SPREADSHEET

an electronic document in which data is arranged in the rows and columns of a grid and can be
manipulated and used in calculations. Spreadsheets are digital tools for organizing, analyzing, and storing
data in a structured format. They are widely used across industries for tasks ranging from financial
calculations to project management and data visualization.

Components of Spreadsheets

1. Cells – is where you enter data (text, numbers, dates, etc.). Each cell has a unique identifier called
its "cell reference" (e.g., A1, B3, C4). The basic unit where data is entered.

2. Rows and Columns – Organize data systematically.

a. Rows - run horizontally and are numbered (1, 2, 3, etc.). They are made up of cells.
b. Columns - run vertically and are labeled with letters (A, B, C, etc.). They are made up of cells.

3. Worksheets and Workbooks – A collection of multiple spreadsheets within a file.

4. Formulas and Functions – Used for calculations and data processing. Formulas allow to perform
basic mathematical operations such as addition, subtraction, multiplication, and division. To
create a formula, you begin by typing an equal sign (=) in a cell, followed by the operation you want
to perform

• IF
Checks a condition and returns one value if TRUE and another if FALSE.
=IF(A1 > 10, "Yes", "No")
If the value in A1 is greater than 10, it returns "Yes" , otherwise "No"

• COUNTIF
Counts the number of cells that meet a specific condition.
=COUNTIF(A1:A5, ">10")
Counts how many cells in A1 through A5 contain a value greater than 10.

• SUMIF
Adds up values that meet a specific condition.
=SUMIF(A1:A5, ">10")
Adds the values in A1 through A5 that are greater than 10.

• AVERAGEIF
Calculates the average of cells that meet a condition.
=AVERAGEIF(A1:A5, ">10")
Averages the values in A1 through A5 that are greater than 10.
 • CONCATENATE
Joins multiple text values together.
=CONCATENATE(A1, " " , B1)
Combines the text in A1 and B1 with a space in between. Or you can use =A1 & " " & B1 to
achieve the same result.

• MID
Extracts characters from the middle of a text string, starting at any position.
=MID(A1, 2, 3)
Starts at the 2nd character in A1 and extracts 3 characters.

• MIN
Returns the smallest value in a range.
=MIN(A1:A5)
Finds the smallest value in the range A1 through A5.

• MAX
Returns the largest value in a range.
=MAX(A1:A5)
Finds the largest value in the range A1 through A5.

• COUNT
Counts the number of cells that contain numbers in a range.
=COUNT(A1:A5)
Counts how many cells in the range A1 through A5 contain numbers.

• COUNTA
Counts the number of non-empty cells.
=COUNTA(A1:A5)
Counts how many cells in the range A1 through A5 are not empty.

5. Charts and Graphs – Visual representation of data.

1. COLUMN CHARTS - help show data variations over a period and compare the datasets. The
plot shows the categories on the X-axis or the horizontal axis and the values along the Y-axis
or the vertical axis.
 2. LINE CHARTS - help display the data trends and behavior at regular intervals. And it is an
ideal graph to analyze the given data when there is more than one data series.
3. PIE CHART – a circle-shaped chart capable of representing only one series of data. A circle-
shaped chart divides itself into various portions to show the quantitative value.
4. BAR CHARTS - help perform comparisons between categories specified in the source data.
In the bar chart, the data is plotted on the Y-axis. Compared to the column chart, these
charts use the Y-axis as the primary axis. This chart is plotted in rows. That is why this is
called a row chart.
5. AREA CHARTS - The Area charts in Excel help visualize a variation over time and focus on
the total value along the trend. It shows the plotted data points’ sum. And thus, the chart
helps understand the relationship between the individual data series to the whole data. It is
similar to the Line graph, except the Area chart shows the region between the trend line and
the X-axis in color.
6. SCATTER CHARTS - Scatter charts in Excel help in displaying and comparing scientific and
statistical data. It is best to use the Scatter chart when we must modify the X-axis scale, get
a logarithmic scale axis, or not have evenly spaced values along the X-axis.

6. Pivot Tables – Summarizing and analyzing large datasets

7. Data Validation and Formatting – Ensuring accuracy and consistency.
8. Macros – Automating repetitive tasks.
9. Conditional Formatting – Highlighting important data trends visually. Formatting is used to make
data easier to read and understand.
10. Lookup Functions – Using VLOOKUP, HLOOKUP, and XLOOKUP to retrieve data efficiently.
• VLOOKUP - Vertical Lookup function is called as VLookup function. This function is used to find
values vertically across a set of rows in a table. It looks for a value vertically across the lookup
table. It returns an exact or approximate value based on the column number given in Excel.
• HLOOKUP - Horizontal Lookup function is called as HLookup function. This function used to find
values horizontally across a set of rows in a table. It looks for a value horizontally across the
lookup table. It returns an approximate or exact value based on the row number given in Excel.
VLookup function provides the same lookup value as HLookup function provides.

SORTING DATA - sorting allows you to arrange data in a specific order, either alphabetically (for text) or
numerically (for numbers), making it easier to analyze and view.

FILTERING DATA - filters help you hide data that doesn't meet certain criteria, allowing you to focus on
specific subsets of your data. Filters are often used when you want to view only specific records that match
certain conditions (e.g., show only sales data from a certain region).
CONDITIONAL FORMATTING - a powerful tool that automatically changes the appearance (color, font,
border) of cells based on the values within those cells. It’s helpful when you want to visually emphasize
certain data points (e.g., highlight cells with high sales, or show dates that are overdue).

TOP/BOTTOM RULES - You can format cells that are in the top 10% or bottom 10% of a range.

Data Bars – Adds horizontal bars to show data values relative to others.

Color Scales – Color cells based on a gradient (e.g., green for higher values, red for lower values)

ICON SETS - Adds icons (e.g., arrows or traffic lights) based on the values in the cells.

ARRAY FORMULA - An array formula in Excel evaluates all individual values in an array and performs
multiple calculations on one or several items according to the conditions expressed in the formula.

COLLABORATION AND SHARING

• SHARING AND PERMISSIONS - Sharing and permissions control who can access your
spreadsheet and what they can do with it. Both Google Sheets and Excel Online provide powerful
options for sharing documents and setting granular permissions to either allow others to view,
comment, or edit the spreadsheet.
• CLOUD STORAGE AND COLLABORATION - One of the biggest advantages of cloud-based tools
like Google Sheets and Excel Online is the ability to collaborate in real-time. Multiple users can work
on a document simultaneously, and the changes are reflected instantly.
• VERSION HISTORY - a crucial feature for tracking changes over time, especially when working with
collaborative documents. Both Google Sheets and Excel Online keep a detailed log of all changes
made to a document, allowing you to review or restore previous versions.

