Module 1, II part

Transmission Line and compensation

Analysis of uncompensated line: transmission line equations,

performance of a line connected to unity power factor load,
performance of a symmetrical line, passive reactive power
compensation: distributed and discrete power compensation,
compensation by a series capacitor connected at the mid-point of
the line, shunt capacitor compensation connected at the midpoint
of the line, comparison between series and shunt capacitor
compensation
 Prerequisites & Books:
1. Power Electronics
2. Electrical Power Transmission & Distribution
(Power System)
Text and Reference Books

• N. Hingorani. Understanding FACTS. IEEE Press

• K. R. Padiyar. FACTS controllers in power transmission and distribution.
New Age
• R. Mohan Mathur, Rajiv K. Varma. Thyristor-based FACTS controllers for
electrical transmission systems. IEEE and Willey-Interscience
 AC Transmission Line and Reactive Power Compensation
In this Module, the reactive power control in AC power transmission lines is
examined. The requirements are to
(a) transmit as much power as feasible on a line of specified voltage and
(b) to control the voltage along the line within limits.

Analysis of Uncompensated AC Line

1.1 General
A transmission line has distributed circuit parameters. We will be assuming
the line to be symmetric in three phases and operating with balanced (positive
sequence) voltages and currents.

In Fig 1 it is assumed that the sending end is

connected to a generator and the receiving end is
connected to a (unity power factor) load. The line has
series resistance r and inductance l, shunt
conductance g and capacitance c (all parameters
expressed per unit length).
Fig 1: A transmission line supplying a unity
power factor load.
1.2. Transmission Line Equations

Fig 2: Voltage and current variation in a long

line

It is assumed that in steady state all the voltages and currents in the line
are sinusoidal of frequency (!rad/sec) and expressed in phasors.
…………………………………………
Considering a small element of the line of length (dx) at a distance x from the receiving
end, (see Fig. 2) the following equations apply,
I(x + dx) = I(x) + (ydx)V (x + dx) ………………………………(1)
V (x + dx) = V (x) + (zdx)I(x)…………………………………….(2)
where y = g + jb; z = r + jx; b = ωc; x = ωl………………..(3)
It is to be noted that both V and I are phasors that are functions of x. From the above
equations, we get the following difierential equations for V and I.

dV/dx = zI.................................................................(4)
dI/dx = yV.................................................................(5)
Solving equation 1 to 5
V(x) = VR cosh(γx) + IR Zcsinh(γx) ……………………(6)
I(x) = VR /Zc sinh(γx) + IR cosh(γx)…………………..(7)

γ is termed as the propagation constant. α is called the attenuation constant and β is

called the phase constant.

Expresions for a Lossless line

Neglecting r and g, the propagation constant γ is purely imaginary with
γ = jβ = jω√lc………………………………………..(8)
and the characteristics impedance Zc is purely resistive with
Zc = = Zn ……………………………………………………..(9)

In this case the Zc is termed as surge impedance or natural impedance (Zn)

When x = λ, such that
βλ = 2π………………………………………….(10)

λ ‚ is defined as the wavelength, which depends on the frequency f. It can be shown that
λ = uT = u/f = ………………………………………………...(11)

where u is the velocity of propagation of the (voltage or current) wave given

by u=1/ √(lc)
Typically, the value of u for overhead high voltage transmission lines is slightly less than the
velocity of light (u = 3 ×108 m/sec).

Substituting x = d
V S = VR cos θ + jIR Zn sin θ………………………….(12)
IS = j VR /Z n sin θ + IR cos θ…………………………(13)

θ = βd = ω√(lcd) = ………………………………(14)

is termed as the electrical length of the line expressed in radians.

1.3 Performance of a Line Connected to Unity Power Factor Load
1.3 Performance of a Line Connected to Unity Power Factor Load

Assuming that the sending end voltage of the line is held constant at VS, the receiving end
voltage V R varies with the load. It will be assumed that the line is lossless.

It is convenient to represent the line by Thevenin equivalent at the receiving end. The
Thevenin voltage is the open circuit voltage at the receiving end given by,

V Th = VS /cos θ …………………………………………….(15)
and Thevenin impedance is obtained as

ZTh = = jZn tan θ………………………(16)

V S = VR cos θ + jIR Zn sin θ

IS = j VR /Z n sin θ + I Rcos θ
VR = VS cos δ/ cos θ …………………………………………(17)
and the power flow in the line, P = P R is given by

P = VThV R sin δ/ Z n tan θ = ………………… (18)

The maximum power (theoretical limit) occurs at δ = 45 0 and is given by

Pmax = …………………………………………………...(19)
V S = VR cos θ + jIR Zn sin θ
At this value of power, the receiving end voltage is IS = j VR /Z n sin θ + I Rcos θ
V Rm = ……………………………………………………..(20)

Fig 4: Equivalent circuit of the line connected

to a unity p.f. load
 θ = βd = ω√(lc)d =
is termed as the electrical length of the line
expressed in radians.

