Version

2024

LABORATORY MANUAL
Geotechnical Engineering Laboratory

Department of Civil Engineering

Khulna University of Engineering & Technology
Khulna-9203, Bangladesh
Dept. of Civil Engineering, KUET Geotechnical Engineering Laboratory Manual

Geotechnical Engineering Laboratory

LAB MANUAL

Version 2024

Department of Civil Engineering

Khulna University of Engineering & Technology
Khulna-9203, Bangladesh

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Dept. of Civil Engineering, KUET Geotechnical Engineering Laboratory Manual

INTRODUCTION
Soil is one of the most important engineering materials. Determination of soil conditions is the
most important first phase of work for every type of civil engineering facility. Soil properties are
determined by both field and laboratory test methods. In this course, you will learn several
laboratory tests that are very commonly performed to determine different properties of soils. In
this course, different laboratory tests will be conducted to determine the following important index
and mechanical properties of soils:
▪ Relative Density
▪ Unconfined Compressive Strength
▪ Unconsolidated-Undrained Triaxial Compressive Strength of Cohesive Soil
▪ One-Dimensional Consolidation
A short report which describes the biweekly experiment will be due 2 (two) weeks after the
completion of the laboratory or field experiments. You will work in teams, but everyone must
submit an individual report. The body of each lab report shall consist of no more than 5-A4 pages
of hand written text. Any text beyond the first five pages shall be disregarded, so be concise! As
many figures as deemed necessary can accompany the 5 pages of text in the report body. All raw
data and calculations should be appended to the body of the report. Remember neatness counts.
Prepare your report according to the format shown below.
1. Introduction: Include (a) a brief description of what you did in the laboratory and (b) the
purpose of the experiments.
2. Procedures: Read the ASTM standard for the test(s) you conducted and note any differences
between ASTM recommended procedure(s) and the procedures(s) that you followed in the
laboratory.
3. Results: Present the results of the lab in this section. Refer to figures or tables when necessary.
4. Discussion: Describe your results. Do they seem reasonable? Include analyses of possible
errors and any recommendations that you have for improving the test procedure.
5. Conclusions: Draw your conclusions and present them in this section.
6. References:
(e.g., Bowles, JE (1992), Engineering properties of soils and their measurement, McGraw-Hill,
USA)
APPENDIX: Include raw data and calculations.

Some useful tips for report writing:

• Refer every table and figure in body text in order.
• Don’t use the first person (I, we, me, our,…)
• Use correct spelling
• Use simple sentences to reduce error
• Don’t change past tense to present tense in the same paragraph
• Read the report over day

A sample top sheet of the report is shown in the next page.

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Dept. of Civil Engineering, KUET Geotechnical Engineering Laboratory Manual

Title of the Experiment

CE _ _ _ _ _ Laboratory Report No. _ _ _ _ _

By
Name of the student:
Roll No.:

Date of the Experiment _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _

Date of the Submission _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _

Department of Civil Engineering

Khulna University of Engineering & Technology
Khulna-9203, Bangladesh
Dept. of Civil Engineering, KUET Geotechnical Engineering Laboratory Manual

1. DENSITY (UNIT WEIGHT) OF SOIL IN PLACE BY SAND-CONE METHOD

1.1 Purpose
• This test method may be used to determine the in-place density and unit weight of soils
using a sand cone apparatus.
• This test method is applicable for soils without appreciable amounts of rock or coarse
materials in excess of 11⁄2 in [38 mm] in diameter.
1.2 Standard Reference
• ASTM D1556: Standard Test Method for Density and Unit Weight of Soil in Place by the
Sand-Cone Method
• AASHTO T 191: Standard Method of Test for Density of Soil In-Place by the Sand-Cone
Method
1.3 Significance
This test method is used to determine the density and water content of compacted soils placed
during the construction of earth embankments, road fill, and structural backfill. It often is used as
a basis of acceptance for soils compacted to a specified density or percentage of a maximum
density determined by a test method, such as Test Methods ASTM D 698 or D 1557. This test
method can be used to determine the in-place density of natural soil deposits, aggregates, soil
mixtures, or other similar materials.
1.4 General Discussion
1.4.1 Overview
Moisture content and dry unit weight are often specified. Given γwet and w, γd is expressed as:
𝛾𝑤𝑒𝑡
𝛾𝑑 = 1+𝑤

Where w is expressed as a decimal.

To measure γwet and w in situ, a small hole (on the order of 0.1 ft3) is excavated at the surface of a
compacted layer of soil. The soil is removed, and its moisture content is measured using a standard
method such as ASTM D2216. The mass of the soil, Mwet, is also recorded. The following Equation
can be rewritten in terms of w and Mwet:
(𝑀𝑤𝑒𝑡 )𝑔
𝛾𝑑 = 𝑉(1+𝑤)

Where g is the gravitational constant (i.e., 9.81 m/s2), and V is the volume of the hole. Therefore,
any method that provides a means to measure V will be useful in deriving γd for CQA (Construction
Quality Assurance) purposes when accompanied with moisture content measurements of the
material removed from the hole. The sand cone method (ASTM D1556) method is described in
the following sections.
1.4.2 Sand Cone Method
The sand cone method employs the use of poorly graded sand that, when poured out of a container
through funnel into a hole, fills the hole at a known, pre-calibrated value for ρd. By weighing the

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container before and after the hole is filled, the volume of the hole can be calculated based on the
calibrated value for ρd.
The sand cone device is illustrated in Figure 1-1. The device consists of a sand container, funnel,
and sand. The sand must be clean, dry, poorly graded sand with a coefficient of uniformity (Cu =
D60/D10) less than 2.0, a maximum particle size (D100) less than 2.0 mm, and less than 3% by
weight passing the #60 (250 μm) sieve. The sand should consist of rounded or sub rounded
particles rather than angular particles. The sand should be stored in an airtight container between
tests so that it remains dry.

a) dissembled b) assembled
Figure 1-1: Sand cone device. Parts include A) base plate, B) funnel, and C) sand container.

1.5 Equipment
The following equipment and materials
(see Figure 1-2) are required for
performing the sand cone test:
• Small digging tools (e.g., shovels,
trowels, chisels, etc.);
• large sealable plastic bag or
airtight container;
• poorly graded sub-rounded to
rounded sand;
• sand cone device, including
container and funnel;
• scale capable of measuring to the
nearest 1.0 g; and
• base plate.
Figure 1-2: All apparatus used for the sand-cone test.
Sand Cone: A detachable appliance consisting of a cylindrical valve with an orifice approximately
1⁄2 in. [13 mm] in diameter, attached to a metal funnel and sand container on one end, and a large
metal funnel (sand-cone) on the other end. The valve will have stops to prevent rotating past the
completely open or completely closed positions. The appliance will be constructed of metal

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sufficiently rigid to prevent distortion or volume changes in the cone. The walls of the cone will
form an angle of approximately 60° with the base to allow uniform filling with sand.
Base Plate: A metal base plate or template with a flanged center hole cast or machined to receive
the large funnel (cone). The base plate may be round or square and will be a minimum of 3 in. [75
mm] larger than the funnel (sand-cone). The plate will be flat on the bottom and have sufficient
thickness or stiffness to be rigid. Plates with raised edges, ridges, ribs, or other stiffeners of
approximately 3⁄8 to 1⁄2 in. [10 to 13 mm] high may be used.
The details of the sand-cone apparatus are shown in Figure 1-3.

Figure 1-3: Sand-Cone density Apparatus.

Sand: Sand must be clean, dry, and uniform in density and grading, uncemented, durable, and
free-flowing. Any gradation may be used that has a coefficient of uniformity (Cu = D60/D10) less
than 2.0, a maximum particle size smaller than the 2.0 mm [No. 10] sieve size, and less than 3 %
by weight passing the 250 µm [No. 60] sieve size, determined in accordance with Test Method
C136. Uniformly graded sand is needed to prevent segregation during handling, storage, and use.

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Sand free of fines and fine sand particles is required to prevent significant bulk-density changes
with normal daily changes in atmospheric humidity. Sand comprised of durable, natural sub-
rounded, or rounded particles is desirable. Crushed sand or sand having angular particles may not
be free-flowing, a condition that can cause bridging resulting in inaccurate density determinations.
In selecting a sand from a potential source, a gradation and bulk-density determinations in
accordance with the standard procedure should be made on each container or bag of sand. To be
an acceptable sand, the bulk-density variation between any one determination shall not be greater
than 1 % of the average. Before using sand in density determinations, it shall be dried, then allowed
to reach an air-dried state in the general location where it is to be used. Sand shall not be re-used
without removing any contaminating soil, checking the gradation, drying and re determining the
bulk-density. Bulk-density tests of the sand will be made at time intervals not exceeding 14 days,
always after any significant changes in atmospheric humidity, before reusing, and before use of a
new batch from a previously approved supplier.
The sand used (often Ottawa sand) is generally material passing the No. 20 sieve but retained on
the No. 30 sieve. Although (-) No. 30 and (+) No. 40 or (-) No. 30 and (+) No. 50 sieve material
can be used, it is generally desirable to have a uniform or “one-size” sand with rounded grains to
avoid segregation problems (a volume of fine sand may weigh more than the same volume of
coarse sand, and a volume of the mixture may weigh still more). The use of rounded instead of
angular particles reduces particle packing. Sand characteristics should be such that if sand was
poured through the cone apparatus into a hole and then completely recovered and then a second
sand container is used the volume of the hole would be approximately the same.
PROCEDURE

1.6.1. Calibration of the Sand Cone Device

Since the results of sand cone testing are highly dependent upon the particular sand cone device
and the type of sand used, it is very important to calibrate the device. The procedure for calibrating
the device is as follows:
1) Fill the sand cone container with dry sand and place the funnel on the container. Record the
mass of the filled sand cone device, M1.
2) Place the base plate on a clean, flat surface and place the inverted sand cone device over the
base plate (Figure 1-1b). Open the valve in the funnel and allow the sand to fill the base plate and
funnel. Close the valve after the base plate and funnel are filled. Remove the sand cone device
from the base plate and record the mass of the device with the remaining sand, M2.
3) Calculate the mass of the sand in the base plate and funnel, M3:
M3 = M1 – M2.
4) Refill the container and obtain the mass of the refilled device (M8). Place the base plate over a
calibration container of known volume. Many base plates are machined to snugly fit over a proctor
mold with a known volume, V1, of either 1/13.33 or 1/30 ft3, so a proctor mold may be used to
facilitate the calibration.
5) Place the inverted sand cone device over the base plate, open the valve, and fill the base plate,
funnel, and calibration chamber with sand (Figure 1-4). After the calibration chamber, base plate,
and funnel are filled, close the valve. Remove the sand cone device from the base plate and weigh
the sand cone device with the remaining sand, M9.
6) Calculate the mass of the sand in the calibration chamber, M10:

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M10 = M8 – M9 – M3.