MACROS AND AUTOMATION

• MACRO -Short for "macroinstructions, " macros are sets of recorded or programmed commands
that automate repetitive tasks in software applications like spreadsheets. They allow users to
execute a sequence of actions with a single trigger, such as a keyboard shortcut or button click,
saving time and reducing errors.
• VBA (VISUAL BASIC FOR APPLICATIONS) - A programming language integrated into Microsoft
Office applications, such as Excel, that enables users to write custom scripts to automate tasks,
create user-defined functions, and manipulate data beyond the built-in features of the software.
• GOOGLE APPS SCRIPT - A JavaScript-based scripting platform provided by Google to automate
and extend the functionality of Google Workspace applications, such as Google Sheets. It allows
users to create custom functions, automate workflows, and integrate with external services.
DATA IMPORT AND EXPORT

• IMPORTING DATA - an electronic document in which data is arranged in the rows and columns of a
grid and can be manipulated and used in calculations.
• EXPORTING DATA - The act of saving or transferring data from a spreadsheet to another file format
or location, such as Excel (.xlsx), CSV, PDF, or other compatible formats, for sharing, storage, or use
in different software.

Popular Spreadsheet Software

1. Microsoft Excel – Industry-standard software with advanced features.

2. Google Sheets – Cloud-based with real-time collaboration.
3. Apple Numbers – User-friendly for Apple users.
4. LibreOffice Calc – Open-source alternative.
5. Zoho Sheet – Web-based spreadsheet with automation features.
6. WPS Office Spreadsheets – A lightweight yet powerful alternative to Excel.

Google Sheets vs. Microsoft Excel

Feature Google Sheets Microsoft Excel

Collaboration Real-time editing, cloud-based Limited live collaboration,
desktop-focused
Offline Access Requires enabling offline mode Works fully offline
Functions & Formulas Supports most common Extensive function library,
functions, lacks advanced advanced analytics
features
Performance Slower with large datasets Handles large data efficiently
Automation Uses Google Apps Script Uses VBA (Visual Basic for
Applications)
Integration Best with Google services (Drive, Best with Microsoft ecosystem
Docs) (Word, PowerPoint)
Cost Free for personal use, paid Paid software, part of Microsoft
business plans 365
Add-ons & Extensions Many third-party add-ons Supports powerful add-ins
available
Security Google security features, Advanced security, enterprise-
permissions-based sharing level controls

Advantages of Spreadsheets

• Easy data organization and calculation.

 • Flexibility in formatting and presentation.
• Automation through formulas and macros.
• Integration with other software and databases.
• Collaboration features in cloud-based options.
• Cost-effective compared to specialized data management tools.
• Compatibility with various file formats such as CSV, XLSX, and ODS.

Challenges of Spreadsheets

• Can become complex and difficult to manage with large datasets.

• Prone to errors if not carefully maintained.
• Limited scalability compared to database management systems.
• Performance issues with extremely large or complex calculations.
• Security concerns with sensitive data, especially in shared environments.

Best Practices for Using Spreadsheets

• Use structured and labeled data for clarity.

• Apply consistent formatting to enhance readability.
• Utilize data validation to prevent input errors.
• Regularly back up important spreadsheets.
• Limit access to prevent unauthorized changes.
• Use templates for recurring tasks to improve efficiency.

BEST PRACTICES

• ORGANIZING DATA -The practice of structuring data in a clear and efficient manner within a
spreadsheet, such as using tables, consistent naming conventions (e.g., for columns or files), and
logical layouts, to improve readability, usability, and maintainability.
• ERROR CHECKING -The process of using built-in tools or techniques (e.g., formula auditing,
validation rules, or conditional formatting) to detect and correct errors in data, formulas, or
calculations, ensuring accuracy and reliability.
• DOCUMENTATION -The act of adding explanatory comments, notes, or descriptions within a
spreadsheet to clarify the purpose of formulas, data sources, or specific entries, making it easier
for users to understand and work with the file.

DATA ANALYSIS AND REPORTING

 • TREND ANALYSIS - the process of analyzing historical data over time to identify patterns or trends
that can help forecast future events or behaviors. It’s about understanding how certain variables
change over time.
• SCENARIO ANALYSIS - allows you to simulate different scenarios and understand how changing
certain variables will affect outcomes. This is great for exploring the impact of different assumptions
on your data or forecasts.
• DASHBOARDS - a visual tool used to monitor key business metrics or KPIs (Key Performance
Indicators) in real-time. It typically displays important data in an easy-to-understand, interactive
format.

SECURITY AND PROTECTION

• PROTECTING SHEETS AND CELLS -A feature in spreadsheet software that restricts editing access
to specific cells, ranges, or entire sheets to prevent unintended modifications, while still allowing
authorized users to view or interact with the data in a controlled way.
• PASSWORD PROTECTION -A security measure that involves setting a password on a spreadsheet
file to limit access, ensuring that only users with the correct password can open, view, or edit the
document.
• AUDIT TRAILS -A record-keeping system that tracks changes made to a document or spreadsheet,
including what modifications were made, when they occurred, and who made them. This helps
maintain accountability, troubleshoot issues, and ensure data integrity by identifying contributors
and their actions.
Database Management System

A database is an electronically stored, systematic collection of data. It can contain any type of data,
including words, numbers, images, videos, and files. You can use software called a database management
system (DBMS) to store, retrieve, and edit data.

What is Database Management System

A Database Management System (DBMS) is a system that allows users to create, modify, and query
databases while ensuring data integrity, security, and efficient data access. Unlike traditional file systems,
DBMS minimizes data redundancy, prevents inconsistencies, and simplifies data management with
features like concurrent access and backup mechanisms. It organizes data into tables, views, schemas,
and reports, providing a structured approach to data management.

A Database Management System (DBMS) is a software solution designed to efficiently manage,

organize, and retrieve data in a structured manner. It serves as a critical component in modern computing,
enabling organizations to store, manipulate, and secure their data effectively. From small applications to
enterprise systems, DBMS plays a vital role in supporting data driven decision-making and operational
efficiency.

One of its example is MySQL, an open-source relational database management system (RDBMS),
works on a client-server model, allowing users to create databases, store data in tables, and retrieve
information using Structured Query Language (SQL).

Key Features

• Data Storage and Retrieval: Efficient mechanisms for storing data and executing queries to retrieve
it quickly.
• Concurrency Control: Ensures multiple users can access the database simultaneously without
conflicts.
• Data Integrity and Security: Enforces rules to maintain accurate and secure data, including access
controls and encryption.
• Backup and Recovery: Protects data with regular backups and enables recovery in case of system
failures.

The Flat File and Relational Database Structure

Flat-File: A flat file, also known as a text database, stores data in plain text format and is organized
as a single table with no relationships between tables. This type of database was first developed and
implemented by IBM in the early 1970s.

Relational Databases: A relational database is a type of database that stores and organizes data
in a collection of tables. These tables are related to each other through the use of a common field known
as a primary key. Relational databases are used to store, organize and retrieve data quickly and efficiently.
They are the most common type of database used in business applications.

