Perpendicular

In geometry, two geometric objects are perpendicular if their

intersection forms right angles (angles that are 90 degrees or π/2
radians wide) at the point of intersection called a foot. The
condition of perpendicularity may be represented graphically
using the perpendicular symbol, ⟂. Perpendicular intersections
can happen between two lines (or two line segments), between a
line and a plane, and between two planes.

Perpendicularity is one particular instance of the more general

The segment AB is perpendicular to
mathematical concept of orthogonality; perpendicularity is the
the segment CD because the two
orthogonality of classical geometric objects. Thus, in advanced angles it creates (indicated in orange
mathematics, the word "perpendicular" is sometimes used to and blue) are each 90 degrees. The
describe much more complicated geometric orthogonality segment AB can be called the
conditions, such as that between a surface and its normal vector. perpendicular from A to the segment
CD, using "perpendicular" as a noun.
A line is said to be perpendicular to another line if the two lines The point B is called the foot of the
intersect at a right angle.[2] Explicitly, a first line is perpendicular from A to segment CD,
perpendicular to a second line if (1) the two lines meet; and (2) or simply, the foot of A on CD.[1]

at the point of intersection the straight angle on one side of the

first line is cut by the second line into two congruent angles. Perpendicularity can be shown to be
symmetric, meaning if a first line is perpendicular to a second line, then the second line is also
perpendicular to the first. For this reason, we may speak of two lines as being perpendicular (to each
other) without specifying an order. A great example of perpendicularity can be seen in any compass, note
the cardinal points; North, East, South, West (NESW) The line N-S is perpendicular to the line W-E and
the angles N-E, E-S, S-W and W-N are all 90° to one another.

Perpendicularity easily extends to segments and rays. For example, a line segment is perpendicular
to a line segment if, when each is extended in both directions to form an infinite line, these two
resulting lines are perpendicular in the sense above. In symbols, means line segment AB is
perpendicular to line segment CD.[3]

A line is said to be perpendicular to a plane if it is perpendicular to every line in the plane that it
intersects. This definition depends on the definition of perpendicularity between lines.

Two planes in space are said to be perpendicular if the dihedral angle at which they meet is a right angle.

Foot of a perpendicular
The word foot is frequently used in connection with perpendiculars. This usage is exemplified in the top
diagram, above, and its caption. The diagram can be in any orientation. The foot is not necessarily at the
bottom.
More precisely, let A be a point and m a line. If B is the point of intersection of m and the unique line
through A that is perpendicular to m, then B is called the foot of this perpendicular through A.

Construction of the perpendicular

Construction of the perpendicular Construction of the perpendicular to the

(blue) to the line AB through the point half-line h from the point P (applicable not
P. only at the end point A, M is freely
selectable), animation at the end with
pause 10 s

To make the perpendicular to the line AB through the point P using compass-and-straightedge
construction, proceed as follows (see figure left):

Step 1 (red): construct a circle with center at P to create points A' and B' on the line AB,
which are equidistant from P.
Step 2 (green): construct circles centered at A' and B' having equal radius. Let Q and P be
the points of intersection of these two circles.
Step 3 (blue): connect Q and P to construct the desired perpendicular PQ.
To prove that the PQ is perpendicular to AB, use the SSS congruence theorem for QPA' and QPB' to
conclude that angles OPA' and OPB' are equal. Then use the SAS congruence theorem for triangles OPA'
and OPB' to conclude that angles POA and POB are equal.

To make the perpendicular to the line g at or through the point P using Thales's theorem, see the
animation at right.

The Pythagorean theorem can be used as the basis of methods of constructing right angles. For example,
by counting links, three pieces of chain can be made with lengths in the ratio 3:4:5. These can be laid out
to form a triangle, which will have a right angle opposite its longest side. This method is useful for laying
out gardens and fields, where the dimensions are large, and great accuracy is not needed. The chains can
be used repeatedly whenever required.