Figure 1-4: Filling of the base plate, funnel, and calibration chamber with sand for calibration.
7) Calculate the total unit weight of the calibration sand:
𝑀10 ×𝑔
𝛾1 = 𝑉1
Where g is the gravitational constant.
1.6.2. Performing a Sand Cone Measurement
Once the sand and sand cone device have been calibrated using the procedure described in Section
1.6.1., Sand cone measurements can be performed using the following procedure:
1) Fill the sand cone device with the same type of sand used for the calibration. Obtain the mass
of the filled sand cone, M1′.
2) Locate a flat, level spot on the surface of the material to be tested. Place the base plate on the
surface.
3) Excavate a test hole through the center of the base plate (see Figure 1-6). The minimum test
hole volume is dependent upon the maximum particle size as described in Table 1-1. The shape of
the test hole should approximate the shape of the calibration chamber. The base plate should not
overhang the test hole, and the bottom of the test hole should be flat or concave upward. Place the
excavated soil in a sealed plastic bag to use for measurement of moisture content later.

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Figure 1-5: Digging the hole. Use the screwdriver

or spoon to loosen soil which is then spooned into
the sample can or sealed bag. Remove any large
pebbles and save into the can. If stones are much
larger than 35 to 40 mm the site may not be suitable
for testing with this sampling equipment.

Figure 1-6: Collecting the sample soil to the

sealed bag.

a) b)

Figure 1-7: a) A hole is now dug. It is carefully cleaned of loose soil crumbs and should be on the
order of 100-200 mm deep; b) Carefully place the sand cone onto the template as shown and open
the valve on the cone. Avoid local vibrations and excessive handling of the jug from the point on.

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Table 1.1: Minimum test hole volume based on maximum particle size.
Maximum sieve size of Minimum Test Hole Volume Size of water-content sample, g
soil cm3 (ft3)
No. 4 700 (0.025) 100
12 mm 1400 (0.050) 250
25 mm 2100 (0.075) 500
50 mm 2800 (0.100) 1000
4) Position the filled sand cone device over the excavated test hole. Open the valve and fill the test
hole, base plate, and funnel with sand. Do not perform the test if there are significant ambient
vibrations (e.g., heavy equipment operation), and take care not to move or shake the device during
filling. After filling, close the valve and measure the mass of the sand cone with the remaining
sand, M4.
5) Calculate the mass of the sand used to fill the test hole, funnel, and base plate, M5:
M5 = M1′ – M4.
6) Calculate the volume of the test hole, V:
(𝑀5 −𝑀3 )𝑔
𝑉= 𝛾1
7) Record the moist mass of the material excavated from the test hole, M6.
8) Dry the soil in an oven using the methods described in ASTM D2216 to obtain the dry mass of
the soil, M7. Calculate the moisture content of the material, w:
𝑀6 −𝑀7
𝑤= × 100%
𝑀7

9) Calculate the in-place wet density of the material:

𝑀6
𝜌𝑚 = 𝑉
10) Calculate the in-place dry density of the material:
𝜌𝑚
𝜌𝑑 = 𝑤
1+( )
100

1.6 Expected Results

Dry unit weight can range from 100 to 130 pcf for compacted soils. For projects that involve soil
compaction, specifications typically state that soil should be compacted to within 90% of
maximum dry unit weight for standard or modified proctor compaction effort. Maximum dry unit
weight is typically around 100-110 pcf and 120-130 pcf for standard and modified proctor
compaction effort, respectively.
1.7 Sources of Error
For the sand cone test, an error may occur if vibrations are present during the calibration or
measurement process because vibrations tend to densify sand. The error may occur if the base plate
hangs over the edge of the test hole, or if the bottom of the test hole is not flat or concave upward.
In these instances, the test hole may not be completely filled during the measurement.

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1.8 Additional Considerations

The sand cone methods are not suitable for soils that are susceptible to deformation, including
organic, saturated, or highly plastic soils. The methods are also not suitable for cohesionless soils
because test holes excavated in cohesionless material will not remain open.
This test method is not suitable for organic, saturated, or highly plastic soils that would deform or
compress during the excavation of the test hole. This test method may not be suitable for soils
consisting of unbound granular materials that will not maintain stable sides in the test hole, soils
containing appreciable amounts of coarse material larger than 11⁄2 in. [38 mm], and granular soils
having high void ratios. The use of this test method is generally limited to soil in an unsaturated
condition. This test method is not recommended for soils that are soft or friable (crumble easily)
or in moisture conditions such that water seeps into the hand excavated hole. The precision of the
test may be affected for soils that deform easily or that may undergo a volume change in the
excavated hole from vibration, or from standing or walking near the hole during the test.
The sand cone method is typically specified as part of CQA programs for earthwork projects.
These tests are destructive tests, which may not be desirable for structures such as compacted waste
containment liners, where field performance is dependent on the integrity of the liner. As a result,
these tests may be prescribed at a relatively infrequent interval (e.g., one test for every 20,000
cubic yards of compacted material), and supplemented with a nondestructive test at a more
frequent interval (e.g., one test for every 1,000 cubic yards of compacted material). The most
common nondestructive method for measuring d and w in situ is the nuclear gauge (ASTM D2922,
D3017) as illustrated in Figure 1-8. A radioactive neutron source (241Am) irradiates the soil with
neutrons, which are detected with a neutron detector. Since hydrogen atoms in water molecules
absorb neutrons, w is proportional to the amount of neutrons detected. A separate gamma radiation
source (137Cs) irradiates the soil with gamma radiation, which is detected with a gamma detector.
Denser materials scatter gamma radiation (Compton scattering), so the amount of gamma radiation
detected is related to the unit weight of the soil. Calibration curves are used to correlate the levels
of neutrons and gamma radiation detected by the nuclear gauge to γd and w. The nuclear gauge is
widely used, but there is significant administrative effort and burden associated with managing the
nuclear material. As a result, recent effort has been dedicated to the development of nondestructive
devices that do not rely on the use of nuclear material. One such method applies time domain
reflectometry (ASTM D6780), which uses measurements of the electrically conductive and
capacitive properties of the soil to estimate γd and w.

soil

Figure 1-8: Nuclear gauge for in situ estimate of 𝛾𝑑 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑤.

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1.9 Suggested Exercises

Assemble and calibrate a sand cone device, and perform a sand cone measurement on a pad of
compacted soil. Use the Measurement of in-situ Dry Unit Weight and Moisture Content Using the
Sand Cone Method data sheet at the end of the chapter.
1.10 Assignments
i. What material other than Sand can be used to find out Vhole?
ii. What type of sand is suitable for the determination of Vhole? Why?
iii. What factors may affect the test results?
iv. Where is the in-place density used?
v. In what ways do temperature and humidity affect the performance of the test, and what
adjustments can be made to mitigate these effects?
vi. What are the primary limitations of the sand cone method in challenging site conditions,
and what alternative methods can be employed to ensure accurate in-place density
determinations?

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DENSITY (UNIT WEIGHT) TEST OF SOIL IN PLACE BY SAND-CONE METHOD

DATA SHEET
Group No: Roll No:
Soil description: Date of testing:
Location of the site:

Sample Data:

Laboratory Data
Bulk Density of the Sand used in the test, ρ1 =
Mass of the apparatus with sand, M1 =
Mass of the apparatus with remaining sand after filling funnel and base plate, M2 =
Mass of the sand used to fill the funnel and base plate, M3 = M1 - M2 =
Field Data
Mass of the apparatus with sand, M1′ =
Mass of the apparatus with remaining sand after filling the test hole, funnel, and base plate, M4 =
Mass of the sand used to fill the test hole, funnel, and base plate, M5 = M1′ - M4 =
Moist mass of the in-situ material obtained from the test hole, M6 =

Calculation:
Moisture content:
Mass of the wet sample and can = ; Mass of dry sample and can = ; Mass of water = ;
Mass of can = ; Mass of dry sample = ; Moisture content of the in-situ soil obtained from
test hole, w =
In-place Density:
(𝑀5 −𝑀3 )
Volume of the test hole, 𝑉 = =
𝜌1
𝑀6
In-place wet density of the material tested, 𝜌𝑚 = 𝑉
=
𝜌𝑚
In-place dry density of the material tested, 𝜌𝑑𝑓 = 𝑤 =
1+( )
100

Test Results:
1. In-place wet density of the tested soil, 𝜌𝑚 =
2. In-place dry density of the tested soil, 𝜌𝑑𝑓 =
3. In-place moisture content of the tested soil, 𝑤 =

__________________
Signature of the Course Teacher
Dept. of Civil Engineering, KUET Geotechnical Engineering Laboratory
Manual

2. DETERMINATION OF MINIMUM AND MAXIMUM INDEX DENSITY AND

UNIT WEIGHT OF THE SOIL AND CALCULATION OF RELATIVE DENSITY
2.1 Purpose
This lab is performed to determine the relative density of cohesionless, free-draining soils using
a vibrating table.
2.2 Standard References
ASTM D 4254 – Standard Test Methods for Minimum Index Density and Unit Weight of Soils
and Calculation of Relative Density.
ASTM D 4253 – Standard Test Methods for Maximum Index Density and Unit Weight of Soils
Using a Vibratory Table.
2.3 Prerequisite:
The field dry density has to be determined before conducting this experiment to determine the
relative density of the in-situ soil.
2.4 Significance:
The dry density of cohesionless soil does not necessarily reveal whether the soil is loose or
dense. Relative density expresses the degree of compactness of the cohesionless soil with
respect to the loosest or densest condition. Relative density and percent compaction are
commonly used for evaluating the state of compactness of a given soil mass. The engineering
properties, such as shear strength, compressibility, and permeability, of a given soil depend on
the level of compaction.
2.5 General Discussion
The relative density of a soil is the ratio, expressed as a percentage, of the difference between
the maximum index void ratio and the field void ratio of a cohesionless, free-draining soil; to
the difference between its maximum and minimum index void ratios:
𝑒𝑚𝑎𝑥 −𝑒𝑓
𝐷𝑟 = × 100%
𝑒𝑚𝑎𝑥 −𝑒𝑚𝑖𝑛
𝜌𝑑𝑓 − 𝜌𝑑(𝑚𝑖𝑛) 𝜌𝑑(𝑚𝑎𝑥)
= × × 100%
𝜌𝑑(𝑚𝑎𝑥) − 𝜌𝑑(𝑚𝑖𝑛) 𝜌𝑑𝑓

Where,
𝜌𝑤 ×𝐺𝑠
𝑒𝑚𝑖𝑛 = −1
𝜌𝑑 (𝑚𝑎𝑥)
𝜌𝑤 ×𝐺𝑠
𝑒𝑚𝑎𝑥 = −1
𝜌𝑑 (𝑚𝑖𝑛)
𝜌𝑤 ×𝐺𝑠
𝑒𝑓 = 𝜌 −1
𝑑(𝑓𝑖𝑒𝑙𝑑)

The void ratio of the natural state of the soil can be calculated based on the 𝜌𝑑 and 𝜌𝑠 = 𝐺𝑠 𝜌𝑤
𝜌
as follows: 𝑒 = 𝜌 𝑠 − 1
𝑑

Based on relative density, coarse-grained soil can be divided into the following five categories,
as summarized in Table 2-1.