Differences between Flat File and Relational Database

• Structure: A relational database is a type of database organizing data into linked tables, enabling
complex data relationships. A flat file, on the other hand, is a simple file that contains a single table
of data, with no relationships between tables.
• Data Integrity: Relational databases enforce data integrity through the use of primary and foreign
keys, which ensures that data is stored in a consistent and accurate format. Flat files do not have
any built-in mechanism for enforcing data integrity.
• Data Model: Relational databases use a relational data model, which is based on the mathematical
concept of a relation. It is a high-level data model that provides a way to organize and manage data
in a logical and consistent way. Flat files use a flat data model, which is a simple data model that
stores data in a single table with no relationships.
• Data Access: Relational databases provide a variety of data access methods, including SQL, which
allows for complex queries and data manipulation. Flat files can only be accessed and manipulated
through simple file I/O operations.
• Performance: Relational databases are optimized for performance, with indexes, caching and
other techniques to improve query speed. Flat files, on the other hand, can be slow when dealing
with large datasets and complex queries.
• Scalability: Relational databases can handle large amounts of data and handle the concurrent
access from multiple users. Flat files are not designed to handle large amounts of data and are not
well-suited for concurrent access.

Similarities between Flat File and Relational Database

• Data storage: Both relational databases and flat files are used for storing data.
• Data organization: Both relational databases and flat files organize data into tables.
• Data retrieval: Both relational databases and flat files can be used to retrieve data.
• Compatibility: Both relational databases and flat files can be used with a variety of programming
languages and platforms.
• Data Backup: Both Relational databases and flat files can be backed up and restored.

Types of Database Management Systems (DBMS)

1. Relational Database Management System (RDBMS)

RDBMS organizes data into tables (relations) composed of rows and columns. It uses primary keys
to uniquely identify rows and foreign keys to establish relationships between tables. Queries are written in
SQL (Structured Query Language), which allows for efficient data manipulation and retrieval.
Examples: MySQL, Oracle, Microsoft SQL Server and Postgre SQL.

2. NoSQL DBMS

NoSQL systems are designed to handle large-scale data and provide high performance for
scenarios where relational models might be restrictive. They store data in various non-relational formats,
such as key-value pairs, documents, graphs, or columns. These flexible data models enable rapid scaling
and are well-suited for unstructured or semi-structured data.

Examples: MongoDB, Cassandra, DynamoDB and Redis.

3. Object-Oriented DBMS (OODBMS)

OODBMS integrates object-oriented programming concepts into the database environment,

allowing data to be stored as objects. This approach supports complex data types and relationships,
making it ideal for applications requiring advanced data modeling and real-world simulations.

Examples: Object DB, db4o.

ADVANTAGES

• Organizes and stores data.

• Ensures data integrity.
• Manages simultaneous user access.
• Secures data.
• Backs up and recovers data.
• Enables shared data access.

DISADVANTAGES

• Requires expertise for setup and maintenance.

• May limit application scalability due to data consistency measures.
• It is expensive.
• Not always necessary.

Importance of Database

Databases are used for storing, maintaining and accessing any sort of data. They collect
information on people, places or things. This information is gathered in one place so it can be observed
and analyzed. Databases can be thought of as an organized collection of information.
What is Database?

• A database is a collection of organized data, information, and records.

• Helps store, manage, and retrieve data efficiently.
• Used in businesses, healthcare, education, and more.
• Examples: Student records, bank transactions, online shopping data

Brief History of Database

Dr. Edgar F. Codd played the biggest role in shaping modern databases.

Early Beginnings

• Pre-Computer Databases:
o Before computers, people stored data using ledgers, filing cabinets, and punch cards.
• Punch Card System (1890s)
o Developed by Herman Hollerith for the U.S. Census.

Birth of Modern Databases

1960s - First Digital Databases

• Charles Bachman created the Integrated Data Store (IDS) in 1964, the first database management
system (DBMS).
• IBM developed IMS (Information Management System) for NASA's Apollo program.

The Relational Database Model

1970 - Dr. Edgar F. Codd (IBM)

• Invented the Relational Database Model (RDBMS).

• Introduced tables (rows & columns), primary keys, and SQL.
• Basis for modern databases like MySQL, Oracle, and PostgreSQL.

The Growth of Databases

• 1980s - SQL Becomes Standard

o Structured Query Language (SQL) was adopted widely.
• 1990s - Rise of Big Databases
o Companies like Oracle, Microsoft, and IBM dominated the industry.
Modern Database Innovations

• Cloud Databases – Google Cloud, Amazon RDS, Microsoft Azure.

• AI & Machine Learning in Databases – Automating data processing.
• Blockchain Databases – Secure and decentralized storage.

Kinds of Databases

1. Structured Database:

A structured database is a database that follows a fixed format for organizing and storing data. It
uses tables with rows and columns, making it easy to search, filter, and retrieve information. These
databases are commonly managed using Relational Database Management Systems (RDBMS) like
MySQL, PostgreSQL, and Oracle.

Example: Medical Records Database – Stores patient information, including names, medical
history, prescriptions, and test results, in an organized way.

2. Free-Form Database:

A free-form database does not follow a strict structure like a structured database. Instead, it stores
unstructured or semi-structured data, making it more flexible. These databases are useful for managing
documents, images, emails, and web pages.

Example: Web Pages Database – Stores different types of content like text, images, and multimedia
without a strict format.

3. Cloud Database:

A cloud database is hosted on cloud computing platforms rather than on a local computer or server.
This type of database allows users to access data from anywhere with an internet connection. It is
scalable, cost-effective, and managed by cloud service providers like Amazon Web Services (AWS), Google
Cloud, and Microsoft Azure.

Example: Google Drive or Dropbox Database – Stores files, documents, and backups in a cloud-
based system, allowing access from any device.

4. Distributed Database:

A distributed database is spread across multiple locations, either within a company’s data centers
or across different regions worldwide. This setup improves performance, reliability, and accessibility since
data is stored in multiple places rather than in a single central location.
 Example: Banking Systems – Banks have databases distributed across multiple branches, ensuring
that transactions are processed efficiently even if one server fails.

Types of Databases

Operational Database

An operational database is designed for real-time transaction processing (OLTP – Online

Transaction Processing). It handles daily operations such as storing and retrieving data quickly. Banking
Systems and E-commerce Websites

Analytical Database

This type of database stores large amounts of historical data for analysis. It is optimized for complex
queries rather than real-time transactions. Businesses use analytical databases to generate reports and
discover trends. Business Intelligence Tools and Google Analytics

Graph Database

A graph database is designed to manage complex relationships between data points. Instead of
traditional tables, it stores data as nodes and edges, making it ideal for applications that require analyzing
relationships. Social Media (Facebook, LinkedIn) and Fraud Detection (Banks, Credit Card Companies)

Document-Oriented Database

A document-oriented database is a type of NoSQL database that stores data in flexible, JSON-like
documents instead of tables. It is useful for handling unstructured or semi-structured data. E-commerce
Platforms (Amazon, Shopee) and Content Management Systems (WordPress, Medium)

Database Models

A database model defines how data is organized, stored, and managed in a database. Each model has a
different way of structuring data and relationships between data elements.

