and tubular frame systems are magnitudes and fixed positions that act
selected. permanently on the structure.

3. Buildings located in areas prone to 6. Live loads can vary both in their
earthquakes must be designed having magnitude and location.
_______ frames and connections.
7. Wind loads result from forces exerted by
4. The design loading for a structure is often the kinetic energy of the moving mass of air,
specified in _______. which can produce a combination of direct
pressure, negative pressure or suction, and
5. Dead load is a gravity load of constant drag forces on buildings and other obstacles
magnitudes and fixed positions that act in its path.
_______ on the structure.
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 Structural Theory

8. Earthquake produce loadings on a

structure through its interaction with the
ground and its response characteristics.

REFERENCES:
● Structural Theory-Chapter 1,
Retrieved from
https://www.youtube.com/watch?
v=ZfRezSRJquY&t=1058s
● https://www.youtube.com/watch?
v=kXnjI9yVMHI
● Hibbeler, R. C. (2006). Structural
analysis (6th ed). Pearson.

What is this Lesson about?

Structure loads are forces that act on a structure, causing it to deform or fail. These loads
are divided into two types: dead loads and live loads. The weight of the structure itself and any
permanent fixtures attached to it are considered dead loads, whereas live loads are the weight of
people, furniture, and other temporary objects that can change over time. The precise estimation
of these loads' magnitudes is critical for the structural analysis process. The design loading
for a structure is often specified in codes. In general, the structure engineer works with two types
of codes: general building codes and design codes. General building codes specify the
requirements of governmental bodies for minimum design loads on structures and minimum
standards for construction. Design codes provide detailed technical standards and are used to
establish the requirements for the actual structural design. However, code provide only a general
guide for design. The ultimate responsibility for the design lies with the structural engineer.
✔ Differentiate dead from live load, and
Lesson 5 service load

5
superimposed load from

LOADS ON STRUCTUR
What will you Learn? To achieve the said outcomes, this lesson is
divided into the following sub-topics:
At the end of this lesson, you should be able
to do the following: ● Load Paths in a Structural System
✔ Explain how loads are transmitted from
o Case #1
the roof to the ground based on different o Case #2
structural framing system o Case #3

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 Structural Theory

● Types of Applied Loads

o Superimposed Load
o Service Load
o Required Load
o Earthquake Loads
● Exercise

Figure 23: Building

Components
Types of Vertical Loads
Dead Load- weight of the structure itself
Self-weight- dead weight of the
structure
-To determine the self-weight of the
beam, use the formula γV=W.
-It is more specific compared to dead
load.
Superimposed dead load- external
loads applied on a member due to the non-
structural members and semi-permanent
structures such as partitions, ceiling and
floor finishes, waterproofing, permanent
fixture and fittings, air conditioning ducts.

Let us READ!

Building Components

21
 Structural Theory

should be stable enough to resist the loads of

an entire structure.
STRUCTURAL FRAMING SYSTEM
There are different types of a
building structure based on their structural
framing system. The load path or

Service Load- Superimposed Load +

Self-Weight
Live Load- Refers to loads that do, or can
change over time, such as people walking
around a building (occupancy) or movable
objects such as furniture.

BUILDING STRUCTURE
The primary function of a building transmission of loads greatly depend on the
structure is to support and transmit the building configuration. The most common is
building loads and forces to the ground. the Load Path Case #1 in which the transfer
of loads start from the slab to the beam, to
The ground or soil has the most
the column, to the footing, and to the ground
critical role in a building structure. The
or soil.
characteristics of the soil, specifically its
strength should be carefully investigated to
determine its capacity to resist the load that
the structure transmits to the ground.

The picture shows the typical RC

Frame building. There are superimposed
Figure 26:Typical RC Frame
loads and slab weight acting on the roof.
Building
The slab weight and superimposed loads
will be transferred to the beams and girders.
Then the loads carried by the beam will be
transferred to the column because it supports
the beam or girder. Then the loads in the
column are being transmitted to the
foundation. And all of the loads will be
transmitted to the ground. Hence, the ground
22
 Structural Theory

Examples of Load Path Case #1.

For Load Path Case #2, the transmission
Figure 28: Load Path Case#2
of loads starts from the slab, to the beam or joist,
to the girder, to the column, to the footing, and to
the ground or soil. In Load Path Case #3, the loads from the
roof are being transmitted to the purlin.
The purlins is directly connected to the
roofing sheets. From the purlins, the
loads it carries will be transferred to the
trusses, to the roof beam, to the
column, to the footing and to the
ground.

Figure 29:Load Path Case#3

Examples of Load Path Case #3:

The image on the left shows the support

used in the purlins is rafters instead of
trusses while on the right shows the load
path of the roof system.

23
 Structural Theory

● The primary function of a building

structure is to ______.