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Table 2.1: Classification of cohesionless soil based on relative density.

Relative Density State of Compaction

<15 Very Loose
15-35 Loose
35-65 Medium Dense
65-85 Dense
>85 Very Dense

2.6 Equipment
• Vibrating Table
• Mold Assembly consisting of standard mold, guide sleeves, surcharge base-plate,
surcharge weights, surcharge base-plate handle, and dial-indicator gage
• Balance
• Scoop
• Straightedge
• Funnel

Figure 2-1: All test

equipment used for the
determination of the
maximum index density.

2.7 Calibration
(1) Calculate and record the volume of the mold to four significant digits, either by directly
measuring at least three internal diameter and height values or by using the water-filling
method.

2.8 Test Procedure

2.8.1. Determination of the minimum index density
(1) Fill the mold with the soil (approximately 0.5 inch to 1 inch above the top of the mold) as
loosely as possible by pouring the soil using a scoop or pouring device (funnel). Spiraling
motion should be just sufficient to minimize particle segregation.
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(2) Fill the mold approximately 0.5 in (13 mm) to 1 in (25 mm) above the top of the mold.
(3) Trim off the excess soil level with the top by carefully trimming the soil surface with a
straightedge.
(4) Determine and record the mass of the mold and soil. Then empty the mold (M1) (see Figure
2-2 and Figure 2-3).

Figure 2-2: Filling of the mold with

sand by maintaining a fall height of
0.5 in. to 1 in.

Figure 2-3: Trimming off the surface using straightedge.

2.8.2. Determination of the maximum index density
(5) Again, fill the mold with soil (do not use the same soil used in step 1) and level the surface
of the soil by using a scoop or pouring device (funnel) in order to minimize soil segregation.
The sides of the mold may be struck a few times using a metal bar or rubber hammer to settle
the soil so that the surcharge base plate can be easily placed into position and there is no surge
of air from the mold when vibration is initiated.
(6) Place the surcharge base plate on the surface of the soil and twist it slightly several times
so that it is placed firmly and uniformly in contact with the surface of the soil. Remove the
surcharge base-plate handle.
(7) Attach the mold to the vibrating table.
(8) Determine the initial dial reading by inserting the dial indicator gauge holder in each of the
guide brackets with the dial gauge stem in contact with the rim of the mold (at its center) on

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both sides of the guide brackets. Obtain six sets of dial indicator readings, three on each side
of each guide bracket. The average of these twelve readings is the initial dial gauge reading,
Ri. Record Ri to the nearest 0.001 in. (0.025 mm).
(9) Firmly attach the guide sleeve to the mold and lower the appropriate surcharge weight onto
the surcharge base plate. See Figure 2-7.
(10) Vibrate the mold assembly and soil specimen for 8 min.
(11) Determine and record the dial indicator gauge readings as in step (8). The average of these
readings is the final dial gauge reading, Rf.
(12) Remove the surcharge base plate from the mold and detach the mold from the vibrating
table.
(13) Determine and record the mass of the mold and soil (M2)
(14) Empty the mold and determine the weight of the mold.
(15) Determine and record the dimensions of the mold (i.e., diameter and height) in order to
calculate the calibrated volume of the mold, Vc. Also, determine the thickness of the surcharge
base plate, Tp.

Figure 2-4: Placing

the mold in the
vibratory table.

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Figure 2-5: Placing the guide sleeves on

the mouth of the mold and clamping it
tightly.

Figure 2-6: Placing the surcharge base plate on the top of the soil.

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Figure 2-7:
Place the
surcharge on
the top of the
surcharge base
plate and
vibrate it for 8
min for a
frequency of 60
Hz or 12 min.
for a frequency
of 50 Hz.

Figure 2-8: Measuring the settlement of the base plate at three locations.

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Manual

2.9 Assignments
i. Discuss the potential errors that may arise during the determination of the minimum
and maximum index densities in cohesionless soils. What steps can be taken to
minimize these errors in both field and laboratory settings?
ii. How does the presence of moisture affect the determination of minimum and
maximum index densities? What precautions should be taken when testing partially
saturated soils?
iii. What are the consequences if the drop height of the sand is not consistently
maintained during the determination of the minimum dry density of the test sample?

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MINIMUM INDEX DENSITY TEST OF SOIL

DATA SHEET
Group No: Roll No:
Soil description: Date of testing:

Sample Data:

Mass of empty mold, M1 =

Average diameter of the empty mold, D =
Average height of the empty mold, H =
Volume of the empty mold, V =
Mass of the mold and soil, M2 =

Calculation:
The mass of the tested dry soil, 𝑀𝑠 = 𝑀2 − 𝑀1 =
Calibrated volume of the mold, V =
𝑀𝑠
The minimum index dry density, 𝜌𝑑(𝑚𝑖𝑛) = =
𝑉

Test Result:
The minimum index dry density of the tested dry soil, 𝜌𝑑(𝑚𝑖𝑛) =

__________________
Signature of the course Teacher
Dept. of Civil Engineering, KUET Geotechnical Engineering Laboratory Manual

MAXIMUM INDEX DENSITY TEST OF SOIL USING A VIBRATORY TABLE

DATA SHEET
Group No: Roll No:
Soil description: Date of testing:

Sample Data:

Mass of empty mold, M1 =

Average diameter of the empty mold, Dc =
Average area of the empty mold, Ac =
Average height of the empty mold, H =
Volume of the empty mold, Vc =
Thickness of the surcharge base plate, Tp =
Initial dial gauge readings, Ri =
Final dial gauge readings, Rf =
Positive difference in elevation between top surfaces of mold and tested soil, H =
Mass of the mold and soil, M2 =

Calculation:
The mass of the tested dry soil, 𝑀𝑠 = 𝑀2 − 𝑀1 =
Calibrated volume of the mold, V = 𝑉𝑐 − (𝐴𝑐 × 𝐻)
𝑀𝑠
The maximum index dry density, 𝜌𝑑(𝑚𝑎𝑥) = =
𝑉

Test Result:
The maximum index dry density of the tested dry soil, 𝜌𝑑(𝑚𝑎𝑥) =

__________________
Signature of the course Teacher
Dept. of Civil Engineering, KUET Geotechnical Engineering Laboratory Manual

RELATIVE FIELD DENSITY TEST

DATA SHEET
Group No: Roll No:
Soil description: Date of testing:

Minimum index dry density of the tested soil, 𝜌𝑑(𝑚𝑖𝑛) =

Maximum index dry density of the tested soil, 𝜌𝑑(𝑚𝑎𝑥) =
In-place or field dry density of the tested soil, 𝜌𝑑𝑓 =

In-place moisture content of the tested soil, 𝑤 =

Calculation:
𝜌𝑑𝑚𝑎𝑥 𝜌𝑑𝑓 −𝜌𝑑𝑚𝑖𝑛
The relative density of the tested soil, 𝐷𝑟 = ( ×𝜌 )=
𝜌𝑑𝑓 𝑑𝑚𝑎𝑥 −𝜌𝑑𝑚𝑖𝑛

Test Result:
The relative density of the tested soil, 𝐷𝑟 =

__________________
Signature of the course Teacher
Dept. of Civil Engineering, KUET Geotechnical Engineering Laboratory Manual

3. STANDARD TEST METHOD FOR UNCONFINED COMPRESSIVE

STRENGTH OF COHESIVE SOIL

3.1 Purpose
The primary purpose of this test is to determine the unconfined compressive strength, which is
then used to calculate the unconsolidated undrained shear strength of the clay under unconfined
conditions. According to the ASTM standard, the unconfined compressive strength (qu) is defined
as the compressive stress at which an unconfined cylindrical specimen of soil will fail in a simple
compression test. In addition, in this test method, the unconfined compressive strength is taken as
the maximum load attained per unit area, or the load per unit area at 15% axial strain, whichever
occurs first during the performance of a test.
3.2 Standard Reference
ASTM D 2166 - Standard Test Method for Unconfined Compressive Strength of Cohesive Soil
3.3 Significance
For soils, the undrained shear strength (su) is necessary for the determination of the bearing
capacity of foundations, dams, etc. The undrained shear strength (su) of clays is commonly
determined from an unconfined compression test. The undrained shear strength (su) of cohesive
soil is equal to one-half the unconfined compressive strength (qu) when the soil is under the 𝜙 = 0
condition (𝜙= the angle of internal friction). The most critical condition for the soil usually occurs
immediately after construction, which represents undrained conditions, when the undrained shear
strength is basically equal to the cohesion (c). This is expressed as: su = c. Then, as time passes,
the pore water in the soil slowly dissipates, and the intergranular stress increases, so that the
drained shear strength (𝜏), given by 𝜏 = 𝑐 ′ + 𝜎 ′ 𝑡𝑎𝑛𝜙 ′ , must be used. Where 𝜎 ′ = intergranular
pressure acting perpendicular to the shear plane; and 𝜎 ′ = 𝜎 − 𝑢 , 𝜎 = total pressure, and u = pore
water pressure; 𝑐 ′ and 𝜙 ′ are drained shear strength parameters.
3.4 General Discussion
With respect to shear strength, cohesive soil can fail under conditions of rapid loading where
excess pore pressures do not have time to dissipate. Under these conditions, the state of stress in
an element of soil can be illustrated in terms of a Mohr circle, with minor and major total principal
stress σ3 and σ1f, respectively. If identical specimens of cohesive soil are subjected to different
states of stress and rapidly loaded to failure without excess pore pressure dissipation, the Mohr
circles of each specimen possess the same diameter, thus producing a “total stress envelope” with
a friction angle of zero, and cohesion equal to the undrained shear strength, su (Fig. 3.1). It is
important to note, however, that if pore pressure is measured within each specimen during shearing
and total stresses are converted to effective stresses, each Mohr circle overlaps one another and is
tangent to the effective stress envelope with an effective cohesion c’ and effective
friction angle φ’. This illustrates an important point regarding the strength of soil: even under rapid
undrained loading, the strength of soil is still controlled by effective stress! To obtain information
for defining a total stress envelope, undisturbed specimens are often strength tested using the
unconsolidated-undrained (UU) triaxial test (Q test, ASTM D2850), where the specimen is placed
in a pressurized triaxial cell with σ3 equal to the cell pressure, and σ1 equal to the cell pressure plus
a deviator stress applied to the top of the specimen with a piston. The UU triaxial test requires the
use of a triaxial cell, where the soil specimen is sealed in a latex membrane, placed in a pressurized,
Dept. of Civil Engineering, KUET Geotechnical Engineering Laboratory Manual