• Hierarchical Model - Data is organized in a tree-like structure with parent-child relationships. Each
parent can have multiple children, but each child has only one parent.
• Network Model - Similar to the hierarchical model but allows multiple parent-child relationships
(many-to-many relationships). Uses a graph structure instead of a strict tree.
 • Relational Model - Data is stored in tables (relations) with rows (records) and columns (attributes).
Relationships between tables are established using keys.
• Entity-Relationship Model - A conceptual model that represents data using entities (objects) and
relationships between them. It helps design relational databases.
• Dimensional Model - Uses fact tables and dimension tables to organize data for fast retrieval in
data warehouses.
• Object-Relational Model - A mix of relational and object-oriented database features. Supports
tables like relational databases but also allows storing complex data types like images and videos.

Relational Database Management System (RDBMS)

a software that allows users to create, manage, and manipulate relational databases. It organizes
data into tables (rows and columns) and enables users to store, retrieve, update, and delete data
efficiently.

Key Features of RDBMS:

• Uses Tables – Data is stored in structured tables with relationships between them.
• Uses SQL (Structured Query Language) – SQL is used to query, insert, update, and manage data.
• Ensures Data Integrity – Uses constraints like primary keys and foreign keys to maintain accuracy.
• Supports Multi-User Access – Allows multiple users to access and modify data simultaneously.
• Scalability – Can handle large amounts of data and complex queries.

Examples of RDBMS:

• MySQL – Open-source and widely used for web applications. (e.g., WordPress, e-commerce sites)
• PostgreSQL – Advanced, open-source database with strong support for complex queries.
• Oracle Database – Used by large enterprises for high-performance database management.
• Microsoft SQL Server – A Microsoft-developed database commonly used for business applications.

Things You Can Do with RDBMS

1. Create a database
2. Store, retrieve, and manage data
3. Analyze data
4. Print and share reports
5. Ensure data security and integrity

Key Database Concepts

 • Data - Data refers to raw, unprocessed facts that are stored in a database. It has no meaning on its
own until it is processed or organized.
• Information - When raw data is processed, organized, or structured in a way that gives it meaning,
it becomes information. Information helps in decision-making and problem-solving.
• Null - A null value represents missing or unknown data in a database. It is not the same as zero or
an empty string.
• Table - A table is a structured way of storing data in a database. It consists of rows (records) and
columns (fields), where each row represents a single record, and each column represents a specific
type of data.
• Record (Tuple) - A record (also called a tuple) is a single row in a table that contains related data
about one entity (e.g., one student, one customer, or one product).
• Table -A field (also called an attribute) is the smallest unit of data storage in a database. Each field
stores a single piece of information about a record.

Views and Keys

View (Virtual Table): Retrieves data without storing it.

Primary Key: Uniquely identifies a record.

Foreign Key: Links tables together.

Types of Relationships in Databases

• One-to-One -A one-to-one relationship means that for every record in one entity (table), there's
exactly one related record in another entity, and vice versa.
• One-to-Many relationships - A one-to-many relationship in databases refers to a scenario where
one entity occurrence is associated with zero, one, or multiple occurrences of another entity.
• Many-to-Many relationship - A many-to-many relationship exists when one or more items in one
table can have a relationship to one or more items in another table.

Database Designs to Avoid

Spreadsheet Design: Refers to the use of a spreadsheet as a database, which is inefficient for managing
large datasets and relational data due to its limited structure and functionality.

Spreadsheet View: Describes the improper practice of treating a database like a spreadsheet, where all
information is stored in a single table instead of being organized into multiple related tables.

Unnormalized data - causes redundancy, inconsistency, and inefficiency. It leads to repeated data,
making updates difficult and error-prone. Query performance suffers, and maintaining data integrity
becomes more complex. Normalization resolves these issues by organizing data into related tables,
reducing redundancy and improving performance.

Advantages of Database

1. Data Security
2. Data Integration
3. Reduction in Redundancy
4. Scalability

Disadvantages of Database

1. High Costs
2. Complexity
3. Performance Issues
BLOCKCHAIN TECHNOLOGY

A blockchain is a decentralized, distributed digital ledger consisting of records called blocks that
are used to record transactions across many computer so that any involved block cannot be altered
retroactively, without the alteration of all subsequent blocks. Each transaction is stored in a block and
linked to previous blocks, forming a chain.

HISTORY OF BLOCKCHAIN

1991 – First concept of blockchain (Stuart Haber & W. Scott Stornetta).

2008 – Bitcoin’s whitepaper published by Satoshi Nakamoto.

2009 – Bitcoin network launched.

2015 – Ethereum introduced smart contracts.

2020s – Governments & businesses adopt blockchain beyond cryptocurrencies.

Types of Blockchain

1. Public Blockchain – a decentralized and open network where anyone can participate and validate
transactions. Example: Bitcoin and Ethereum blockchains
2. Private Blockchain – a restricted blockchain where only authorized participants can access and
validate transactions. Example: Hyperledger Fabric used in enterprise applications
3. Consortium Blockchain – a semi-private blockchain controlled by a group of organizations rather
than a single entity. Example: R3 Corda, used in financial services
4. Hybrid Blockchain – a combination of public and private blockchains that allows selective data
access and transparency. Example: IBM Food Trust, which enhances supply chain transparency

Cryptography

a method of securing data from unauthorized access. In the blockchain, cryptography is used
to secure transactions taking place between two nodes in a blockchain network. Blockchain uses
cryptography (hash functions, public-private key encryption) to secure transactions and ensure data
integrity. Hashing ensures that blocks cannot be altered, and digital signatures authenticate users.

TYPES OF CRYPTOGRAPHY

1. Symmetric-key Cryptography - also known as secret key cryptography, uses the same key for both
encryption and decryption. It is commonly used for secure website connections and data
encryption.
 2. Asymmetric-key Cryptography - uses different keys for encryption and decryption: a public key for
sharing information and a private key for decryption and verifying digital signatures.

Consensus Mechanisms - a method used to achieve agreement, trust, and security across a
decentralized computer network.

• Proof of Work (PoW) – miners solve complex mathematical puzzles to validate transactions and
add blocks to the chain. Example: Bitcoin uses PoW for mining new blocks
• Proof of Stake (PoS) – validators are chosen based on the number of coins they hold and stake as
collateral. Example: Ethereum 2.0 transitioned from PoW to PoS for energy efficiency
• Delegated Proof of Stake (DPoS) – coin holders vote for delegates who validate transactions and
maintain the blockchain. Example: EOS blockchain uses DPoS for governance

Smart contract - a self-executing program stored on a blockchain that automatically enforces the terms
of an agreement when predefined conditions are met. It eliminates the need for intermediaries like banks,
lawyers, or brokers, making transactions faster, cheaper, and more secure.