In relationship to parallel lines

If two lines (a and b) are both perpendicular to a third line (c),
all of the angles formed along the third line are right angles.
Therefore, in Euclidean geometry, any two lines that are both
perpendicular to a third line are parallel to each other, because
of the parallel postulate. Conversely, if one line is perpendicular
to a second line, it is also perpendicular to any line parallel to
that second line.

In the figure at the right, all of the orange-shaded angles are

congruent to each other and all of the green-shaded angles are
congruent to each other, because vertical angles are congruent
and alternate interior angles formed by a transversal cutting
parallel lines are congruent. Therefore, if lines a and b are
parallel, any of the following conclusions leads to all of the
others:

One of the angles in the diagram is a right angle.

The arrowhead marks indicate that the
One of the orange-shaded angles is congruent to one lines a and b, cut by the transversal
of the green-shaded angles. line c, are parallel.
Line c is perpendicular to line a.
Line c is perpendicular to line b.
All four angles are equal.

In computing distances
In geometry, the perpendicular distance between two objects is the distance from one to the other,
measured along a line that is perpendicular to one or both.

The distance from a point to a line is the distance to the nearest point on that line. That is the point at
which a segment from it to the given point is perpendicular to the line.

Likewise, the distance from a point to a curve is measured by a line segment that is perpendicular to a
tangent line to the curve at the nearest point on the curve.

The distance from a point to a plane is measured as the length from the point along a segment that is
perpendicular to the plane, meaning that it is perpendicular to all lines in the plane that pass through the
nearest point in the plane to the given point.

Other instances include:

Point on plane closest to origin, for the perpendicular distance from the origin to a plane in
three-dimensional space
Nearest distance between skew lines, for the perpendicular distance between two non-
parallel lines in three-dimensional space
Perpendicular regression fits a line to data points by minimizing the sum of squared perpendicular
distances from the data points to the line. Other geometric curve fitting methods using perpendicular
distance to measure the quality of a fit exist, as in total least squares.
The concept of perpendicular distance may be generalized to

orthogonal distance, between more abstract non-geometric orthogonal objects, as in linear

algebra (e.g., principal components analysis);
normal distance, involving a surface normal, between an arbitrary point and its foot on the
surface. It can be used for surface fitting and for defining offset surfaces.

Graph of functions
In the two-dimensional plane, right angles can be formed by two
intersected lines if the product of their slopes equals −1. Thus for
two linear functions and ,
the graphs of the functions will be perpendicular if

The dot product of vectors can be also used to obtain the same
result: First, shift coordinates so that the origin is situated where the
lines cross. Then define two displacements along each line, , for
Now, use the fact that the inner product vanishes for
perpendicular vectors: Two perpendicular lines have
slopes m1 = Δy1/Δx1 and
m2 = Δy2/Δx2 satisfying the
relationship m1m2 = −1.

(unless or vanishes.)

Both proofs are valid for horizontal and vertical lines to the extent that we can let one slope be , and take
the limit that If one slope goes to zero, the other goes to infinity.

In circles and other conics

Circles
Each diameter of a circle is perpendicular to the tangent line to that circle at the point where the diameter
intersects the circle.

A line segment through a circle's center bisecting a chord is perpendicular to the chord.

If the intersection of any two perpendicular chords divides one chord into lengths a and b and divides the
other chord into lengths c and d, then a2 + b2 + c2 + d2 equals the square of the diameter.[4]

The sum of the squared lengths of any two perpendicular chords intersecting at a given point is the same
as that of any other two perpendicular chords intersecting at the same point, and is given by 8r2 – 4p2
(where r is the circle's radius and p is the distance from the center point to the point of intersection).[5]
Thales' theorem states that two lines both through the same point on a circle but going through opposite
endpoints of a diameter are perpendicular. This is equivalent to saying that any diameter of a circle
subtends a right angle at any point on the circle, except the two endpoints of the diameter.