water-filled triaxial cell, and tested. For over consolidated soil specimens with fissures that can act
as preferential planes of weakness, ASTM D2850 is a preferable method that will prevent the
specimen from failing along these preexisting planes to provide an accurate, representative
measure of the in-situ strength of the specimen. However, for suffer from the effects of fissuring,
so use of a triaxial cell to achieve a nonzero σ3 is not necessary. Under these conditions, σ1 can be
applied to an undisturbed specimen by loading it in a load frame under a constant strain rate, and
a single Mohr circle with σ3 =0 can be plotted to estimate su. This test is referred to as the
unconfined compressive strength test (ASTM D2166). It is a faster, simpler alternative to the UU
triaxial test that does not require the use of a triaxial cell, latex membrane, or pressure source. As
shown in Fig. 3.2, su is defined as the intercept of the total stress failure envelope, and is half of
the diameter of the Mohr circle. The unconfined compressive strength, qu, is defined as σ1 at failure.
By inspection, su is equal to one half of qu.
As more knowledge concerning soil behavior become available through research and field
observations, it is now accepted that the unconfined compression test only approximates the actual
soil shear strength for at least four reasons, as follows:
1. Sapling disturbance. Samples are recovered by pushing thin-walled tubes with a sharpened
and swaged cutting edge. The swaging produces a sample diameter slightly less than the tube
ID to reduce friction between sample and tube walls during recovery. These are called
“undisturbed” samples. Samples are also recovered and field tested from the standard split
spoon used in Standard Penetration Testing. These samples are usually quite disturbed since
the cutting-edge bevels from about 8mm down to 1.5 mm.
2. When the sample is removed from the ground the lateral restraint provided by the surrounding
soil mass is lost. There is, however, some opinion that internal sample moisture provides a
surface tension (or confining) effect so that the sample is somewhat “confined” for a
compression test. This effect will depend on degree of saturation S and humidity in the testing
area so that a quantitative estimate is impossible.
3. The internal soil conditions (the degree of saturation, the pore water pressure under stress
deformation, and the effects of altering the degree of saturation) cannot be controlled.
4. Sample quality. In all cases the sample diameter should be larger than 30 mm (ASTM
standard). If the sample consists of altering thin layers of sand and clay, the resulting su is
questionable value. If after testing, it is found that larger gravel particles are present make a
note on the data sheet to this effect. The larger particles tend to reduce su. Samples with gravel
have the following restrictions:

Table 3.1: Guideline of Sample diameter for samples with gravel.

Diameter of the sample (mm) Maximum gravel size

30 to 72 mm Diameter/ 10
> 72 mm Diameter/ 6

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Figure 3.1 Total stress Mohr-Coulomb failure envelope in UU triaxial test.

Figure 3.2 Total stress Mohr circle of UC test.

A typical configuration for the unconfined compressive strength testing is shown in Fig. 3.3. Axial
deformation, ∆L, is measured using a deformation indicator, and applied load, P, is measured using
a load cell. Axial strain, ε1, is expressed as:
ε1=∆L/Lo
where, is Lo is the initial length of the specimen. As the specimen deforms, its cross-sectional area
increases, and the corrected area, A, is expressed as:
A = Ao/(1- ε1)
Where, Ao is the initial cross-sectional area of the specimen. The major principal stress, σ1, is
expressed as:
σ1 = P/A.

Figure 3.3 Typical configuration of UC test.

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Unconfined compressive strength testing is performed by straining the specimen at a constant axial
strain rate of between 0.5-2.0%/min. Some systems apply load using a moving crossbar and fixed
pedestal, while others use a fixed crossbar and a moving pedestal. During the test, σ1 is plotted
versus ε1 to identify qu (Fig. 3.4). For stiff clays, qu is defined as the peak of the σ1- ε1 curve. For
soft clays, qu is defined as ε1 at a strain level of 15%.

Figure 3.4 Major principal Stress-axial strain curve.

3.5 Equipment
Compression device, Load and deformation dial gauges (graduated to 0.001 in), Sample trimming
equipment, Balance with precision of 0.01g, Moisture can, Oven (set at 110o± 5oC).
3.6 Sample Size
For test specimens, the largest particle should be less than one-tenth of the specimen diameter for
minimum diameter of 30 mm (1.3 in.). For specimens with diameters of 72 mm (2.8 in.) or larger,
the largest particle should be smaller than one-sixth of the diameter.

3.7 Test Procedure

The procedure for performing an unconfined compressive strength test on a cylindrical specimen
of cohesive soil is as follows:
1) Obtain a test specimen from your instructor. Unconfined compressive strength tests may be
performed on compacted or undisturbed specimens. Compacted specimens may be created using
a Harvard compactor or other device. Undisturbed specimens should be carefully trimmed from
undisturbed field samples (e.g., Shelby tube samples or block carved samples) using soil trimming
tools. Test specimens must satisfy the following criteria: 1) minimum diameter of 1.3 in., 2)
maximum particle size less than one-tenth of the specimen diameter (or one-sixth of the diameter
for specimens with diameters larger than 2.8 in.), and 3) a height to diameter ratio between 2.0 and
2.5 to have distinct shear failure. Moisture loss should be minimized between the time the
specimen is prepared and when it is tested. Prior to testing, the specimen should be weighed and
measured.

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Use calipers to measure the initial length (Lo) of the specimen. Measure the diameter near the top,
middle, and bottom of the specimen, and calculate the average diameter (Do) and average initial
area (Ao). Also measure the moist mass of the specimen (M).
2) Place the specimen in the load frame, and advance the pedestal (or crossbar) so that all the
moving parts (pedestal, specimen, load cell, and crossbar) are seated snugly against each other.
Zero the load cell. If a proving ring is used instead of a load cell, zero the dial gauge and record
the proving ring constant KP.
3) Position and zero the deformation indicator. If an analog dial gauge is used, record the dial
gauge conversion factor KL.
4) Begin loading the specimen at a strain rate between 0.5-2.0%/min. Take readings frequently
enough to fully define the peak of the curve during the test. Record your data on the Unconfined
Compressive Strength Test Data Sheet, and use additional sheets as needed. Load the specimen
until ε1 = 15%.
5) If your deformation indicator is a digital dial gauge, proximeter, or LVDT, your reading will be
∆L, and will be in units of length. If your deformation indicator is an analog dial gauge, your
reading will be GL, and will be in units of divisions. For analog dial gauges, ∆L is calculated as:
∆L = GLKL
6) If your load frame is configured with a load cell, your reading will be P, and will be in units of
force. If your load frame is configured with a proving ring instead of a load cell, your reading will
be GP, and will be in units of divisions. For proving rings, P is calculated as:
P = GPKP
7) Plot ε1 versus σ1 and identify qu as either 1) the peak value of σ1 or 2) σ1 at ε1 =15%.
8) Place the specimen in a soil drying oven overnight and obtain the dry weight of the specimen,
Ms, for weight-volume calculations.

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Figure 3.5 Photographs of the test.

3.8 Expected Results
Unconfined compressive strength of fine-grained soils may range from a few psi for soft, normally
consolidated clays, to over 50 psi for dry compacted specimens. For stiffer specimens, a failure
plane may be apparent within the specimen, oriented at an angle of approximately 45 degrees (Fig.
3.6). Softer specimens are less likely to exhibit a distinct failure plane, and are more likely to
demonstrate “barreling” behavior.

Figure 3.6 Failure pattern.

3.9 Sources of Error
The unconfined compressive strength test is appropriate for normally consolidated or slightly over
consolidated undisturbed specimens, or for compacted specimens of fine-grained soil. When these
specimens are tested without confinement, the failure plane will develop within the specimen.

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However, highly over consolidated specimens of undisturbed soil may possess cracks and fissures.
If these specimens are tested without confinement, failure may occur along one of these preexisting
surfaces. In this case, the strength of the soil will be underestimated. For highly over consolidated
soils, undrained shear strength should be measured using the unconsolidated-undrained (UU) type
triaxial test (ASTM D2850).
3.10 Additional Considerations
Unconfined compressive strength testing provides an estimate for the undrained shear strength of
fine-grained soil, which describes how soil will behave under short-term conditions of rapid
loading when excess pore pressures are not allowed to dissipate. This is most commonly used to
assess the load bearing capacity of soil. However, it is often necessary to estimate the shear strength
under conditions of long-term loading when excess pore pressures do not develop. One common
example is in the assessment of earth slope stability. Under these conditions, it is necessary to
estimate the drained strength parameters using triaxial strength testing (ASTM D4767).
3.11 Suggested Exercises
1) Perform unconfined compressive strength testing on two specimens of fine-grained soil
provided by your instructor. Use the attached Unconfined Compressive Strength Test Data Sheet.
2) Plot ε1 versus σ1 and identify qu
3) Draw Mohr’s circle using qu from the last step and show the undrained shear strength, su = c
(or cohesion) = qu/2.

3.12 Assignments
i. Why is the unconfined compressive strength test not suitable for granular soils?
ii. Briefly discuss the effects of soil density and water content on the undrained shear
strength of cohesive soil.
iii. Why should the unconfined compressive strength test be completed within 10 minutes?
How would exceeding this time affect the test results?
iv. Explain how strain rate affects test results. Why should softer soils be tested at higher
strain rates, while stiffer soils should be tested at lower strain rates?
v. What will be the effect of gravel on the undrained shear strength of cohesive soil? How
to mitigate this effect?
vi. Why does the undrained shear strength obtained from unconfined compression tests
always fall below the in-situ undrained shear strength of cohesive soils?
vii. Why does the unconfined compressive strength test result in a lower modulus of elasticity
(Es)?
viii. If an undisturbed sample collected from a depth of 10 ft has an su of 50 kPa, and a sample
from 15 ft has an su of 60 kPa, why does the unconfined compression test show higher su
values at greater depths?
ix. Draw the qualitative curve of stress-strain diagram for both undisturbed and remolded
sample. Also, show how to find the “sensitivity” from this curve?