Decentralized Applications (DApps) - an application that runs on a blockchain network instead of being
controlled by a single company or server. Unlike regular apps (e.g., Facebook, PayPal) that rely on a central
authority, DApps operate in a decentralized manner, making them more secure, transparent, and resistant
to censorship. Example: Uniswap, a decentralized exchange (DEX) on the Ethereum blockchain, enables
peer-to-peer cryptocurrency trading.

Use Cases of Blockchain

• Cryptocurrency - Blockchain makes it easier, cheaper, and faster for people and businesses to
raise money. It removes many of the usual obstacles and allows direct buying and selling without
middlemen. Transactions happen quickly and transparently, with lower costs and fewer risks. It also
simplifies record-keeping and ensures financial rules are followed more efficiently.
• Supply Chain Management - Global supply chains are often slow, hard to track, and sometimes
take advantage of people. Blockchain can help by keeping detailed records of assets, improving
how licenses are managed for services, products, and software, and providing clear information
about where consumer goods come from—from the source all the way to the buyer.
• Healthcare Data Management - Using blockchain in healthcare means managing medical records
and tracking supplies quickly, safely, and more efficiently. This could lead to better patient care,
faster breakthroughs in medicine, and help ensure that drugs sold around the world are genuine.
• Voting Systems - Blockchain lets us vote online by recording votes in a secure, unchangeable chain
of blocks. It works without a central authority, meaning votes are verified, private, and hard to
tamper with—making it a promising upgrade to traditional electronic voting
 • Identity Verification - Blockchain spreads data across many computers, so there's no single weak
spot for hackers to attack. It uses strong encryption to protect your personal information, making it
very hard to tamper with or steal. Once information is added, it can't easily be changed, which
builds trust. Plus, it lets you control your own data without needing a middleman.
• Decentralized Finance - It acts like an unchangeable digital ledger where every transaction is
recorded, so people can trade, lend, and borrow money directly without banks or middlemen.
Smart contracts—automatic computer programs - handle these transactions for you, making
everything run smoothly and securely

Security and Challenges

• Scalability: Blockchain scalability refers to a network's ability to handle a growing number of

transactions without compromising performance, security, or decentralization, a challenge that
can lead to slow speeds, high fees, and network congestion.
• Energy Consumption: The energy consumption of all crypto assets combined is between 0.4% and
0.9% of annual global electricity usage, or 120 and 240 billion kilowatt-hours per year. That's more
energy usage than all the world's data centers combined. Crypto is a big energy user.

2 example of security risk and hacks

• Sybil attacks: They create many fake identities or "dishonest nodes." Dishonest nodes seem
authentic to blockchain users ("honest nodes").
• Routing Attacks: Attackers intercept and manipulate network traffic between blockchain nodes,
causing delays or discarding transactions, partitioning the network, and performing double-
spending attacks.
• Hacks: can occur through various methods, including Sybil attacks, phishing, exploiting
vulnerabilities in smart contracts, and routing attacks, all of which can compromise the security
and integrity of the blockchain

The Future of Blockchain

Layer 2 Scaling Solutions

Blockchain networks like Bitcoin and Ethereum often struggle with slow transaction speeds and high fees
due to network congestion. Layer 2 scaling solutions aim to improve blockchain efficiency by processing
transactions off-chain while maintaining security and decentralization.

Examples of Layer 2 Solutions

Lightning Network (Bitcoin) - A payment protocol that creates off-chain payment channels between
users, allowing instant and low-cost Bitcoin transactions
Optimistic Rollups (Ethereum) - undles multiple transactions into a single batch and submits them to
Ethereum’s main blockchain, reducing network congestion. It assumes transactions are valid unless
challenged.

ZK-Rollups (Zero-Knowledge Rollups) - Uses cryptographic proofs to verify the validity of a batch of
transactions without revealing transaction details. This improves both speed and privacy.

Quantum Computing and Its Impact on Blockchain

Quantum computing is a new type of computing that uses the principles of quantum mechanics to
process information at speeds far beyond classical computers. While this technology has the potential to
solve complex problems, it also poses a major risk to blockchain security

Blockchain Interoperability

Interoperability refers to the ability of different blockchain networks to communicate and share
information seamlessly. Currently, most blockchains operate in isolation, making it difficult to transfer
assets or data between them.

Impact:

• Users will be able to use multiple blockchains more easily.

• DeFi platforms will become more accessible across different networks.
• NFTs and digital assets can be used across multiple ecosystems without restrictions.

Web3 and the Decentralized Internet

The internet is evolving, and Web3 represents the next major shift. Unlike today’s internet, which is
controlled by big companies like Google, Facebook, and Amazon, Web3 aims to give users control over
their own data, identity, and digital assets using blockchain technology.

Web3 is the next generation of the internet, built on blockchain and decentralization. It allows users
to interact online without relying on centralized companies to store and manage their data.

Key Features of Web3

• Decentralization (No Middlemen) - Web3 runs on blockchain networks, meaning no single

company controls it
• Cryptocurrency & Smart Contracts - Web3 uses cryptocurrencies (Bitcoin, Ethereum, etc.) for
payments instead of banks. Smart contracts are self-executing agreements that run on the
blockchain without the need for a middleman.
• Privacy & Data Ownership - In Web3, users have full control over their personal data and identity.
BLOCKCHAIN TECHNOLOGY

It was first outlined in 1991 by Stuart Haber and W. Scott Stornetta, two researchers who wanted to
implement a system where document timestamps could not be tampered with.

What is Cryptocurrency?

• A digital asset that operates on a blockchain.

• Not controlled by any central authority (e.g., Bitcoin, Ethereum).

Role of Blockchain in Cryptocurrency

• Ensures secure, transparent, and decentralized transactions.

• Protects against fraud & counterfeiting.

There are problems with bank transactions, such as Technical Issues, Hacking ,Transfer Limits, and Higher
Transfer Fees. To solve these, the concept of cryptocurrency come into existence.

Example of Blockchain:

Bitcoin by Satoshi Nakamoto, a cryptocurrency that uses blockchain to maintain a transparent

and secure transaction record.

OTHER TERMINOLOGIES

• Block – A collection of transactions.

• Hash – A unique digital fingerprint for each block.
• Nodes – Computers that maintain the blockchain network.
• Consensus Mechanism – The method used to validate transactions.
• Smart Contracts – Self-executing contracts stored on the blockchain.
• Public vs. Private Blockchain – Open networks vs. permissioned networks.

HOW BLOCKCHAIN WORKS?

