I / II SEMESTER (22CHES12/22)

DAYANANDA SAGAR COLLEGE OF ENGINEERING

Accredited by National Assessment & Accreditation Council (NAAC) with ’A’ Grade
(An Autonomous Institution affiliated to Visvesvaraya Technological University, Belagavi &
ISO 9001:2015 Certified)

DEPARTMENT OF CHEMISTRY
SHAVIGE MALLESWARA HILLS, KUMARASWAMY LAYOUT
BENGALURU-560111

2022-23
 Dayananda Sagar College of Engineering
Department of Chemistry

Module 2:

Polymers and Green energy

Polymers
A polymer is a large molecule, or macromolecule, composed of many repeated subunits.
The term "polymer" derived from the ancient Greek word polus, meaning "many, much"
and meros, meaning "parts, and refers to a molecule whose structure is composed of
multiple repeating units, from which originates a characteristic of high relative molecular
mass and attendant properties. The term was coined in 1833 by Jöns Jacob Berzelius.
Because of their broad range of properties, both synthetic and natural polymers play an
essential and ubiquitous role in everyday life. Polymers range from familiar synthetic
plastics such as polystyrene to natural biopolymers such as DNA and proteins that are
fundamental to biological structure and function. Polymers, both natural and synthetic,
are created via polymerization of many small molecules, known as monomers. Their
consequently large molecular mass relative to small molecule compounds produces
unique physical properties, including toughness, viscoelasticity, and a tendency to form
glasses and semicrystalline structures rather than crystals.

Definition of polymers: A polymer is a large molecule of high molecular weight

obtained by the chemical interaction of many small molecules of low molecular weight of
one or more type. The process of manufacture of a polymer is called the polymerization.

Monomers: Small molecules of low molecular weight, which combine to give a polymer, are
called monomers.
Degree of polymerization: The number of monomers used in the process is called degree of
polymerization.
Functionality: The total number of functional groups or bonding sites present in a monomer
molecule is called the functionality of the monomer.
Polymerization: Is the process of conversion of low molecular weight substances into high
molecular weight substances with or without the elimination of by products such as HCl,
H2O, NH3 etc.
Number Average and Weight Average:
Number Average: The number average molecular weight is defined as the total weight of
polymer divided by the total number of molecules.
Mn¯ =∑niMi
∑ni
(Where n1, n2 etc are number of particles having mass M1, M2 etc.)
That means
Mn¯=n1 M1 + n2 M2 + ------
n1 + n2+ ----
Weight average molecular weight (Mw¯): Molecular weight of each particle is
multiplied by totalweight of this species. These factors are added for allthe size species and
divided by the sum of weights ofall individual sizes.
Mw¯ = ∑niMi2
∑niMi

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That means
Mw¯ = n1 M12 + n2 M22 +
n1 M1 + n2 M2 +-----
NUMERICAL PROBLEMS ON POLYMER
1. A polymer sample contains 2, 3 and 4 molecules having molecular weights 2 x 103, 3
x 103 and 4 x 103 respectively. Solve for the number average and weight average molecular
weights of the polymer.
Answer: Mn¯= n1 M1 + n2 M2 + n3 M3
n1 + n2+ n3

= 2( 2x103)+3(3x103)+4(4x104) =3.22 x103

2+3+4

Mw¯ = n1 M12 + n2 M22 + n3 M23

n1 M1 + n2 M2 +n3 M3
=2( 2x103)2+3(3x103)2+4(4x104)2 = 3.41x103
( 2x103)+3(3x103)+4(4x104)
2. A polymer sample has population as follows: 5 molecules of molecular mass each=
2000; 4 molecules of molecular mass each = 3000; 3 molecules of molecular mass each
= 4000. Solve for its number average and weight average molecular weights.
Answer: Mn¯= n1 M1 + n2 M2 + n3 M3
n1 + n2+ n3

=5( 2x103)+4(3x103)+3(4x103) = 2833.3

5+4+3
Mw¯=5( 2x103)2+4(3x103)2+3(4x103)2 = 3058.82
5( 2x103)+4(3x103)+3(4x103)