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UNCONFINED COMPRESSIVE STRENGTH TEST OF COHESIVE SOIL

DATA SHEET
Group No: Roll No:
Soil description: Date of testing:

Diameter, D0 (mm) = (dt+2dmid+db)/4= Mass of soil sample, Mwet (gm) =

Initial height, lo (mm) = (l1+2l2+l3)/4 = Dry mass of the sample, Mdry (gm) =
Initial area, Ao (mm2) = Wet density of soils, ρwet (gm/cc) =
Initial volume, Vo (cm3) = Water content of the sample, w (%) =
Strain rate (%/min) = Dry density of the sample, ρdry (gm/cc) =
Deform. Dial Deformation Strain Corrected area, (mm2) Load dial Axial load, P Dev. Stress, q
read. R (div) δ (mm) = εa (%) 𝜀𝑎 read. LR (kN) = (kPa)
𝐴𝑐 = 𝐴𝑜 ⁄(1 − )
(1 div = ________×R (δ × 100⁄𝑙𝑜 ) 100 (div) _______× LR 106
_______ mm) (1 div = (𝑞 = 𝑃 × )
𝐴𝑐
______ kN)
0
20
40
60
80
100
150
200
250
300
350
400
450
500
600
700
800
900
1000
1100
1200
1300
1400
1500
1600
1700
1800
1900
2000
Dept. of Civil Engineering, KUET Geotechnical Engineering Laboratory Manual

Remarks (Comment on the failure pattern):

Failure Pattern:

__________________
Signature of the course Teacher

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From the stress-strain curve and Mohr-circle:

Unconfined compressive strength, qu (kPa) =
Undrained shear strength, Su (kPa) =

__________________
Signature of the course Teacher
Dept. of Civil Engineering, KUET Geotechnical Engineering Laboratory Manual

4. Unconsolidated-Undrained Triaxial Compression Test on Cohesive Soil

4.1 Purpose
The Unconconsolidated Undrained (UU) triaxial strength test provides a means to measure the
undrained shear strength (su) of cylindrical specimens of cohesive soil. The UU test is also referred
to as the Q test because it is a relatively fast (quick) test.
4.2 Standard Reference
ASTM D2850: Standard Test Method for Unconsolidated Undrained Triaxial Compression Test
on Cohesive Soils
4.3 Significance
This information is used to estimate the bearing capacity of spread footings and other structures
when placed on deposits of cohesive soil.

4.4 General Discussion

With respect to shear strength, cohesive soil can fail under conditions of rapid loading, where
excess pore pressures do not have time to dissipate. Under these conditions, the state of stress in
an element of soil can be represented by a Mohr circle. At failure, the minor and major total
principal stresses are σ3f and σ1f, respectively. If identical specimens of cohesive soil are subjected
to different states of stress and rapidly loaded to failure without allowing excess pore pressure
dissipation, the Mohr circles of each specimen possess the same diameter, thus producing a “total
stress envelope” with a friction angle of zero, and cohesion equal to the undrained shear strength,
su (Fig. 4.1). It is important to note, however, that if pore pressure is measured within each
specimen during shearing and total stresses are converted to effective stresses, each Mohr circle
overlaps one another and is tangent to the effective stress envelope with an effective cohesion c’
and effective friction angle φ’. This illustrates an important point regarding the strength of soil:
even under rapid undrained loading, the strength of soil is still controlled by effective stress!

Figure 4.1 Total stress Mohr-Coulomb failure envelope.

To obtain information for defining a total stress envelope, undisturbed specimens are often strength
tested using the unconsolidated-undrained (UU) triaxial test (Q test, ASTM D2850), where the
specimen is placed in a pressurized triaxial cell with σ3 equal to the cell pressure, and σ1 equal to
the cell pressure plus a deviator stress applied to the top of the specimen with a piston. The UU
triaxial test requires the use of a triaxial cell, where the soil specimen is sealed in a latex membrane,
placed in a pressurized, water-filled triaxial cell, and tested. For normally consolidated or slightly
overconsolidated soils, the unconfined compression test is a simpler alternative to the UU triaxial

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test. However, for overconsolidated soil specimens with fissures that can act as preferential planes
of weakness, ASTM D2850 is a preferable method that will prevent the specimen from failing
along these preexisting planes to provide an accurate, representative measure of the in situ strength
of the specimen.
A typical configuration for the UU triaxial test is shown in Fig. 4.2. The soil specimen is placed
between the base and cap, and sealed using a latex membrane and Orings. The sealed specimen is
placed in a water-filled triaxial pressure cell. The cell wall is typically constructed of clear acrylic
plastic, while the pedestal and top are typically metal. Cell walls are often configured with metal
belts to provide extra resistance against rupturing under pressure. The base is fixed to the pedestal.
A piston passes through the top of the cell, which transfers load through the cap to the specimen.
Testing is performed by applying load to the piston at a constant strain rate.

Figure 4.2 Experimental Configuration of UU triaxial testing.

Axial deformation, ΔL, is measured using the deformation indicator, and deviator load, P, is
measured using the load cell. Axial strain, ε1, is expressed as: ε1= ΔL/ Lo
where, Lo is the initial length of the specimen. As the specimen deforms, its crosssectional area
increases, and the corrected area, A, is expressed as: A = Ao/(1- ε1)
where, Ao is the initial cross-sectional area of the specimen. The deviator stress, Δσ, is expressed
as: Δσ = P/A.
The minor principal stress, σ3, is equal to the cell pressure, and the major principal stress, σ1, is
equal to:
σ1= σ3 + Δσ.
UU triaxial testing is performed by straining the specimen at a constant axial strain rate of between
0.3 and 1.0%/min. Plastic materials should be strained at a rate closer to 1.0%/min., while brittle

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materials should be strained at a rate closer to 0.3%/min. Some systems apply load using a moving
crossbar and fixed pedestal, while others use a fixed crossbar and a moving pedestal. Major
principal stress is plotted versus ε1 to identify the major principal stress at failure, σ1f (Fig. 4.3).
For stiffer clays, σ1f is defined as the peak of the σ1 – ε1 curve. For softer clays, σ1f is defined as σ1
at an axial strain of 15%.

Figure 4.3 Major principal stress versus axial strain for stiff and soft clays.
4.5 Equipments
The following equipment and materials are required to perform UU triaxial testing:
• Right-circular cylindrical specimen of cohesive soil;
• load frame;
• pressure system and water source;
• triaxial cell;
• 2 O-rings;
• latex membrane;
• membrane stretcher;
• vacuum grease;
• deformation indicator graduated to 0.001 in.;
• load cell or proving ring;
• scale with precision of 0.01 g;
• calipers;
• oven-safe moisture content container; and
• soil drying oven set at 110o ± 5oC.
Figure 4.4 is a disassembled triaxial cell illustrating each of the individual components.

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Figure 4.4 Disassembled triaxial cell.

UU triaxial tests may be performed on compacted or undisturbed specimens. Compacted
specimens may be created using a Harvard compactor or other device. Undisturbed specimens
should be carefully trimmed from undisturbed field samples (e.g.Shelby tube samples or block
carved samples) using soil trimming tools. Test specimens must satisfy the following criteria: 1)
minimum diameter of 1.3 in., 2) maximum particle size less than one-sixth of the specimen
diameter, and 3) a height: diameter ratio between 2.0 and 2.5. Moisture loss should be minimized
between the time the specimen is prepared and when it is tested. Prior to testing, the specimen
should be weighed and measured.
4.6 Test Procedure
The procedure for performing a UU triaxial test on a cylindrical specimen of cohesive soil is as
follows:
1) Obtain a soil specimen from your instructor. Use calipers to measure the initial length (Lo) of
the specimen. Measure the diameter near the top, middle, and bottom of the specimen, and
calculate the average diameter (Do) and average initial area (Ao). Also measure the moist mass of
the specimen (M).
2) Apply a light coating of vacuum grease to the perimeter of the base and cap to help create a
waterproof seal (Fig. 4.5).

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Figure 4.5 Applying vacuum grease to the base.

3) Place the soil specimen on the base, and place the cap on top of the specimen (Fig. 4.6). Make
sure that the piston hole in the cap faces up.

Figure 4.6 Specimen in place with base and cap (Note: a section of while PVC pipe is used in the
photo for demo).
4) Place the membrane and two O-rings on the membrane stretcher, and apply light vacuum to the
membrane stretcher tube to pull the membrane towards the inside wall of the membrane stretcher
(Fig. 4.7).

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Figure 4.7 Using membrane stretcher to prepare membrane for placement on.
5) The following steps describe how to place the membrane on the soil specimen (Fig. 4.8):
a. Carefully lower the stretched membrane over the specimen without touching the specimen.
b. Center the membrane on the specimen and release the vacuum to allow the membrane to
constrict around the specimen.
c. Gently pull the ends of the membrane over the base and cap so that the membrane surrounds the
base, specimen, and cap without wrinkles.
d. With the membrane stretcher still around the specimen, carefully roll the O-rings onto the
membrane where the membrane contacts the base and cap. If the base and cap are machined with
grooves, make sure that the O rings are seated in the grooves.

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Figure 4.8 Placing the membrane on the specimen.

6) The following steps describe how to assemble the triaxial cell (Fig. 4.9):
a. Place a light coating of vacuum grease on the O-rings in the pedestal and top.
b. Place the cell wall on the pedestal, and make sure the pedestal and cell wall are properly seated
against one another.
c. Place the top on the cell wall, and make sure the cell wall and top are properly seated against
one another.
d. Slide the piston down into the hole in the cap. The tip of the piston should be far enough into
the hole to prevent the specimen from tipping when the triaxial cell is moved, but should not be
applying any load to the cap. Once in position, lock the piston in place by turning the locking screw
in the top.
e. Tighten each of the three cell bars a little bit at a time, alternating between bars to assure an
intimate seal between the pedestal, cell wall, and top.

Figure 4.9 Assembling the triaxial cell.

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7) Open the vent valve in the top of the triaxial cell, and begin filling the triaxial cell with water
from the pedestal valve. Shut off all valves to the triaxial cell when water emerges from the vent
valve.
8) Position the triaxial cell in the load frame with the deformation indicator and load cell (Fig.
4.10).

Figure 4.10 Positioning the triaxial cell in the load frame.Components shown include: a. triaxial
cell; b. load cell; c. load cell display; d. crossbar; and e. water line to controlled pressure source
9) Apply the desired cell pressure σ3 to the cell through the bottom valve. You will know the
specimen is under pressure when the membrane appears to be in intimate contact with the
specimen.
10) Release the piston by loosening the locking screw in the top of the triaxial cell, and zero the
load cell. If a proving ring is used instead of a load cell, zero the dial gauge and record the proving
ring constant KP.
11) Zero the deformation indicator. If an analog dial gauge is used, record the dial gauge
conversion factor KL.
12) Manually advance the piston until the tip of the piston is seated against the cap. You will know
it is seated when the load cell begins to indicate a slight load. Once the load cell indicates a slight
load, stop advancing the piston.
13) Begin loading the specimen at a strain rate between 0.3-1.0%/min. ASTM D2850 suggests that
initial readings be taken at 0.1%, 0.2%, 0.3%, 0.4%, and 0.5%, 1.0%, 1.5%, 2.0%, 2.5%, and 3.0%.