Blockchain works by verifying and adding transactions to a digital ledger. Transactions are grouped
into blocks, which are validated through consensus mechanisms before being added to the chain. Each
block is linked to the previous one, making it immutable.
PROS OF BLOCKCHAIN

• Improved accuracy by removing human involvement in verification

• Cost reductions by eliminating third-party verification
• Decentralization makes it harder to tamper with
• Transactions are secure, private, and efficient
• Transparent technology
• Provides a banking alternative and a way to secure personal information for citizens of countries
with unstable or underdeveloped governments

CONS OF BLOCKCHAIN

• Significant technology cost associated with some blockchains

• Low number of transactions per second
• History of use in illicit activities, such as on the dark web
• Regulation varies by jurisdiction and remains uncertain
• Data storage limitations

REAL-LIFE APPLICATIONS OF BLOCKCHAIN

Finance & Banking – Faster cross-border payments (Ripple, DeFi).

Supply Chain – Transparent product tracking (IBM Food Trust).

Healthcare – Secure medical records (Estonia’s e-Health system).

Entertainment – NFT ownership & royalties (OpenSea).

Cybersecurity – Fraud prevention (Chainalysis).

BLOCKCHAIN AND THE EVOLUTION OF THE INTERNET

WEB 1.0 - Read-only internet.

WEB 2.0 - Interactive & social web (Google, Facebook).

WEB 3.0 - Blockchain-powered decentralized web (Ethereum, DAOs).

Impact:

• Users own their data instead of corporations.

• Decentralized finance (DeFi) replaces traditional banking.
BLOCKCHAIN IN BUSINESS, INNOVATION & GOVERNMENT

• In Business: Fraud prevention & secure contracts (Walmart, JPMorgan).

• In Innovation: Digital art & metaverse (NFTs & virtual real estate).
• In Government: Blockchain-based voting systems for election transparency. Land & property
records securely stored on blockchain (Dubai, Sweden).
INTRODUCTION TO INTERNET

INTERNET

The Internet is the global system of interconnected computer networks that uses the Internet
protocol suite to communicate between networks and devices. It is a network of networks that consists of
private, public, academic, business, and government networks of local to global scope, linked by a broad
array of electronic, wireless, and optical networking technologies.

History of Internet

• 1962 - a scientist J.C.R Licklider proposed the idea of networks of computers that could talk to one
another.
• 1969 - first ever message was sent to one computer to another computer through the ARPANET
(Advanced Research Project Agency Network).
• 1971 - Ray Tomlinson created the electronic mail, or e-mail between the users of ARPANET. @
symbol were created along this year, it is for them to tell the person’s name and the host name.
• 1991 - Tim Berners-Lee invented World Wide Web, where it all began. It is an entire network
information that was accessible to anyone with an internet connection.
• 1992 - there’s an internet browser called Erwise, which is the first to have a graphic interface. The
following year, 1993, Mosaic was created and popularized surfing the web and influence many of
the web browsers.

HOW THE INTERNET WORKS

There are two main concepts that are fundamental to the way the Internet functions: packets and
protocols.

In networking, a packet is a small segment of a larger message. Each packet contains both data
and information about that data. The information about the packet's contents is known as the "header, "
and it goes at the front of the packet so that the receiving machine knows what to do with the packet

Protocols Connecting two computers, both of which may use different hardware and run different
software, is one of the main challenges that the creators of the Internet had to solve. It requires the use of
communications techniques that are understandable by all connected computers, just as two people who
grew up in different parts of the world may need to speak a common language to understand each other.

What Is an Internet Service Provider (ISP)?

An Internet service provider (ISP) is any company that provides Internet access to consumers and
businesses. The Internet is provided through a variety of channels, including cable, DSL, fiber optics, dial-
up, and wireless, with most ISPs offering all options. Most large telecommunication companies, such as
mobile and cable companies, are ISPs.

What Are Different Types of ISPs?

The two main types of ISPs are cable or DSL. Cable connections are used by multiple neighbors,
which can affect the cable access speed. Telephone service providers offer DSL connections, which
connect a DSL router to a phone jack or phone cable.

WORLD WIDE WEB VS. INTERNET

The internet and world wide web go hand in hand. Without web, the internet is much harder to
navigate and without the Internet there is no Web. But they’re not the same thing.

INTERNET WORLD WIDE WEB

DEFINITION A vast global network of A system of information and
computers that allows devices websites that can be accessed
to communicate with each over the Internet using browsers.
other.
PURPOSE Provides the infrastructure for Enables users to access and
communication, including interact with websites, watch
emails, messaging apps, video videos, read articles, and use
calls, and file sharing. online services.
HOW THEY WORK Uses a system of networks, Made up of websites, web
cables, and wireless pages, hyperlinks, and web
connections to transfer data. applications
KEY COMPONENTS Includes servers, routers, Made up of websites, web
satellites, and communication pages, hyperlinks, and web
protocols (like TCP/IP). applications.
EXAMPLES Internet Services: Emails Web Services: Websites
(Gmail), Messaging (WhatsApp), (Google, Wikipedia, Facebook)
Cloud Storage (Google Drive), and Web-based applications.
and Streaming (Netflix).

A web browser is a software application that allows users to access and navigate websites on the Web.

Examples of Web Browsers:

• Google Chrome
• Mozilla Firefox
• Microsoft Edge
• Safari
• Opera
Functions of a Web Browser:

✓ Loads and displays websites using web addresses (URLs).

✓ Supports multiple tabs for browsing different sites at once.
✓ Allows bookmarking for easy access to favorite pages.
✓ Manages cookies, cache, and browsing history.

A search engine is a website that helps users find information on the Web by indexing and ranking web
pages.

Examples of Search Engines:

• Google
• Bing
• Yahoo
• DuckDuckGo
• Baidu

Functions of a Search Engine:

✓ Uses keywords to find relevant web pages.

✓ Displays search results in an organized way.
✓ Uses algorithms to rank the most useful pages.
✓ Filters results based on location, images, news, or videos.

INTERNET PROTOCOLS AND SERVICES

HTTP (Hypertext Transfer Protocol HTTP)

an application-layer protocol for transmitting hypermedia documents, such as HTML. It was

designed for communication between web browsers and web servers, but it can also be used for other
purposes, such as machine-to-machine communication, programmatic access to APIs, and more.

HTTPS (Hypertext transfer protocol secure)

the secure version of HTTP, which is the primary protocol used to send data between a web browser
and a website. HTTPS is encrypted in order to increase the security of data transfer. This is particularly
important when users transmit sensitive data, such as by logging into a bank account, email service, or
health insurance provider.

INTERNET APPLICATION
 The Internet is a powerful tool that has revolutionized the way we communicate, do business, and
manage data. In this discussion, we will explore six key Internet applications that are widely used in
personal, professional, and commercial activities.

1. Communication Applications

A. Email – The Foundation of Online Communication

• Email has been around since the early days of the Internet and remains a primary mode of
communication.
• It is used in business, education, and personal interactions for sending messages, documents, and
formal correspondence.
• Example: Businesses use Gmail and Outlook to communicate with employees and clients.

B. Social Media – Connecting People Globally

• Social media platforms allow users to share thoughts, news, and multimedia instantly.
• It is used for networking, entertainment, marketing, and even activism.
• Example: Businesses use Facebook and Instagram for promotions, while professionals network on
LinkedIn.