3. Solve for Mn and Mw of a polymer which consists of 35% molecules having

molecular mass 25000, 35% molecules having molecular mass 20000 and the remaining
molecules having molecular mass 10000.
Answer: Mn¯= n1 M1 + n2 M2 + n3 M3
n1 + n2+ n3
= 35x25000+35x20000+30x10000 = 18750
100

Mw¯ = n1 M12 + n2 M22 + n3 M23

n1 M1 + n2 M2 +n3 M3
= 35x(25000)2+35x(20000)2+30x(10000)2 = 20733
35x25000+35x20000+30x10000
4. Solve for number average and weight average molecular weights of a polymer
consisting of 150 molecules with molecular mass 102g/mol, 200 molecules with
molecular mass 103 g/moland 350 molecules with molecular mass 105g/mol.
Answer: Mn= n1 M1 + n2 M2 + ------
n1 + n2+ -
=150x10 +200x103+350x105
2

150+200+350
=50307

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Mw¯ = n1 M12 + n2 M22 + n3 M23

n1 M1 + n2 M2 +n3 M3
= 150(102)2+200(103)2+350(105)2 = 99395.18
150x102+200x103+350x105

CONDUCTING POLYMERS
Conducting polymers or, more precisely, intrinsically conducting polymers (ICPs) are
organic polymers that conduct electricity. Such compounds may have metallic conductivity
or can be semiconductors. The biggest advantage of conductive polymers is their process
ability, mainly by dispersion. But, like insulating polymers, they are organic materials.
They can offer high electrical conductivity but do not show similar mechanical properties to
other commercially available polymers. The electrical properties can be fine-tuned using the
methods of organic synthesis and by advanced dispersion techniques. Organic polymers
with a highly delocalized pi electron system having electrical conductance of the orderof a
conductor is called conducting polymers.
Requirements for the polymer to be conducting:
1. Presence of delocalized pi electron (conjugation) in the main chain
2. Linearity/Planarity of the molecule
3. Presence of atoms having lone pair of electrons

Synthesis of Polyacetylene
Polyacetylene is the simplest linear synthetic polymer. Fundamental unit consists from one
carbon and one hydrogen atoms, as has been called simply (CH). Each carbon is ϭ bonded by
sp2 hybrid orbital to one hydrogen and two adjacent carbon atoms to form a planar chain
molecule. Polyacetylene is synthesized by catalytic polymerization of acetylene using
Ziegler-Natta catalyst (Et)3Al and titanium(IV) propoxide at 75°C, with a catalyst molar ratio
(Al/Ti) of 2.5.

Synthesis of polyacetylene.

Conducting Mechanism in polyacetylene

Conductivity of pure pollyacetyline is 4.4x10 -5 S/cm> upon doping with oxidizing agents like
iodine conductivity increases to about 400S/cm.When the dopant iodine is added, it take
away an electron from the π-backbone of the polyacetylene chain an creates a positive
center(hole) on one of the carbon atoms. The other π-electron resides on other carbon atom
making it a radical called polaron. Further oxidation leads to the formation of a bipolaron.
Then the radicals migrate and combine to establish a backbone double bond. As the two
electrons are removed, the chain will have twopositive centres (holes). The chain as awhole is
neutral, but holes are mobile and when a potential is applied, they migrate from one carbon to
another accounting for the conductivity as shown below.

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Conducting Mechanism of Polyacetylene.

Before doping, there is sufficient energy gap between VB and CB so the electrons remain in
VB and the polymer acts as an insulator. Upon doping, polarons and solitons are formed
which results in the creation of new localized electronic states that fill the energy gap
between VB and CB. When sufficient solitons are formed, a new mid-gap energy band is
created which overlaps with conduction bands allowing electrons to flow.
Commercial application:
1. As antistatic coating
2. As sensors

Graphene Oxide
Graphene oxide (GO), is a compound of carbon, oxygen, and hydrogen in variable ratios,
obtained by treating graphite with strong oxidizers. Graphene oxide by analogy to graphene is
a single-layer form of graphite having epoxide groups, carbonyl (C=O) and hydroxyl (-OH)
functional groups.