● The ground or soil has the most critical

role in a building structure because
______.
● There are different types of a building
structure based on their ______.
● The most common load path in a
building structure starts from the
______.
Key to Correction:
1. Types of Vertical Loads
● Dead Load is the weight of the
structure itself.
● To determine the self-weight of the
beam, use the formula γV=W.
● Superimposed dead load refers to
external loads applied on a member
due to non-structural members and
semi-permanent structures such as
EXERCISE:
partitions, ceiling and floor finishes,
1. Types of Vertical Loads waterproofing, permanent fixture and
fittings, air conditioning ducts.
● Dead Load is the weight of the ______ ● Service Load is calculated as
itself. Superimposed Load + Self-Weight.
● To determine the self-weight of the ● Live Load refers to loads that do, or
beam, use the formula ______. can change over time.
● Superimposed dead load refers to
external loads applied on a member 2. Building Structure
due to ______.
● The primary function of a building
● Service Load is calculated as ______.
structure is to support and transmit the
● Live Load refers to loads that do, or
building loads and forces to the
can ______ over time.
ground.
2. Building Structure ● The ground or soil has the most critical
role in a building structure because of

24
 Structural Theory

its strength and capacity to resist the References:

load that the structure transmits to the
● Hibbeler, R. C. (2006). Structural
ground.
analysis (6th ed). Pearson.
● There are different types of a building
● https://www.youtube.com/watch?
structure based on their structural
v=kXnjI9yVMHI
framing system.
● The most common load path in a
building structure starts from the slab
to the beam, to the column, to the
footing, and to the ground or soil.

Assessment:
1. From your reference architectural
plans, identify the load path case of
the building structure. Update your
assessment task.

What is this Lesson about?

In structural engineering, tributary area refers to the area of a floor or roof supported by a
single column or wall. It is the area that adds to the load on the member that supports that area.
The load transfer from the slab to the column and the responses of the column's framing beams
are calculated using tributary areas.
The tributary area is a loaded area that adds to the load on the member that supports it.
When loads are distributed evenly across a surface, it is often possible to "assign" portions of the
load to the various structural elements that support that surface by subdividing the total area into
tributary areas corresponding to each member.
What will you Learn? ✔ Differentiate one-way and two-way
systems for load transfer
At the end of this lesson, you should be able
✔ Calculate the distributed load that the
to do the following:
floor system transmits to its supporting
✔ Model the loads on the structure using member
the NSCP 2015 structural codes and
To achieve the said outcomes, this lesson is
standards
divided into the following sub-topics:

● Tributary area for a typical roof

framing Lesson 6

6 TRIBUTARY AREA
25
 Structural Theory

● One-way system The area of slab that is supported by a

● Two-way system particular beam is termed as the beam’s
● Exercise tributary area.
Tributary Area = Tributary width * Span
In this structural floor framing plan
(one-way slab) the loads of the slab and all
other superimposed loads on it will be
transferred to the beams. The loads from the
slab will be distributed equally to the
supporting members which are the beams.
Hence, the tributary width is half of the span
to the left of the beam plus half of the span
of the slab to the right of the beam.

Let us READ!

The tributary area is defined as the

area of floor or roof (in plan) that causes
loading on a particular structural element.

26
 Structural Theory

supported on four sides with a beam or

girder. So, in this particular floor system, the
slab (two-way slab), when applied by
gravity load, tends to bend along this
direction. Meaning all these beams or all the
girders carry the load of the slab, whereas in
Now the load that the beam carries will a one-way system, the only beam that carries
be the loads acting on its shaded area which the load of the slab or the floor are the
is equal to the tributary width multiplied by longitudinal or longer beams here. It carries
the span of the beam. the load of the slab, and all the
superimposed loads on it are carried by all
the beams connecting. So, if this is the case,
So, for this interior column from
figure b, the tributary area is the area
surrounding the column that is bounded by
the panel center line. Also, for figure a, the
center line is half of the span of this panel
and this is 1/2 of the length of the span.
And then also the tributary length of this
column is half of the span of the panel.
check whether the ratio of the longer span to
the shorter span is equal to or approaches
one or the shorter span, the range of the

shorter span to the longer span should at

Tributary Areas for a Typical Floor Framing least equal to or be greater than 0.5 (two-
The first image here shows a way slab).
rectangular area of the unsupported slab Here is an example of a typical floor
panel. So, if you are going to consider the framing system of an office building. So, the
area, the ratio of the longer side to shorter tributary area for column B3 is shaded
side is greater than 2, then it is a one-way yellow. The tributary area for beam BC1,
slab/system. along grid line 1 is the shaded area. So, the
Next, for this particular floor system tributary width is half of the length or span
on the second image, the slab is being of this slab panel. The tributary area for