C. Messaging Apps – Instant & Convenient Conversations

• Unlike emails, messaging apps provide real-time communication through text, voice, and video.
• Features like group chats, stickers, and encryption make these apps user-friendly and secure.
• Example: WhatsApp and Telegram are widely used for personal and business communication.

2. Business & Financial Applications

A. E-Commerce – Shopping Without Borders

• E-commerce enables people to buy and sell goods online, making shopping more accessible.
• Platforms like Amazon, Shopee, and Lazada provide a variety of products at competitive prices.
• Digital payment methods make transactions secure and convenient.

B. Online Banking – The Digital Revolution in Finance

• Online banking allows customers to manage accounts, transfer money, and pay bills without
visiting a bank.
• Mobile banking apps provide 24/7 access to financial services.
• Example: PayPal and GCash make international and local transactions easier.

C. Cloud Computing – Storing and Accessing Data Anywhere

• Cloud computing allows individuals and businesses to store data online instead of on physical
devices.
 • Companies like Google Drive and Dropbox provide secure, remote access to files.
• It enhances productivity by allowing collaboration in real time.

TYPES OF INTERNET CONNECTION

1. Dial-Up Connection

A dial-up connection is established between your computer and the ISP server using a modem. A
dial-up Connection is a cheap and traditional connection that is not preferred these days as this type of
connection is very slow.

2. Broadband Connection

Broadband refers to high-speed internet access that is faster than traditional dial-up access. It is
provided through either cable or telephone composition. It does not require any telephone connection
that’s why here we can use telephone and internet connection simultaneously. In this connection, more
than one person can access the internet connection simultaneously.

3. DSL (Digital Subscriber Line)

• It provides an internet connection through the telephone line(network). DSL is a form of

broadband communication that is always on, there is no need to dial a phone number to
connect.
• DSL connection uses a router to transport data and the speed of this connection range between
128k to 8Mbps depending on the service offered.
• A DSL connection can translate data at 5 million bytes per second, or 5mbps

4. Cable

It is a form of broadband access cable modem that can provide extremely fast access to the
internet. The speed of this connection varies which can be different for uploading data transmission or
downloading.

It uses a cable modem to provide an internet connection and operates over cable TV lines. The
speed of cable connection ranges from 512k to 20Mbps.h

5. Wireless Connection

As the name suggests wireless connection does not use telephone lines or cables to connect to the
internet. The wireless connection uses a radio frequency band to connect to the internet. It is also an
always-on connection and this connection can be accessed from anywhere and speed may vary for
different locations. It ranges from 5Mbps to 20Mbps.

Mobile networks (3G, 4G, 5G)

• 3G (Third Generation)

3G was introduced in the early 2000s and provided data speeds of up to 2 Mbps. This technology
enabled mobile internet access, video calls, and multimedia messaging. It made web browsing and email
more accessible on mobile devices.

• 4G (Fourth Generation)

4G was launched in the late 2000s to early 2010s, significantly improving internet speeds up to 1
Gbps. This technology supported HD video streaming, online gaming, and better voice quality through
Voice over LTE (VoLTE). It introduced LTE and LTE-Advanced as standard network technologies, enhancing
overall mobile connectivity.

• 5G (Fifth Generation)

5G started rolling out in the late 2010s, offering speeds of up to 10 Gbps with ultra-low latency. It is
designed to support real-time applications like autonomous vehicles, smart cities, and advanced IoT
networks. 5G also improves network capacity, making it ideal for high-demand applications and large-
scale device connectivity.

Private and Public Network

A private network is exclusive to a specific individual or organization, meaning the general public
cannot access it. These networks typically use dedicated servers and equipment. They may be set up to
facilitate internal communications, safeguard sensitive data, or accelerate specific organizational
processes.

A public network refers to any network that is open and accessible to the general public, i.e.,
anyone and everyone. These networks are typically unsecured, meaning users don’t have to input a
password or authorization to connect. Examples include public Wi-Fi hotspots at coffee shops, airports,
and hotels.

INTERNET HARDWARES AND INFRASTRUCTURE

A. Routers

Router is a networking device that forwards data packets between computer networks. One or more
packet-switched networks or subnetworks can be connected using a router. By sending data packets to
their intended IP addresses, it manages traffic between different networks and permits several devices to
share an Internet connection.

• Broadband Routers: These are one of the important kinds of routers. It is used to do different types
of things. it is used to connect computers or it is also used to connect to the internet.
• Wireless routers: These routers are used to create a wireless signal in your office or home.
• Wired Routers: Wired Router is used to connects multiple wired devices using an Ethernet cable,
It takes the transmission data from the modem and distribute it to a further network, it is widely
used in schools and small offices.
• Virtual Router: They are implemented using a software on the virtual machine and they are more
flexible and scalable.

B. Undersea Cables

also known as “Submarine Communication” they are used for power transmission to oil rigs, carry
power generated from offshore wind farms to power stations, and create inter-country and island
connections. Submarine communication cables carry around 90% of the world’s cross-continent data
traffic.

C. Data Center

a physical room, building or facility that houses IT infrastructure for building, running and delivering
applications and services. It also stores and manages the data associated with those applications and
services

D. Satellite Internet

a wireless connection created by signals transmitted between a satellite and an antenna (or dish)
on a home or business. Unlike land-based internet services such as fiber, cable, or DSL, it doesn’t rely on
wires to transmit data

SOCIAL MEDIA AND DIGITAL COMMUNICATION

Social media and digital communication encompass the use of online platforms and technologies
to share information, ideas, and messages, including text, images, and videos, fostering virtual
communities and interactions.

A. Evolution of social networking

• The evolution of social media has been fueled by the human impulse to communicate and by
advances in digital technology. It is a story about establishing and nurturing personal connect scale.

B. Instant messaging and video conferencing

• Digital communication has changed the modern business environment. We already covered email
communications, but sometimes you may need to communicate over the phone or video
 conference. A video conferencing application like Zoom, Teams, Skype, or Google Meet is a great
way to speak in real time even though you are in different locations.
• Other times you may want to communicate with someone in a manner that is shorter and more
immediate than email. In your personal group of family and friends, you would typically send a text
message in this case. In the business world, you may want to use an instant messaging application
to send a message.

C. The impact of social media on society

• Social media wields cultural influence on fashion and food trends, family and adolescent health
issues, world news and local events, political and community action events. Social media has
spawned a new type of marketing through the use of a unique, virtual public personality
• Social media has become a complex phenomenon because it is much more than individuals
exchanging words. Social media sites the venues where communications happen are controlled by
their platform owners.

ETHICAL AND LEGAL ISSUES ON INTERNET

The internet has transformed communication, commerce, and information sharing globally.
However, it also presents numerous ethical and legal challenges.

Cybercrime refers to illegal activities carried out via the internet that can harm individuals, organizations,
or governments.