Structure of graphene oxide

Preparation (Modified Hummer’s method of synthesis):
Chemicals required: Graphite Flakes (acid treated 99%), Sodium nitrate (98%), Potassium
permanganate (99%), Hydrogen peroxide (40% wt,), Sulphuric acid (98%), Hydrochloric
acid (35%,). Steps of preparation are as follows:
1. 8g graphite powder and 4g NaNO3 were put into 560 ml concentrated H2SO4 solution
with stirring for 2 hours.

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2. Then 24g KMnO4 was gradually added into the flask with ice bath for 2 hours.
3. The mixture was diluted by 800ml de-ionized water (DI water). After that, 5% H2O2
was added into the solution until the color of the mixture changed to brown,
indicating fully oxidized graphite was obtained.
4. The resulting mixture is washed repeatedly by centrifugation with 10% HCl. The as-
obtained graphite oxide slurry was re-dispersed in DI water. Then, the mixture
washed with DI water to remove the residual acid until the pH was reached to ~7.
5. The resulting mixture is centrifuged and is vacuum dried at 60°C for more than 6 hrs
to GO powder.

Properties:
1. In contrast to graphene having high electrical conductivity (6500 Sm-1 ) GO is an
electrically insulating or semiconducting material having electrical resistivity around 1.64
× 10-4 because of disruption of sp2 bonding orbital of graphene due to presence of oxygen
functionality
2. Low thermal conductivity of 0.5–1 W m−1 K−1 making it not an ideal option for most
applications requiring good thermal properties
3. It is hydrophilic and easily dispersed in water and organic solvents.
4. Functionalization of graphene oxide can change graphene oxide’s properties.
5. High surface area

Applications:
1. Graphene Oxide is used is in the production of transparent conductive films after
being deposited on any substrate. Such coatings could be used in flexible electronics,
liquid crystal devices, chemical sensors, touch screen devices, LEDs
2. GO is used as electrode materials in batteries and double-layered capacitors, as well
as fuel cells and solar cells due to its extremely high surface area.
3. Drug-delivery systems: GO is used as drug delivery systems for anticancer drugs
because it does not target healthy cells, only tumors, and has a low toxicity.
4. As GO is a fluorescent material it is used for bio sensing applications.
5. Although GO shows poor performance in anode materials of Li-ion batteries, they

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have been used in the cathode materials successfully and also in dye-sensitized solar
cells.
6. GO shows good sensing abilities due to active surface and high surface area.
7. Chemically active nature and porous structure of graphene oxide have been utilized
for the enhancement of membrane properties and separation performance.
8. The fluorescent behavior of GO material is used for the optical biosensing
applications to detect different biological molecules, such as cancer biomarkers
glucose, H2O2, dopamine, food toxins, and metal ions.
Green energy: Introduction
Solar energy is an essential source of renewable energy. Utilization and conversion solar
energy utilization can be of two types
1. Direct solar power.
2. Indirect solar power.

Direct Solar Power: Direct solar power involves only one step transformation into a usable
form.
Example 1. Photovoltaic cells: It convert solar energy to electrical energy.
Example 2. Solar Thermal collector. Sunlight hits the dark absorber surfaces of a solar
thermal collector and surface warms the heat energy may be carried away by a fluid circuit.
Indirect solar power: Indirect solar power involves more than one transformation to reach
usable form.
Example, (i) plants convert solar energy to chemical energy when they are burnt.
(ii) Fossils fuels are obtained from plants which produce heat energy that can later be
burned as fuel to generate electricity.
(iii) Ocean thermal energy production uses the thermal gradient that is present across ocean
depths to generate power. This temperature difference is ultimately due to the energy of the
sun.
Photovoltaic cells
Photo-voltaic cells: Photovoltaic cells or solar cells are semiconductor devices that convert
sunlight into direct current. As long as light is shining on the solar cell it generates electrical
power. When the light stops electricity stops. Solar cells are generally classified into three
generations depending on time and categories of materials which are used for their
fabrication.
1. The most common solar cells available in the market are the first-generation solar
cells which comprise single and polycrystalline silicon.
2. Second-generation solar cells were introduced as a response to high material usage
and cost of silicon solar cell. To reduce the material usage the maximum film
thickness for this generation was brought down to a few nanometers to tens of
micrometers.
3. Third generation solar cell- dye-sensitized solar cells (DSSCs), perovskite, organic
solar cells, photo chemical cells, QDs,