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After that, readings should be taken at a strain interval of 1.0%. However, it may be necessary to
take readings more frequently to accurately identify the peak applied load. Record your data on
the Unconsolidated Undrained Triaxial Test Data Sheet, using additional sheets as
needed. Load the specimen until ε1 = 15%.
14) If your deformation indicator is a digital dial gauge, proximeter, or LVDT, your reading will
be ΔL, and will be in units of length. If your deformation indicator is an analog dial gauge, your
reading will be GL, and will be in units of divisions. For analog dial gauges, ΔL is calculated as:
ΔL = GLKL
15) If your load frame is configured with a load cell, your reading will be P, and will be in units
of force. If your load frame is configured with a proving ring instead of a load cell, your reading
will be GP, and will be in units of divisions. For proving rings, P is calculated as: P = GPKP.
16) Plot Δσ versus ε1. Identify the deviator stress at failure, Δσf, as either 1) the peak value of Δσ
or 2) Δσ at ε1 = 15%. Calculate σ1f as follows: σ1f = σ3 + Δσf.
17) Place the specimen in a soil drying oven overnight and obtain the dry weight of the specimen,
Ms, for weight-volume calculations.
18) Repeat Steps 1-17 for 3 or more additional specimens tested over a range of σ3. Plot the Mohr
circles for each specimen to define the Mohr-Coulomb failure envelope and su.
4.7 Expected Results
Undrained shear strength of fine-grained soils may range from a few psi for soft, normally
consolidated clays, to over 50 psi for dry compacted specimens. For stiffer specimens, a failure
plane may be apparent within the specimen, oriented at an angle of approximately 45 degrees (Fig.
4.11). Softer specimens are more likely to demonstrate “barreling” behavior.

Figure 4.11 Typical appearance of failed specimens after unconsolidated

4.8 Sources of Error
During UU triaxial testing, a specimen is placed under a confining stress of σ3 without drainage.
For fully saturated specimens (S = 100%) loaded without drainage, all of the load is carried by the
pore water, and the effective stress within the specimen remains the same regardless of σ3. As a
result, all of specimens possess the same strength, and the Mohr-Coulomb failure envelope is
horizontal. However, partially saturated specimens can consolidate without drainage, so strength
increases with increasing σ3. In this case, the Mohr-Coulomb failure envelope is slightly curved
(Fig. 4.12).

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Figure 4.12 Mohr-Coulomb failure envelope for partially saturated soil

Regardless of whether specimens are partially saturated or fully saturated, the most likely source
of error in the UU triaxial test stems from the fact that it is difficult to achieve perfect uniformity
between test specimens. Different specimens will possess different strengths, no matter how
similar they may be in their origin or preparation methods. As a result, it may be difficult to obtain
a perfectly horizontal Mohr-Coulomb failure envelope.
4.9 Additional Considerations
UU triaxial testing provides an estimate for the undrained shear strength of fine-grained soil, which
describes how soil will behave under short-term conditions of rapid loading when excess pore
pressures are not allowed to dissipate. This is most commonly used to shear strength under
conditions of long-term loading when excess pore pressures do not develop. One common example
is in the assessment of earth slope stability. Under these conditions, it is necessary to estimate the
drained strength parameters using triaxial strength testing (ASTM D4767). Triaxial strength tests
performed using ASTM D4767 are conducted in two stages. During the first stage, a saturated
specimen is placed under a cell pressure of σ3. Drainage ports in the base and cap allow excess
pore pressure to dissipate as the specimen consolidates. The first stage is referred to as the
consolidation stage, and is denoted by the letter C. During the second stage, the specimen is loaded
to failure. The second stage is referred to as the shearing stage. The shearing stage may be
performed under undrained conditions by closing the drainage ports and measuring pore pressure
within the specimen (the CŪ test), or under drained conditions by opening the drainage ports (the
CD test). Both of these tests provide information regarding the effective stress
failure envelope (c’ and φ’) for the soil. The CŪ test can be performed rapidly, while the CD test
must be performed slowly to prevent the development of excess pore pressures. In practice, the
CŪ test is more common than the CD test. Table 16.1 summarizes each of the three triaxial tests.
The UU test is also called the Q test because it is quick. The CD test is also called the S test because
it is slow. The CŪ test is also called the R test because R is between Q and S in the alphabet. The
bar over the U and R in the CŪ (R ) test denotes that pore pressure is measured during the test.
Table 4.1 Summary of triaxial strength tests

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4.10 Suggested Exercises

1) Perform two UU triaxial tests on specimens of fine-grained soil provided by your instructor.
Use the attached Unconsolidated Undrained Triaxial Test Data Sheets.
2) Plot deviator stress (Δσ) versus axial strain (ε1) for your tests, identify the deviator stresses at
failure (Δσf), and calculate the major principal stresses at failure (σ1f).
3) Use your data from the two tests to plot a Mohr-Coulomb failure envelope, and calculate the
undrained shear strength (su) of the soil.
4.11 Assignments

i. What is the use of Su?

ii. Why are the Mohr circle at failure the same size in the UU test, when Sr = 100%?
iii. Which is the best test to determine undrained shear strength of cohesive soil?
iv. Why is the UU test conducted while UCS also gives Su values?
v. Why is Young’s modulus of soil very low in UCS compared to UU test?
vi. Why does the effective stress Mohr Circle increases when Sr < 100%?
vii. When does the Su obtained from UCS and UU give the same result?

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UNCONSOLIDATED UNDRAINED TRIAXIAL TEST OF COHESIVE SOIL

DATA SHEET
Group No: Roll No:
Soil description: Date of testing:

Diameter, D0 (mm) = (dt+2dmid+db)/4= Mass of soil sample, Mwet (gm) =

Initial height, lo (mm) = (l1+2l2+l3)/4 = Dry mass of the sample, Mdry (gm) =
Initial area, Ao (mm2) = Strain rate (%/min) =
Initial volume, Vo (cm3) = Cell pressure, 𝜎3 (𝑘𝑃𝑎) =
Deform. Deformation Strain Corrected area, Load dial Axial load, P Dev. Stress, q Norma.
Dial read. δ (mm) = εa (%) (mm2) read. LR (kN) = (kPa) dev.
R (div) ________×R (δ 𝐴𝑐 (div) _______× LR 106 Stress
(1 div = × 100⁄𝑙𝑜 ) 𝜀𝑎 (1 div = (𝑞 = 𝑃 × ) ∆𝜎1
= 𝐴𝑜 ⁄(1 − ) 𝐴𝑐
_______ 100 ______ 𝜎3
mm) kN)
0
20
40
60
80
100
150
200
250
300
350
400
450
500
600
700
800
900
1000
1100
1200
1300
1400
1500
1600
1700
1800
1900
2000
Dept. of Civil Engineering, KUET Geotechnical Engineering Laboratory Manual

Remarks (Comment on the failure pattern):

Failure Pattern:

__________________
Signature of the course Teacher

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Dept. of Civil Engineering, KUET Geotechnical Engineering Laboratory Manual

__________________
Signature of the course Teacher
Dept. of Civil Engineering, KUET Geotechnical Engineering Laboratory Manual

__________________
Signature of the course Teacher
Dept. of Civil Engineering, KUET Geotechnical Engineering Laboratory Manual

5. CONSOLIDATION TEST
5.1 Purpose
This test is performed to determine the magnitude and rate of volume decrease that a laterally
confined soil specimen undergoes when subjected to different vertical pressures. From the
measured data, the consolidation curve (pressure-void ratio relationship) can be plotted. This data
is useful in determining the compression index, the recompression index and the preconsolidation
pressure (or maximum past pressure) of the soil. In addition, the data obtained can also be used to
determine the coefficient of consolidation and the coefficient of secondary compression of the soil.
5.2 Standard Reference
ASTM D 2435 - Standard Test Method for One-Dimensional Consolidation Properties of Soils.
5.3 Significance
The consolidation properties determined from the consolidation test are used to estimate the
magnitude and the rate of both primary and secondary consolidation settlement of a structure or
an earthfill. Estimates of this type are of key importance in the design of engineered structures and
the evaluation of their performance.
5.4 Equipment
Consolidation device (including ring, porous stones, water reservoir, and load plate), Dial gauge
(0.0001 inch = 1 division on dial), Sample trimming device, glass plate, Metal straight edge, Clock,
Moisture can, Filter paper.
5.5 General Discussion
The vertical effective stress in a horizontal layer of fine-grained soil, σ’, can be expressed as the
difference between vertical total stress, σ, and the pore water pressure, u:
σ’ = σ - u
If a layer of overburden soil is placed on top of the layer of fined-grained soil, σ’ will increase by
Δσ, an amount which is equal to the product of the total unit weight and thickness of the overburden
layer. However, σ’ does not increase instantly in the fine-grained soil layer. Initially, Δσ is carried
by the pore water in the soil, and excess pore water pressure is generated. Total stress and u both
increase by an amount equal to Δσ, and the initial change in effective stress, Δσ’, is equal to zero.
As time passes, the pressurized pore water in the fine-grained soil layer permeates into an adjacent
layer of more freely-draining (i.e.; higher hydraulic conductivity) soil. As this occurs, Δσ is
gradually transferred from the pore water to the soil particles, and the rate at which this occurs is
controlled by the hydraulic conductivity of the fine-grained soil. In addition, e decreases and the
volume of the fine-grained soil layer decreases. Once the excess pore water pressure has fully
dissipated, σ’ has increased by an amount equal to Δσ. This time-dependent dissipation of excess
pore water pressure and long-term reduction in e caused by the loading of fine-grained soils is
referred to as consolidation.
5.6 Test Procedure

5.6.1 Preparation of Soil Specimen and Configuration of Test

The one-dimensional consolidation test is performed by placing a cylindrical specimen of
undisturbed fine-grained soil in a consolidation cell (Fig. 5.1). With regard to specimen

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dimensions, ASTM D2435 specifies that 1) the minimum height and diameter is 0.5 in. and 2.00
in., respectively, 2) the height must exceed 10 times the maximum particle size, and 3) the
diameter: height ratio must exceed 2.5.
An undisturbed specimen may be recovered using a ring-lined sampler (ASTM D3550). Use of
the ring-lined sampler eliminates the need to trim the specimen, and the specimen can be placed
directly in the consolidation cell. However, Shelby tube sampling (ASTM D1587) is a more
common method for recovering undisturbed soil specimens. Use of a Shelby tube specimen
requires careful trimming of the soil to remove the outer, more disturbed portion of the soil, and
to cut a soil specimen that fits into a consolidation ring. Using this approach, a consolidation ring
with a beveled edge is slowly and gently pushed onto the undisturbed soil specimen with a diameter
larger than the diameter of the ring. As the ring is incrementally slid down onto the soil specimen,
excess soil is carefully trimmed away from the sides of the specimen so that the trimmed soil
specimen fits snugly into the consolidation ring. Petroleum jelly or vacuum grease is placed inside
the consolidation ring prior to trimming to reduce friction on the sides of the specimen as the soil
deforms during the consolidation test. Once the ring is completely filled with soil, the soil is
trimmed flush with the top and bottom of the consolidation ring, and the net weight of the soil in
the consolidation ring is obtained.