Fig 6: Phasor diagram of voltages

At no load (PR = 0), the voltage at the receiving end is higher than the sending due to
the line charging. This is termed as Ferranti Effect. The no load voltage at the receiving
end is given by
V R0 = VS / cos θ ……………………………………..(21)
This can be excessive as θ increases. At line lengths approaching quarter wavelength,
VR0 is very high. Note that VR0 is bounded in real lines as the resistance of the line
cannot be ignored at high charging currents. At no load, the sending end current is the
charging current of the line and is given by

……………………………(22)

This also increases as θ increases and can overload the generator. The no load reactive
power QS0 is obtained as

QS0 = ………………………..(23)
1.4 Performance of a Symmetrical Line

To control the receiving end voltage and increase the power transfer capability
of the line it is necessary to have a generator or a controlled reactive power
source (with fast control) such as a SVC at the receiving end (see Fig. 6). The
reactive power injected is -QR . If line is symmetrical (VS = VR = V ), then from
symmetry, QS = -QR . Thus, the reactive power requirements of the line are
shared equally at both ends of the line.

V
2

Fig 6: A transmission line with dynamic voltage support

at the receiving end

From Fig. 6, it can be derived that if the voltage V R is controlled using a reactive power
source in parallel with RL, then the power transfer on the line is given by

………………………………………………….(24)

………………………
(25)
The complex power (S R ) at the receiving end is defined by

S R = P R + jQR …………………………..( 26)

…………………………………
…(27)
where Pn is termed as Surge Impedance Loading (SIL) defined by
Pn = V2/Zn
Q R = V2/(Zn sin θ)*(cosδ – cos θ) = -QS …………………………….
(28)
The voltage profile along the line varies as the loading varies. For P =Pn (SIL) the
voltage profile is flat. The voltage variation at the midpoint is maximum for the
symmetrical line as the load varies from zero to the maximum value. (Fig 7) To
compute the midpoint voltage (Vm) we can divide the line into two equal sections of
half the length. For the line section connecting the sending end to the midpoint, we
have
…………………………………
…(29)
where I m is the current flowing at the midpoint.
 Fig 7: Voltage profile along the line

For the line section connecting midpoint to the receiving end, we have
Reactive power requirement
The complex power (S R ) at the receiving end is defined by

S R = P R + jQR …………………………..( 26)

…………………………………
…(27)
where Pn is termed as Surge Impedance Loading (SIL) defined by
Pn = V2/Zn
Q R = V2/(Zn sin θ)*(cosδ – cos θ) = -QS …………………………….
(28)
The voltage profile along the line varies as the loading varies. For P =Pn (SIL) the
voltage profile is flat. The voltage variation at the midpoint is maximum for the
symmetrical line as the load varies from zero to the maximum value. (Fig 7) To
compute the midpoint voltage (Vm) we can divide the line into two equal sections of
half the length. For the line section connecting the sending end to the midpoint, we
have
…………………………………
…(29)
where I m is the current flowing at the midpoint.
 Fig 7: Voltage profile along the line

For the line section connecting midpoint to the receiving end, we have

The charging reactive power at no load

is given by
Comparing the expressions for the power, no load voltage and charging reactive
power with those given in the previous section shows that a symmetrical line can
be viewed as two line sections of half the length each (see the above Fig.).
One end of each line section is connected to unity power factor load and at the
other end the voltage is regulated.

The load is negative for one line section and positive for the other line section.
The negative load results in the reversal of power flow
 Fig 8: A transmission line with Thevenin equivalent at both ends

For simplifying the analysis we can consider ES = ER = E and xS = x R = x. In this case, it can be
shown that

…………(3
6)

………..
(37)

The power flow (P) is obtained as ………..

(38)
1. The dynamic regulation of voltage at the receiving (load) end of the line by using a
controllable reactive source, improves power transfer and voltage proflle along the
line.

2. However, even with symmetrical lines (with voltages maintained at both ends), the
power transfer capability is decreased as the line length increases.
Assuming that a line is operated with delta,max = 30 degree, the maximum power
transfer reduces below SIL for line lengths θ > 30degree (approximately 500 km
long line in systems operating at 50 Hz).

3. The problems of voltage control and charging reactive power (at no load) become
severe as line length increases.

For a symmetric line, the voltage variation is maximum at the mid point of the line.
• The transmission line has series inductance which absorbs reactive
power while the shunt capacitance releases (generates reactive power).

• For light loads, the absorption is less than the generation and voltage
in the line tends to rise.

• On the other hand, at loads exceeding Surge Impedance Loading (SIL),

the absorption is higher than the generation and the voltage tends to
fall.

• By connecting series capacitors and shunt inductors in the line, we can

control the reactive power flow in the line to limit the voltage variations
and increase (active) power transfer capability.

• To study the effects of passive reactive compensation, we will first

consider the distributed compensation (which is difficult to arrange, but
is easier to analyze) before taking up discrete compensation (which is
practical).
1.2.1 Passive Reactive Power Compensation

Let us consider distributed series compensation (capacitive) whose effect, in

steady state, is to counteract the effect of the distributed series inductance of
the line. Similarly, by providing distributed shunt (inductive) compensation,
the effect of line capacitance is reduced

The phase constant (β’) of a compensated line is given by

………….
(39)
where β is the phase constant of the uncompensated line, kse is the degree of
series compensation and ksh is the degree of shunt compensation. It is assumed
that both kse and ksh are less than unity.