The operation of a photovoltaic (PV) cell requires three basic attributes:

 The absorption of light, generating excitons (bound electron-hole pairs), unbound
electron-hole pairs (via excitons)

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 The separation of charge carriers of opposite types.

 The separate extraction of those carriers to an external circuit.
The Solar cells or Photovoltaic cells are made out of semiconductors which have the
capacity to absorb light. When n-type and p-type semiconductor are bought together a
semiconductor diode is formed. The semiconductor diode separates and collects the carriers
and conducts the generated electrical current preferentially in a specific direction.

Solar photovoltaic cell-Silicon

Construction
1. A typical silicon photovoltaic cell is composing of a thin wafer consisting of an ultra-thin
layer of Phosphorous doped (n-type) silicon on the top and boron doped (p-type) silicon at
the bottom. Hence a p-n junction is formed between the two.
2. A metallic grid above the diode forms one of the electrical contacts and allows the light
to fall on the semiconductor.
3. The anti-reflexive layer (Silicon nitride or TiO2) present in between the metallic grid
increases the transformation of sunlight to a semiconductor. The other metallic layer at the
back of the semiconductor forms another electrical contact.

Working
The solar cell works on the principle of photoelectric effect which is phenomenon in which
electrically charged particles are released from or within a material when it absorbs
electromagnetic radiation. The effect is often defined as the ejection of electrons from a
metal plate when light falls on it.
Electromagnetic radiation consists of photon. The photon carries a certain amount of
energy. It is given by the Planck Constant equation is E=hc/λ, where h is called Planck
constant C is the velocity of light and λ is wavelength of the radiation.
When light radiation falls on the p-n junction diode, electron – hole pairs are generated by
the absorption of the radiation. The electrons are drifted to and collected at the n-type end
and the holes are drifted to p-type end. When these two ends are electrically connected
through a conductor, there is a flow of current between the two ends through the external
circuit. Thus photoelectric current is produced.

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Fig: Si Solar cell

Advantages of photovoltaic systems

1. High reliability: Photovoltaic systems are still highly reliable even under harsh conditions.
Photovoltaic arrays ensure continuous, uninterrupted operation of critical power supplies.
2. Strong persistence: Most modules in a PV system have a warranty period of up to 25 years
and remain operational even after many years.
3. Low maintenance costs: Photovoltaic systems require only regular inspections and
occasional repairs, which are extremely low cost compared to conventional fuel systems.
4. Zero fuel consumption: Photovoltaic systems do not require fuel and can eliminate
associated procurement, storage and transportation costs.
5. Noise pollution is small: The photovoltaic system can operate quietly with minimal
mechanical movement.

Disadvantages of photovoltaic systems

1. High startup cost: Each PV installation should be economically evaluated and compared to
existing alternatives. At present, the construction cost of photovoltaic systems is relatively
high, but with the reduction of photovoltaic system construction costs and the rise of
traditional energy prices, photovoltaic systems will have strong economic competitiveness.
2. Available solar radiation instability: For any solar system, weather changes will greatly
affect the amount of electrical energy output. Therefore, the system design needs to be
adjusted according to changes in climate and location.
3. Have energy storage requirements: Some photovoltaic systems use batteries as energy
storage devices. This increases the footprint, cost and complexity of the system.
4. Efficiency needs to be improved: In order for PV systems to reflect cost-effectiveness, we
need to use an efficient method to distribute the energy generated during use. However, they
are now often used to power alternative inefficient appliances.