27
 Structural Theory

beam CD along grid line two is the shaded

area, so tributary width is half of this slab
panel and then plus half of the slab panel on
the other side if and only if these two slab
panels here are in a one-way system or one-
way floor slab.
So, this is the idealized floor framing
So here is an example of a tributary
area of a beam supporting a one-way floor
system. Take note that if the ratio of the
shorter side is less than 0.5, then it is a one-
way slab.
Let's say this is the span S and this is
the length S1 for the span of the first slab.
So, it is only to be considered a one-way
slob if and only if the ratio of the shorter
side to the longer side is less than 0.5, as in
this criterion here. If it satisfies, then the
tributary area would be half of this span
plan of this floor system here, let us consider
here, multiplied by the tributaries. This will
the slab panel one, longer side denoted as l,
be half of the span here, so that would be the
and shorter side as s. Now if the ratio of the
tributary width multiplied by the length.
longer side to the shorter side is greater than
two, then we can say that it is a one-way So, plus the tributary area at this span.
slab or one-way system. If and only if S over L is also less than 0.5.
Another formula commonly used in
the Philippines is that the ratio of the shorter
side to the longer side should be less than
0.5. So, these are the two criteria you can
use, either this one or this one, to determine
whether the slab is one way or a two-way
slab.
A one-way slab is almost a rectangular
So, if that is, if this satisfies, if this span
slab, whereas this slab on the second image,
satisfies these criteria, then it is a one-way
which is the two-way slab, is almost square.
system. This one satisfies these criteria, so
So, these are the criteria. If the dimension of
that is also a one-way system. Therefore, the
the slab, corresponds to these criteria, then
tributary area would be a rectangular area.
that is a one-way slab. And if the shorter
side to the longer side ratio is greater than or Now for the load carried by the beam
equal to 0.5, then it is a Two-way slab. supporting two-way slope, the tributary area

28
 Structural Theory

would be in a trapezoidal or triangular

shape.
On the figure, if this falls under the
category LY/LX, or the ratio of the longer
span to the shorter span is equal to or less
than two, or the shorter span, the ratio of the
shorter span to its longer span is greater than
or at least equal to 0.5, it will be considered
as two-way slab system.
So, how would you determine or how
would you sketch a tributary area of a two-
way system? So, if this is four meters center to
center, two meters center to center, two by
Just construct a line at each corner four-point five, and four meters, then the
which is 45 degrees from the horizontal. idealized floor framing plan is considered to
Connect the intersecting points to each be like this one with the dimensions along
other. Take note that the trapezoidal the longitudinal direction and the transverse
tributary area loading is being carried by the direction.
longer beam, while the triangular tributary
area loading is being carried by the shorter Let's try to consider the grid lines:
beam. ABC (grid line A, grid line B, grid line C)
and grid line D, and grid lines 1, 2, and 3.
The purposes of these grid lines are for the
location of the structural members,
especially the beams, the slab, and the
columns there.
Let us try to consider the tributary area
for this floor plan, this high floor plan. Now,
the first spawn here is 2 meters by 4 meters.
Now, let us try to consider if the ratio of the
shorter side to the longer side. The shorter
side is 2.0 divided by 4, so 2 divided by 4 is
0.5. So, this is just equal to 0.5 according to
our criteria for a one-way or two-way slab.
The criteria fall under, the ratio of the
Let's try to consider this floor plan here
shorter side to the longer side is equal to 0.5,
to determine if the tributary area is either
then that is a two-way slab or two-way
one way or a two-way slab. Let's try to
system, and if it is a two-way system, what
sketch the idealized floor framing plan of
we're going to do next is to create or sketch
this Floor plan by constructing an idealized
the area.
beam. Below is the photo of the idealized
floor area of the floor plan.

29
 Structural Theory

For a two-way system, construct a line 3. What is the difference between self-
45 degrees with a horizontal, and then weight and superimposed dead load?
Connect the two intersecting points. So that 4. What is the main difference between
would be the tributary area for the first span one-way and two-way slabs?
of the slab. So, this trapezoidal area here 5. If the L/s ratio is greater than or
will transmit load to this longer beam. This equal to 2, what type of slab is it
considered to be?
will reload base from this trapezoidal area
6. If the L/s ratio is less than 2, what
will also be transmitted or transferred to this
type of slab is it considered to be?
beam while the load here in the triangular
load will be transmitted to this shorter view References:
here. Next part of this floor area is the 2x2
slab in the figure. If you are going to ● https://www.youtube.com/watch?
consider a 45-degree Line with respect to the v=J2fXbgY4OJc&feature=youtu.be
beam, so if this is 45 degrees, half of two is ● Hibbeler, R. C. (2006). Structural
one meter, one and also this should be in one analysis (6th ed). Pearson.
meter, so the intersecting point is at the
middle, so then therefore this should be like
that the tributary area is on all four sides
would be a triangle here. So, this triangle
here will contribute our tributary loading to
this member so they have the same tributary
loop considering that this is two by two,
two-way slab. Next would be this spine
here, so this is four by four point five, then
by considering the ratio of the shorter side,
which is four, to the longer side, which is
4.5, then this is equal to 0.89. In which 0.89,
in which from here is over l, which is 0.89,
is greater than 0.5. So based from this, this
satisfies the criteria for a two-way slab
The process will continue for all of the
slabs, determine first the ratio of s/l and
draw the tributary area for the slab, either
one-way or two-way slab system.
EXERCISE:

1. What is a tributary area in the

context of structural analysis?
2. How is the tributary area of a
member with an area load
calculated?

30