Figure 5.1 Consolidation ring and consolidation cell.

The soil-filled consolidation ring is then placed in the consolidation cell. The soil specimen is
sandwiched between two porous stones. The bottom stone is fixed to the consolidation cell, while
the top stone is fixed to the loading cap used to transfer load to the soil specimen. The porous
stones act as freely draining materials so that drainage in the soil specimen is two-way and the
drainage distance is half the height of the specimen. To prevent soil from intruding into the porous
stones and clogging them, filter paper disks are placed between the soil and the porous stones. The
consolidation cell is filled with water and placed in the load frame (Fig. 5.2). The load frame
includes a loading arm and a hanger from which weights are hung (Fig. 5.3). The load frame is
often configured with a mechanical advantage of around 10:1 to magnify the applied load. The

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weights that accompany a load frame are typically labeled with an equivalent stress that has been
calculated by the manufacturer based on the mechanical advantage of the load frame and the area
of the soil specimen in the consolidation cell.

Figure 5.2 Consolidation cell placed in load frame.

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Figure 5.3 One-dimensional consolidation test configuration.

To record soil deformation during the test, a deformation indicator is positioned over the soil
specimen. An analog dial gauge is shown in Figs. 5.2 and 5.3, but other types of devices, including
digital dial gauges, proximeters, and linear variable displacement transducers (LVDTs), can also
be used. Consult with your instructor for instructions on using the deformation indicators used in
your laboratory.
When the consolidation cell is first placed in the load frame, a seating load of 100 psf is typically
applied. Once the seating load is applied, the deformation indicator is set to zero. The seating load
may be increased for high-plasticity soils where swelling is anticipated, or decreased for soft soils
to minimize consolidation under the seating load.

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5.6.2 Performing Laboratory Measurements

The one-dimensional consolidation test is performed by incrementally loading the soil specimen.
Load increments start low and increase by a factor of two (e.g. 250 psf, 500 psf, 1000 psf, etc.).
The load sequence for the entire test may also include intermediate unloading and reloading steps.
By unloading and reloading the specimen, an accurate measurement of the recompression index,
Cr, can be obtained. A typical loading sequence is listed in Table 5.1. In this sequence, load 7 is
an unloading step, and loads 8 and 9 are reloading steps.

Table 5.1 Typical Loading Sequence

Load Number Applied stress (psf) Applied stress (kPa)
1 250 12
2 500 24
3 1000 48
4 2000 96
5 4000 192
6 8000 383
7 2000 96
8 4000 192
9 8000 383
10 16000 766
11 32000 1533
12 64000 3066

The duration of each load increment may be as short as a few hours, or as long as a few days,
provided that the load increment is long enough to include all primary consolidation and some
secondary compression. Silts may require a shorter load increment, while clays may require a
longer load increment. It is convenient, however, to use a 24-hour loading period for each load.
This facilitates scheduling of the test, while more or less assuring that primary consolidation is
complete before the end of each load increment. Since consolidation occurs rapidly at first and
gradually slows down, readings are taken more frequently at the beginning of the load. A typical
set of readings is listed in Table 5.2.

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Table 5.2 Typical Set of Readings for a Single Load Increment.

The times listed in Table 5.2 are target times, and readings should be taken at times within about
20% of these target times. For example, it is acceptable to substitute a 35-minute reading if a
reading cannot be taken exactly 30 minutes after initial loading. There are several devices available
for use on newer load frames to record deformation, including proximeters, LVDTs, and digital
dial gauges. These devices can be calibrated to read out in units of inches or millimeters, and use
of these devices is relatively straightforward. However, many older load frames are instrumented
with analog dial gauges (Fig. 5.4). Readings are taken on an analog dial gauge in units of divisions,
which are later converted to units of length using a conversion factor (e.g. 0.0001 in./division). A
dial gauge consists of a large hand moving around a large face, and a smaller hand moving around
a smaller inset face. The small hand advances one tick for each complete rotation of the large hand.
To read the dial gauge, the large hand is read in divisions and the small hand is read in hundreds
of divisions, and the two numbers are added together. When the small hand is between two
numbers, the smaller of the two numbers is selected. The deformation measured by a dial gauge
or other deformation indicator includes deformation as a result of soil consolidation. However,
compression of the filter paper and porous stones also contributes to the measured deformation.
Machine deflection readings are made by assembling the consolidation cell with the two porous
stones and two sheets of filter paper, but without the soil. The consolidation cell is placed in the
load frame, filled with water, and incrementally loaded using the same loading sequence to be used
in the consolidation test. Each load is placed for about one minute, and the deflection
corresponding to deformation of the porous stones and filter paper is recorded. To facilitate data
reduction, one deflection reading is taken for each load increment. When reducing consolidation
data for a given load increment, all of the measurements are corrected for machine deflection by
subtracting the corresponding machine deflection value from each measurement.

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Figure 5.4 Dial gauge shown with a reading of 763 divisions

5.6.3 Deriving cv and d100
Time-deformation data are used to derive coefficients of vertical consolidation, cv, and the
deformation corresponding to the end of primary consolidation, d100, for each load increment. The
coefficient of vertical consolidation decreases with increasing stress as hydraulic conductivity
decreases in accordance with Terzaghi’s Theory of Consolidation.
There are two graphical methods that can be used to derive cv and d100. The log time method is
advantageous because of the availability of commercial software that can be used to create semi-
log plots. The root time method is advantageous because there is less interpretation involved, and
settlement is approximately proportional to the square root of time. Each method is outlined in the
following sections.
10.6.3.1 Log Time Method
The procedure for deriving cv and d100 using the log time method (Fig. 5.5) is as follows:
1) Correct all deformation readings for machine deflection by subtracting the appropriate machine
deflection value for the corresponding load increment.
2) Plot deformation, d, versus time, t, in minutes on a semi-log plot. Time is plotted on the log
scale. If deformation is recorded using a dial gauge, d should be in units of divisions. If deformation
is recorded using a deformation indicator that reads directly in units of length, d should be in units
of length.

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Figure 5.5 Time-settlement data plotted in semi-log paper using log time
3) Identify d100 as the deformation corresponding to the intersection of the straight portions of the
primary consolidation and secondary compression curves.
4) Identify t2 as a time near the point of inflection of the primary consolidation portion of the curve.
5) Calculate t1 = t2/4.
6) Identify d1 and d2 corresponding to t1 and t2.
7) Calculate Δd = d2 – d1.
8) Calculate d0 = d1 – Δd.
9) Calculate d50 = (d0 + d100)/2
10) Identify t50 corresponding to d50.
11) Calculate the drainage distance corresponding to an average degree of consolidation of 50%,
HD50. If a dial gauge is used as a deformation indicator,

where Ho is the initial height of the specimen., and K is a dial gauge conversion factor (e.g. 0.0001
in./division). If deformation is recorded using a deformation indicator that reads directly in units
of length,

12) Calculate the coefficient of vertical consolidation, cv:

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10.6.3.2 Root Time Method

The procedure for deriving cv and d100 using the root time method (Fig. 5.6) is as follows:
1) Correct all deformation readings for machine deflection by subtracting the appropriate machine
deflection value for the corresponding load increment.
2) Plot deformation, d, versus time, t, in minutes on using root paper. Time is plotted on the root
scale. If deformation is recorded using a dial gauge, d should be in units of divisions. If deformation
is recorded using a deformation indicator that reads directly in units of length, d should be in units
of length.
3) Identify d0 as the y-intercept of the curve.
4) Extend linear portion of the curve to the bottom of the graph.
5) Find the intersection point of the linear portion and bottom of graph (X).
6) Multiply intersection point by 1.15 and post the 1.15X point on the bottom of graph.
7) Draw line between 1.15X point and d0.
8) Identify d90 as the intersection of the line and the curve.
9) Calculate d100:

10) Identify t90 corresponding to d90.

11) Calculate the drainage distance corresponding to an average degree of consolidation of 50%,
HD50 as above.
12) Calculate the average degree of vertical consolidation, cv:

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Figure 5.6 Time-settlement plotted in the root time method

5.6.4 Deriving e – log σ’ Curve
The deformation at the end of primary consolidation for each load increment, d100, is used to derive
a curve of e versus σ’. This curve should be plotted as a semi-log plot, with e plotted on the linear
axis and σ’ plotted on the log axis. After the consolidation test is completed, the consolidation cell
is dismantled and the dry mass of the soil, Ms, is obtained. This information is used to calculate
the initial void ratio of the specimen prior to the consolidation test, eo:
𝑉 𝑀 𝑀
(a) 𝐻𝑠 = 𝐴𝑠 = 𝐴𝜌𝑠 = 𝐴𝐺 𝑠𝜌
𝑠 𝑠 𝑤
(b) 𝐻𝑣0 = 𝐻0 − 𝐻𝑠
𝑉 𝐻 𝐴 𝐻
(c) 𝑒0 = 𝑉𝑣0 = 𝐻𝑣0𝐴 = 𝐻𝑣0
𝑠 𝑠 𝑠
∆𝐻
(d) 𝜀𝑣 = 𝜀𝑥 + 𝜀𝑦 + 𝜀𝑧 = 𝜀𝑧 = (as no lateral strain)
𝐻0
𝑉𝑜 −𝑉 𝑉𝑣0 +𝑉𝑠 −(𝑉𝑣 +𝑉𝑠 ) 𝒆𝟎 𝑉𝑠 +𝑉𝑠 −(𝒆𝑉𝑠 +𝑉𝑠 ) 𝒆 −𝒆
𝟎 ∆𝑯
(e) 𝜀𝑧 = 𝜀𝑣 = = = = 𝟏+𝒆 =
𝑉0 𝑉𝑣0 +𝑉𝑠 𝒆𝟎 𝑉𝑠 +𝑉𝑠 𝟎 𝑯𝟎
∆𝐻 ∆𝐻
(f) 𝑒 = 𝑒0 − 𝜀𝑧 (1 + 𝑒0 ) = 𝑒0 − 𝐻 (1 + 𝑒0 ) = 𝑒0 −
0 𝐻𝑠
The e – σ’ data pairs are then used to plot the e – log σ’ curve (Fig. 5.7). The e– log σ’ curve is
bilinear, with the flatter portion corresponding to reconsolidation at lower stresses, and the steeper
portion corresponding to virgin consolidation at higher stresses. The e – log σ’ curve is used to
derive the compression index, Cc, the recompression index, Cr, and the maximum previous
consolidation pressure, σ’max, which are used to estimate ultimate settlement. The compression and
recompression indices are the slopes of the two portions of the curve. To calculate these
parameters, two points are selected along a linear section of each portion the curve. The two points
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possess void ratios e1 and e2, and stresses σ1’ and σ2’, respectively, and are selected so that e1 > e2
and σ2’ > σ1’. Compression and recompression index are then expressed as:

The maximum previous consolidation pressure, σ’max, represents the highest vertical effective
stress that the soil has ever experienced. The Casagrande method is a graphical method for deriving
σ’max as described in ASTM D2435, and is illustrated in Fig. 5.8.