1. Hacking - Unauthorized access to systems to steal, manipulate, or destroy data.

2 types of Hacking

• Ethical hacking is conducted to identify and fix security vulnerabilities.

• Malicious hacking is done with the intent to exploit systems.

Prevention methods: Implement firewalls, use data encryption, and keep security systems updated
regularly.

2. Identify Theft

Identity theft is a type of cybercrime where someone illegally obtains and uses another person’s
personal information without permission, typically for financial gain or to commit fraud.

• Examples include stealing credit card information, social security numbers, or login credentials.
• Prevention tips: use strong passwords, avoid sharing personal information online, and monitor
financial statements regularly.
3. Online Scams and Fraud

involve the use of deceptive strategies by scammers to illegally obtain personal information or
money from victims. This includes:

• Phishing: Sending fake emails designed to trick individuals into revealing sensitive information.
• Lottery Scams: Claiming the victim has won a prize to persuade them to share personal details or
pay a fee.
• Fake Online Shopping Websites: Creating fraudulent sites to sell non-existent products and
collect payment information.

ETHICAL USE OF AI AND BIG DATA

involves applying these technologies responsibly, ensuring they are used in ways that respect
human rights, promote fairness, and avoid causing harm

• Transparency
• Privacy and Data Protection
• Fairness and Non-Discrimination
• Accountability
• Security
• Social and Environmental Responsibility

FUTURE OF INTERNET

• 5G and faster connectivity - a kind of network that is designed to be fast and enables to connect
everyone together. The faster the network, the more efficient it brings.
• Internet of Things - refers to a network of physical devices, vehicles, appliances, and other physical
objects that are embedded with sensors, software, and network connectivity, allowing them to
collect and share data. Ex. Wearable devices, smart appliances, and transportation (connected to
internet).
• Artificial Intelligence and automation - AI uses algorithms and data to simulate human
intelligence, enabling machines to perform tasks such as pattern recognition, natural language
processing, and decision-making. Automation allows repetitive tasks to be done without human
intervention.
• The role of Metaverse - Metaverse is a virtual, interconnected universe where individuals can
seamlessly work, play and socialize. The importance of the metaverse lies in its potential to redefine
the way we live, work and connect. It fosters unprecedented levels of collaboration and connectivity
by breaking down geographical barriers. Ex. Virtual Reality Headset, Pokemon Go, Roblox, and etc.
Introduction to Internet

Internet

A global system of interconnected computer networks that use the standard Internet protocol suite
(TCP/IP) to serve billions of users worldwide. It is a network of networks that consists of millions of private,
public, academic, business, and government networks, of local to global scope, that are linked by a broad
array of electronic, wireless and optical networking technologies.

The Internet carries a vast range of information resources and services, such as the inter-linked
hypertext documents of the World Wide Web (WWW) and the infrastructure to support electronic mail.

Basic Structure

• Servers - a powerful computer or system that stores, processes, and serves data or resources to
clients over the internet or a network.
• Clients - refers to any device or software that requests data or services from another device on the
network.
• Data Packets - The internet doesn't transfer data in large chunks but breaks it down into data
packets. These are small units of data that contain part of the overall message you’re sending or
receiving.
• Internet Service Providers (ISPs) - a company that provides the infrastructure to access the
internet, like AT&T, Comcast, or Vodafone. ISPs connect homes, businesses, and data centers to
the larger internet.
• IP Address - Internet Protocol (IP) address is the unique identifying number assigned to every device
connected to the internet.
• Domain Names - the text that a user types into a browser window to reach a particular website.
• Domain Name System - is a naming database in which internet domain names are located and
translated into Internet Protocol (IP) addresses. The domain name system maps the name people
use to locate a website to the IP address that a computer uses to locate that website.
• HTTP and HTTPS - Hypertext Transfer Protocol and Hypertext Transfer Protocol Secure are
protocols used for transferring website data.

• TCP and IP - Transmission Control Protocol and Internet Protocol are a suite of protocols that
ensure data is sent and received reliably and correctly.

Web Browsing and Search Engines

 Search engine is a type of software designed to help you find specific information online. Search
results typically appear on what are commonly known as search engine results pages (SERPs). These
pages may display a variety of content including web pages, images, videos, and other file types.

Electronic Mail (Email) - a paperless method of sending messages, notes or letters from one person to
another or even many people at the same time via Internet.

Social Media - an app that can serve as a platforms where users can able to share information, and
connect with virtual communities through text, video, photos, and etc.

Cloud Computing - refers to the use of hosted services, such as data storage, servers, databases,
networking, and software over the internet. The data is stored on physical servers, which are maintained
by a cloud service provider.

Online Communication - This is where users interact with each other through texts, calls, video calls,
group chats, personal message, and etc. This is perfect for online set up and when other users’ is far away.

World Wide Web (WWW)

• A system of interconnected documents and multimedia content accessible via the Internet.
• Invented by Tim Berners-Lee in 1989.
• Operates on a client-server model where web browsers (clients) request and receive data (server).
• Primarily focused on delivering and displaying hypertext documents and multimedia.
• Requires a web browser to navigate and access web pages using URLs.
• Primarily uses HTTP/HTTPS for accessing and transferring web content.
• A service and application layer that operates on the Internet.

Internet

• A global network of interconnected computers that communicate with each other.

• The concept of the Internet emerged in the 1960s.
• Consists of a vast network infrastructure including routers, cables, and data centers.
• Enables a wide range of digital communications, including the Web, email, FTP, and VoIP.
• Provides the foundational connectivity that allows various networked services, including browsing.
• Uses a suite of protocols, notably TCP/IP, for general data transmission.
• The underlying infrastructure and network that connects computers globally.

Importance of Browsers

• Web browsers are the primary tools for navigating the internet, enabling users to visit websites, view
web pages, and interact with online content.
 • They provide a user-friendly interface with features like address bars, back/forward buttons, tabs,
and bookmarks for easy navigation and management of web pages.
• Browsers offer various customization options, such as bookmarks, extensions, and themes,
allowing users to personalize their browsing experience.

Risks & Challenges

• Cybersecurity Threats - Hacking, phishing, and malware are the common types of cyber-attacks.
This can happen when someone is trying to get your personal or organizational data unauthorized.
Phishing where when you click links that requires you to put your sensitive information. And
malware cause your computers servers, clients, or computer networks to be harm or damage.
• Privacy Concerns - Entering and clicking to get access on specific networks or websites might
cause concerns about data privacy. As connecting to networks allow the threats or attacks to occur.
Reminder to be careful and mindful of what you connect and click.
• Misinformation and Fake news - Many people uses internet now. They tend to create a fake news
and post it online. And as a user of the Internet, we must know how to differentiate real information
to false information. Learn to fact check and use internet correctly.
• Digital divide - Digital divide is the gap between people who have access to modern information
coming from the technologies and internet, and those who don't. This creates disadvantage from
people who don't, as it hinders them the access to information, jobs opportunity, and social
isolation.