Ellipses
The major and minor axes of an ellipse are perpendicular to each other and to the tangent lines to the
ellipse at the points where the axes intersect the ellipse.

The major axis of an ellipse is perpendicular to the directrix and to each latus rectum.

Parabolas
In a parabola, the axis of symmetry is perpendicular to each of the latus rectum, the directrix, and the
tangent line at the point where the axis intersects the parabola.

From a point on the tangent line to a parabola's vertex, the other tangent line to the parabola is
perpendicular to the line from that point through the parabola's focus.

The orthoptic property of a parabola is that If two tangents to the parabola are perpendicular to each
other, then they intersect on the directrix. Conversely, two tangents which intersect on the directrix are
perpendicular. This implies that, seen from any point on its directrix, any parabola subtends a right angle.

Hyperbolas
The transverse axis of a hyperbola is perpendicular to the conjugate axis and to each directrix.

The product of the perpendicular distances from a point P on a hyperbola or on its conjugate hyperbola to
the asymptotes is a constant independent of the location of P.

A rectangular hyperbola has asymptotes that are perpendicular to each other. It has an eccentricity equal
to

In polygons

Triangles
The legs of a right triangle are perpendicular to each other.

The altitudes of a triangle are perpendicular to their respective bases. The perpendicular bisectors of the
sides also play a prominent role in triangle geometry.

The Euler line of an isosceles triangle is perpendicular to the triangle's base.

The Droz-Farny line theorem concerns a property of two perpendicular lines intersecting at a triangle's
orthocenter.
Harcourt's theorem concerns the relationship of line segments through a vertex and perpendicular to any
line tangent to the triangle's incircle.

Quadrilaterals
In a square or other rectangle, all pairs of adjacent sides are perpendicular. A right trapezoid is a trapezoid
that has two pairs of adjacent sides that are perpendicular.

Each of the four maltitudes of a quadrilateral is a perpendicular to a side through the midpoint of the
opposite side.

An orthodiagonal quadrilateral is a quadrilateral whose diagonals are perpendicular. These include the
square, the rhombus, and the kite. By Brahmagupta's theorem, in an orthodiagonal quadrilateral that is
also cyclic, a line through the midpoint of one side and through the intersection point of the diagonals is
perpendicular to the opposite side.

By van Aubel's theorem, if squares are constructed externally on the sides of a quadrilateral, the line
segments connecting the centers of opposite squares are perpendicular and equal in length.

Lines in three dimensions

Up to three lines in three-dimensional space can be pairwise perpendicular, as exemplified by the x, y,
and z axes of a three-dimensional Cartesian coordinate system.

See also
Orthogonal projection
Tangential and normal components

Notes
1. Kay (1969, p. 114)
2. Kay (1969, p. 91)
3. Kay (1969, p. 91)
4. Posamentier and Salkind, Challenging Problems in Geometry, Dover, 2nd edition, 1996: pp.
104–105, #4–23.
5. College Mathematics Journal 29(4), September 1998, p. 331, problem 635.

References
Altshiller-Court, Nathan (1952) [1st ed. 1925], College Geometry: An Introduction to the
Modern Geometry of the Triangle and the Circle (https://archive.org/details/collegegeometryi
00newy/) (2nd ed.), New York: Barnes & Noble
 Kay, David C. (1969), College Geometry, New York: Holt, Rinehart and Winston, LCCN 69-
12075 (https://lccn.loc.gov/69-12075)

External links
Definition: perpendicular (http://www.mathopenref.com/perpendicular.html) with interactive
animation.
How to draw a perpendicular bisector of a line with compass and straight edge (http://www.
mathopenref.com/constbisectline.html) (animated demonstration).
How to draw a perpendicular at the endpoint of a ray with compass and straight edge (http://
www.mathopenref.com/constperpendray.html) (animated demonstration).

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