Production of Solar grade silicon (Union carbide method)

The metallurgical grade silicon is treated with dry HCl gas at 3000 C to form trichlorosilane
& a small amount of tetrachlorosilane. The mixture is distilled to get pure trichlorosilane.
Si + 3HCl → HSiCl3
Si + 4HCl → SiCl4 + 2H2
The tetrachloro silane (SiCl4) is reduced with hydrogen at 10000C in a reactor to get tri

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chloro silane (HSiCl3).

SiCl4 + H2 → HSiCl3 + HCl
The tri chloro silane is then passed through fixed bed columns containing quaternary
ammonium ion exchange resins catalysts. The products obtained in the above process are
separated by distillation.
2HSiCl3 → H2SiCl2 + SiCl4
3H2SiCl2 → SiH4 + 2HSiCl3
Tetrachlorosilane & trichlorosilane are again recycled to the hydrogenation reactor & the
exchange resin respectively.
SiH4 → Si + 2H2
Silicon hydride or silane is further purified by distillation & passed into a reactor containing
heated silicon seed rods. Silane gets pyrolysed to form polysilicon (semiconductor grade
silicon)
Purification of Silicon (Zone refining)
The silicon so obtained is melted and made into bricks. It is still not pure. It is purified by
zone refining technique. Zone refining technique is based on the principle that impurities
gets concentrated in the molten zone than in solid phase.
A rod of silicon is clamped vertically and heated by a RF coil (Radio frequency coil) in a
reduced atmosphere. As the molten zone moves down, the impurities also are swept down
with the molten material. When the process is repeated the impurities concentrate at the
bottom portion of the rod. It is cut and removed. The purified silicon rod is polycrystalline
in nature. It is cut into thin wafers, doped suitably to get P-N junction.

Zone refining

Photovoltaic's deal with the conversion of sunlight into electrical energy. Classic photovoltaic
solar cells based on inorganic semiconductors i.e., silicon and today silicon is still the leading
technology on the world market of photovoltaic solar cells, with power conversion
efficiencies approaching 15 – 20% for mono-crystalline devices. An approach for lowering
the manufacturing costs of solar cells is to use organic materials that can be processed under
less demanding conditions. Their solution processability makes them a promising technology
for delivering cheap solar power. They are very strong light absorbers, with a 100 nm or so
thick film capable of absorbing most of the incident light.

Definition: An OSC is a type of photovoltaic that uses conductive organic polymers or small
organic molecules, for light absorption and charge transport to produce electricity from

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sunlight by the photovoltaic effect. Most organic photovoltaic cells are polymer solar cells.

Construction and working of OSC

Construction: These cells are made by sandwiching a layer of organic electronic materials
between two conductive layer of indium tin oxide (ITO) coated glass and and a layer of low
work function metal such as Aluminum, Magnesium or Calcium.

1. A flexible or a glass substrate is coated with ITO (transparent photoanode)

2. Hole transporting layer, poly(3,4-ethylenedioxythiophene) polystyrene sulfonate
(PEDOT:PSS) is applied over the ITO.
3. Active layer consisting of bulk-heterojunction layer of donor, P3HT (poly-3-hexyl
thiophene) polymer and the acceptor, phenyl-C-butyric acid methyl ester (PCBM)
materials is applied using solution processing method
4. A final layer of Al (cathode) is created to establish contact.

Working: Unlike classical p-n junction cells with spatially separated p- and n-type regions of
doped semiconductors, bulk hetero junction cells consist of an intimate mixture of two un-
doped (intrinsic) semiconductors that are mixed and that generate a randomly oriented
interface. Absorbed photons generate a bound, neutral excited state, an exciton. In order to
generate a current from these the exciton must be separated into its constituent electron and
hole and the charges extracted from the device. This is achieved by blending the organic
semiconductor with an electron acceptor.