…………(4
0)
the electrical length (θ’) of the compensated line given by
…………………..
(40)
is reduced by both series and shunt compensation.
On the other hand, Zn is reduced by series compensation (capacitive) and increased by
shunt compensation (inductive)
For a lossless symmetrical line, the power flow in a compensated line is given by

……………………(4
1)
for small values θ’.

The no load voltage at the mid-point (V’ m0 ) is given by

………………..
(42)
1.2.2 Discrete Passive Compensation

It is not practical to provide distributed compensation. Here, we will consider discrete

series and shunt compensation. Before taking this up, it is instructive to derive an
equivalent circuit (in steady state) of the distributed parameter, uncompensated line.
Figure 9 shows the equivalent π circuit of the line

Fig 9: The exact π equivalent circuit of a

lossless uncompensated line

This is obtained by comparing the A and B constants of the line and the equivalent
circuit as given below

…………….
(43)
We can also express Z and Y as

……………(4
4)

3. Compensation by a Series Capacitor Connected at the Midpoint of the Line

The two cases of the series compensation are considered.

Case 1: Series compensation accompanied by shunt compensation:

The equivalent circuit of the line with the series and (full) shunt compensation
connected at the midpoint in addition to the two ends of the line (10(a)) is shown
in Fig. 10(b).
The power flow in the compensated line is given by

……………………(
45)

It is to be noted that when VS = VR = V , the no load voltage at the midpoint of the line is
V (and at both terminals of the series capacitor as the current through the capacitor is
zero at no load). The Eq. (45) can also be expressed ass

………….
(46)
Fig 10: Representation of a compensated line

Fig 11: Equivalent circuit of a line with pure

series compensation
Case 2: With pure series compensation at the midpoint:
If no shunt reactors are used at the terminals the series capacitor, the equivalent circuit
of half the line can be obtained { as shown in Fig. 4 and the combined equivalent circuit
of the series compensated line is shown in Fig. 11

The power flow (P) in the line is given by

……………….
(47)

It is to be noted that when VS = VR = V , the midpoint voltage (Vm) is unaffected by the

series capacitor while the midpoint current (Im) is modified to

……………………….
(48)

…………………………..
(49)

………………………….
4. Shunt Compensation Connected at the Midpoint of the Line

As mentioned earlier, the control of no load voltage requires a shunt reactor. On the
other hand, increase in the power flow in a line requires shunt capacitor. Unlike in the
case of the series capacitor, the location of the shunt capacitor is very crucial. The best
location is at the midpoint of the line to maximize the power flow in the line. The
equivalent circuit of the line with the shunt susceptance connected at the midpoint, is
shown in Fig. 12

Fig 12: Equivalent circuit of a line with shunt

capacitor at the midpoint
The transfer reactance (X t ) between the nodes (1) and (2) is given by

………………………..
(51)
The power flow (P ) in the line is given by

………………………..
(52)

If VS = VR = V , the midpoint voltage (Vm) is given by

……………………….
(53)

5. Comparison between Series and Shunt Capacitor

The maximum power flow in the line is given by substituting δ= δmax in the expression
for the power flow (P ). δmax is chosen from considerations of the steady state margin
that will not result in the power flow exceeding limits during a contingency.

For the same amount of maximum power transfer, we obtain the following relation

………………………………..
(54)
While transferring maximum power, the reactive power (Qse) supplied by the series
capacitor (for a symmetric line with VS = VR = V ) is given by

………………………(
55)

The reactive power (Q sh) supplied by the shunt capacitor (Bc) at P = P max is obtained as

……………………….
(56)

…………………………………
(57)
Since kse = ksh

…………………………..
(58)

The above relation shows that the series capacitor is much more effective
than the shunt capacitor in increasing power transfer
 Fig 13: Equivalent circuits for determining
resonance frequencies

Another factor in the comparison of the series and shunt (capacitor) compensation is
the electrical resonance frequency.
The electrical resonance frequency (fseer) for the series capacitor compensation

………………..
(59)

The resonance frequency for the shunt capacitor compensation is obtained as

where f0 is the operating system frequency (50 or 60 Hz).
Example 2.2
STATCOM at the Midpoint of the Line

The shunt connected STATCOM draws a pure reactive current if losses are neglected.
Thus, it has similar effects on the bus voltage and power flow as the shunt connected
susceptance. The major difierence is that a STATCOM is more effective at low voltages
as it can regulate (at constant value) the reactive current drawn.
To increase power transfer, I r should be negative (capacitive) and this is as expected.
The major difference between a shunt capacitor and STATCOM is that the maximum
power for the latter, occurs at 90 degree < delta < 180 degree and is a function of Ir in
addition to the line length
SSSC at the Midpoint of the Line
Comparison between STATCOM and SSSC
in Enhancing Power Transfer
Example 2.3
Example 2.4