1. Incident light creates and exciton in the donor material (P3HT) of the active layer.
2. Upon applied voltage, the exciton diffuses between the donor (P3HT) and the
acceptor (PCBM) material as hole and electron, respectively.
3. Hole diffuses from HOMO of polymer towards PEDOT:PSS and then to ITO.
4. Electron diffuses from LUMO of acceptor material (PCBM) towards the Al electrode.
5. Finally, electron from Al travels in the external circuit towards ITO generating
electricity.

Fig: Organic solar cell

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Quantum dots sensitized solar cells (QDSSC’s)

A quantum dot solar cell is mainly the type of cell design which makes use of quantum
dots as the key absorbing photovoltaic material. These solar cells are designed so that they
can increase the maximum thermodynamic conversion efficiency which can be attained by
as much as 66%.
• Quantum dots are a special class of semiconductors, which are nanocrystals, composed of
materials from II-VI, III-V, or IV-VI groups
• The energy band gap increases with a decrease in size of the quantum dot
• The adjustable bandgap of quantum dots allow the construction of nanostructured solar cell
that is able to harvest more of the solar spectrum
• The structure and operation principle of QD sensitized photovoltaic cell is almost identical
to dye sensitized cells

Construction and Working of Quantum dots sensitized solar cells (QDSSC’s)

Fig: (a) Quantum Dots Solar Cells, (b) Energy band diagram.
Construction: These cells are made by sandwiching a layer of photosensitive materials
between two conductive layer of Fluorine-doped Tin Oxide (FTO) coated glass/ flexible
transparent substrate. The subsequent layers are as follows

1. FTO is applied with QD sensitized TiO2 as photoanode

2. Electrolyte
3. Pt or graphite coated FTO- counter electrode or cathode

Working Principle
Upon absorption of a photon, a quantum dot is excited from the ground state (QD S) to a
higher energy state (QDS*).
Excitation process: QDS + hν→ QDS*
The absorption process results in the creation of electron-hole pair in the form of exciton.
Dissociation of the exciton occurs if the thermal energy exceeds its binding energy
Exciton dissociation: QDS*→ e-* + h+* (free carriers)
The excited electron is then injected in the conduction band of the wide bandgap
semiconductor nanostructured TiO2 thin film. This process will cause the oxidation of the

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photosensitizer (The QDs).

Injection process: QDS* + TiO2→ TiO2(e-*) + 𝑄𝐷𝑠+
The injected electron is transported between the TiO2 nanoparticles, and then gets extracted
to a load where the work done is delivered as electrical energy
Energy generation: TiO2(e-*) + C.E.→ TiO2 + e-* (C.E.)+ electrical energy
Properties: Quantum dots sensitized solar cells have

1. Thermal and moisture stability.

2. Facile tunable absorption range.
3. High absorption coefficient
4. Good photostability.

Applications
Compared to conventional solar cells QDSSC development have shown that higher-power
conversion efficiency and hence can be used for solar to electrical energy conversion.

Hydrogen energy

Hydrogen is considered an alternative fuel under the Energy Policy Act of 1992. The interest
in hydrogen as an alternative transportation fuel stems from its ability to power fuel cells in
zero-emission vehicles, its potential for domestic production, and the fuel cell's fast filling
time and high efficiency. Hydrogen fuel is a zero carbon fuel burned with oxygen; provided it
is created in a zero carbon way. It can be used in fuel cells or internal combustion engines.
Regarding hydrogen vehicles, hydrogen has begun to be used in commercial fuel cell
vehicles, such as passenger cars, and has been used in fuel cell buses for many years. It is
also used as a fuel for spacecraft propulsion. In the early 2020s, most hydrogen is produced
by steam methane reforming of fossil gas. Only a small quantity is made by alternative routes
such as biomass gasification or electrolysis of water or solar thermochemistry.
Types of hydrogen fuel: It takes energy to produce molecular hydrogen. The source of
energy and the production method used to make molecular hydrogen determines whether
it’s classified as grey hydrogen, blue hydrogen or green hydrogen.

Grey hydrogen
Grey hydrogen is hydrogen produced using fossil fuels such as natural gas or coal. Grey

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hydrogen accounts for roughly 95% of the hydrogen produced in the world today. The two
main production methods are steam methane reforming and coal gasification. Both of these
processes release CO2. If the carbon dioxide is released into the atmosphere, then the
hydrogen produced is referred to as grey hydrogen. Grey hydrogen is not considered a low-
carbon fuel.
Blue hydrogen
Blue hydrogen is similar to grey hydrogen, except that most of the CO 2 emissions are
sequestered (stored in the ground) using carbon capture and storage (CCS). Capturing and
storing the carbon dioxide instead of releasing it into the atmosphere allows blue hydrogen
to be a low-carbon fuel. The two main production methods are steam methane reforming
and coal gasification, both with carbon capture and storage. Blue hydrogen is a cleaner
alternative to grey hydrogen, but is expensive since carbon capture technology is used.
Green hydrogen
Green hydrogen is hydrogen produced using electricity from clean energy sources. Green
hydrogen is considered low or zero-emission hydrogen because it uses energy sources such
as wind and solar which don’t release greenhouse gases when generating electricity. Green
hydrogen is made when water (H2O) is split into hydrogen (H2) and oxygen (O2). Water
splitting is also known as electrolysis, and requires an energy input. The method of
supplying electricity to split water is an expensive process, but much more
environmentally-friendly compared to the production of grey hydrogen.
Advantage:
1. Renewable and Readily Available
2. Hydrogen fuel cells do not produce any CO2 emissions
3. The refuelling process for hydrogen fuel cells is easy and takes about three
minutes
4. The energy density of hydrogen fuel cells is very high
Disadvantage:
1. It is expensive
2. Highly Flammable
3. Storage and transportation of hydrogen is more complex
4. This hydrogen production process is costly and emits carbon dioxide

Application: Hydrogen fuel cells can be used in a wide range of applications, including
transportation, material handling and stationary, portable, and emergency backup power.

Methods of production of hydrogen: There are several ways to produce hydrogen:

1. Natural Gas Reforming/Gasification: Synthesis is created by reacting natural gas with

high-temperature steam. The carbon monoxide is reacted with water to produce additional
hydrogen. This method is the cheapest, most efficient, and most common. The process
called gasification is created by reacting coal or biomass with high-temperature steam and
oxygen in a pressurized gasifier.
2. Electrolysis: An electric current splits water into hydrogen and oxygen. If the electricity is
produced by renewable sources, such as solar or wind, the resulting hydrogen will be

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considered renewable as well, and has numerous emissions benefits.

3. Fermentation: Biomass is converted into sugar-rich feedstocks that can be fermented to
produce hydrogen. Several hydrogen production methods are in development stage:
4. High-Temperature Water Splitting: High temperatures generated by solar concentrators
or nuclear reactors drive chemical reactions that split water to produce hydrogen.
5. Photobiological Water Splitting: Microbes, such as green algae, consume water in the
presence of sunlight and produce hydrogen as a by-product.
6. Photoelectrochemical Water Splitting: Photoelectrochemical systems produce hydrogen
from water using special semiconductors and energy from sunlight.

Generation of energy (green hydrogen) Electrolytic processes

Electrolysis of water is the process of using electricity to decompose
water into oxygen and hydrogen gas by a process called electrolysis. Hydrogen gas released
in this way can be used as hydrogen fuel.
Construction:
 The electrode materials often used are based on nickel because of its low cost, high
activity
 Concentrated solutions of potassium hydroxide are generally used as the electrolytic
solution because they have very high conductivities and fewer corrosion problems
compared with other alkaline electrolytes.
 protons exchange membrane (PEM)

Fig: Electrolytic processes

Working:

Advantage
1. Renewable and Readily Available
2. Hydrogen fuel cells do not produce any CO2 emissions
3. The refuelling process for hydrogen fuel cells is easy and takes about three
minutes

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4. the energy density of hydrogen fuel cells is very high

Disadvantage:
1. It is expensive
2. Highly Flammable
3. Storage and transportation of hydrogen is more complex

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