Figure 5.7 Typical e – log σ’ curve.

Figure 5.8 Casagrande's graphical method for finding pre-consolidation pressure.

5.7 Expected Results
Most soils have some degree of over consolidation, so the e – log σ’ curve derived from a one-
dimensional consolidation test is typically bi-linear as illustrated in Fig. 5.7. Recompression index,
Cr, is typically around 0.1, while compression index, Cc, may be around 0.5 to 1.0. Maximum

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previous consolidation pressure may be a few thousand psf, but is dependent upon the over
consolidation ratio of the soil. Over consolidation ratio (OCR) is defined as:

Where, σ’i is the in situ effective stress of the soil. OCR ranges from 1.0 for younger, normally
consolidated clays, to over 4.0 for older, highly over consolidated clays. Coefficient of vertical
consolidation, cv, is typically around 0.1-0.5 ft2/day for virgin consolidation (stresses lower than
σ’max), and around 0.5-1.0 ft2/day for recompression (stresses greater than σ’max).
5.8 Sources of Error
Results obtained from a one-dimensional laboratory consolidation test may be used to estimate
ultimate settlement and settlement rates in the field. However, the laboratory test only allows
excess pore water pressure to dissipate in the vertical direction. In the field, larger-scale
heterogeneities in a soil mass may allow lateral drainage, which shortens the drainage distance and
accelerates consolidation. Wick drains and sand drains are often used to accelerate consolidation
in thick clay layers by shortening the drainage distance. Wick drains and sand drains are vertically
oriented drainage features with diameters on the order of inches, that are installed over a grid with
a spacing on the order of 10 ft. The one-dimensional consolidation test is also based on the
assumption of plane loading with no edge effects. In the field, structures such as embankments are
finite in dimension, so pore water can migrate laterally as well as vertically to dissipate excess
pore pressure, which also accelerates consolidation. To obtain a more accurate estimate of time
rates of settlement for features with edges and finite dimensions, such as embankments or
foundations, numerical methods may be employed. Finally, soil disturbance plays a significant
role in estimating ultimate settlement. Ideally, consolidation tests are performed on undisturbed
soil specimens. Soil disturbance tends to reduce the distinction between the reconsolidation and
virgin consolidation portions of the e – log σ’ curve. As illustrated in Fig. 5.9, soil disturbance
tends to increase Cr and reduce Cc.

Figure 5.9 Effect of soil disturbance

5.9 Additional Considerations
Consolidation occurs in soil due to long-term increases in effective stress. Increasing the
overburden is one mechanism that increases effective stress by increasing total stress. However,

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lowering the water table also increases effective stress by reducing pore water pressure. In some
areas where groundwater pumping has been extensive, large urban areas have undergone
significant settlement due to an increase in effective stress. For large construction projects in
congested downtown areas where the water table is near the ground surface and groundwater must
be pumped to drain the basement for excavation, settlement of adjacent structures may be
significant, and mitigating measures may be warranted.
5.10 Suggested Exercises
1) Perform a machine deflection test for each load in your test. Record the data using the Machine
Deflection Test Data Sheet at the end of the chapter. If your instructor has already performed a
machine deflection test, obtain the data from them.
2) Prepare an undisturbed specimen of fine-grained soil for performing an one-dimensional
consolidation test. Record the data using the Specimen Preparation Data Sheet at the end of the
chapter. If your instructor has already prepared the specimen for testing, obtain the data from them.
3) Record time-deformation data for one increment of loading as directed by your laboratory
instructor. Record your data using the Time-Deformation Data Sheet at the end of the chapter. Plot
deformation versus time on a semi-log plot. Use the log time graphical construction method to
calculate cv and d100 for your load increment. Create the plot using semi-log graph papers, and
record your data and calculations on the Time-Deformation Plotting Using the Log Time Method
Data Sheet at the end of the chapter.
5) Plot deformation versus time using the root time plotting paper at the end of the chapter. Use
the root time graphical construction method to calculate cv and d100 for your load increment. Record
your calculations on the Time-Deformation Plotting Using the Root Time Method Data Sheet at
the end of the chapter..
6) Obtain d100 data for each load increment in the test from your instructor to create an e – log σ’
plot. Create the plot using either semi-log graph paper or commercial software, and record your
data and calculations on the Construction of e – log σ’ Curve Data Sheet at the end of the chapter.
Calculate Cc, Cr, and σ’max.
5.11 Assignments
(i) What are the factors on which the rate of consolidation depends?
(ii) Which method of 𝑐𝑣 calculation is preferable? Why?
(iii) For which kind of soil, Secondary compression is important?
(iv) Define 𝑐𝑐 ; 𝑐𝑟 ;𝜎𝑝′ ; 𝑐𝑣 ; 𝑚𝑣 ; 𝑎𝑣 on the appropriate graph.

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DATA SHEET
Group No: Roll No:
Soil Description: Date of Testing:

Consolidation Test Data

A. Sample Info. D. Computation

Diameter, d (cm) Initial mass of Water, Mwo
(gm) = Mrsw + Md - Mdrs
Initial Height, Ho (cm) Mass of dry soil, Ms (gm) =
Mdrs – Mr – Md
Area, Ao (cm2) Initial water content, wo (%) =
Mwo*100/Ms
Volume, Vo (cc) Height of soil solids, Hs (cm)
= Ms/GsAo
Specific Gravity, Gs Initial height of void, Hvo
(cm) = Ho – Hs
B. Data before the Test Initial Void ratio, eo = Hvo/Hs
Mass of ring, Mr (gm) Initial degree of saturation,
Sro (%) = woGs/eo
Mass of ring + wet soil, The final mass of water, Mwf
Mrsw (gm) (gm)= Mdrsw-Mdrs =
C. Data after Test Final water content, Wf (%)=
Mwf*100/Ms
Mass of dish, Md (gm) Final height of void, Hvf (cm)
= Mwf/Ao
Mass of dish + ring + Final void ratio, ef = Hvf/Hs
wet soil, Mdrsw (gm)
Mass of dish + ring + dry The final degree of saturation,
soil, Mdrs (gm) Sr = WfGs/ef

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Cv=0.848*Hdr2/t90
D90

t90

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Consolidation Test Data

Date and Load Time Elapsed Time(min) Dial Readings Remarks

Date and Load Time Elapsed Time (min) Dial Readings Remarks

Date and Load Time Elapsed Time (min) Dial Readings Remarks

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Date and Load Time Elapsed Time (min) Dial Readings Remarks

Date and Load Time Elapsed Time (min) Dial Readings Remarks

Date and Load Time Elapsed Time (min) Dial Readings Remarks

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Date and Load Time Elapsed Time (min) Dial Readings Remarks

Date and Load Time Elapsed Time (min) Dial Readings Remarks

Date and Load Time Elapsed Time (min) Dial Readings Remarks

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Date and Load Time Elapsed Time (min) Dial Readings Remarks

Date and Load Time Elapsed Time (min) Dial Readings Remarks

Date and Load Time Elapsed Time (min) Dial Readings Remarks

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6. DIRECT SHEAR TEST OF SOILS

6.1 Purpose
This test is performed to determine the consolidated-drained shear strength of cohesionless soils
because of the inherent difficulties in preparing specimens for triaxial tests. This standard can also
be applied to test cohesive soils under conditions of drained loading to derive drained shear
strength parameters. However, it is seldom used for testing cohesive soils, and its use is generally
limited to cohesionless soils.
6.2 Standard Reference
ASTM D 3080 - Standard Test Method for Direct Shear Test of Soils Under Consolidated Drained
Conditions
6.3 Significance
The direct shear test is one of the oldest strength tests for soils. In this laboratory, a direct shear
device will be used to determine the shear strength of a cohesionless soil (i.e. angle of internal
friction (φ’)). The shear strength is one of the most important engineering properties of a soil. The
shear strength is needed for engineering situations such as determining the stability of slopes or
cuts, finding the bearing capacity for foundations, and calculating the pressure exerted by a soil on
a retaining wall.
6.4 General Discussion
With respect to shear strength, soil can be viewed as a frictional material. Consider a block of soil
sheared along a failure plane as shown in Fig. 6.1. A normal force, N, is applied, and the failure
plane slips when a shear force Ff is achieved. If the area of the block is A, then the normal stress
and shear stress, σ and f, are expressed as: σ = N/A and f = Ff/A.
If the normal force N is increased, a higher value of Ff is required to cause the failure plane to slip.
By plotting σ versus f over a range of N, a Mohr-Coulomb failure envelope is defined. The
intercept of the Mohr-Coulomb failure envelope is c’, and the friction angle is φ’ as shown in Fig.
6.2. Thus, f can be expressed as a function of σ’: 𝜏 = 𝑐 ′ + 𝜎′𝑡𝑎𝑛𝜙′.

Figure 6.1 Schematic illustration of the direct shear test

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Figure 6.2 Mohr-Coulomb failure envelope

The superscript (‘) over the c, σ, and φ terms indicates that the strength properties measured during
the test are drained properties, where pore pressure remains near zero throughout the test. This test
is referred to as a direct shear test, and is often used to measure the strength of cohesionless soils
where c’ is approximately equal to zero. A variation of the direct shear test (ASTM D5321) is also
used to estimate the interface frictional properties of geosynthetic materials.

Horizontal displacement (ΔH), vertical displacement (ΔV), and F are measured during a direct
shear test. Shear stress () is calculated as: =F/A and is plotted versus ΔH to identify f. For loose
soils, the – ΔH curve does not exhibit a distinct peak, and f is defined as  at large strains (e.g.
ΔH > 0.3 in.), where  is more or less independent of ΔH. For dense soils, the – ΔH curve exhibits
a distinct peak, and f is defined as the peak shear stress. Examples of typical – ΔH curves for
loose and dense soils are illustrated schematically in Fig. 6.3. If ΔV is plotted as a function of ΔH,
two distinct curves result depending on whether the soil is dense or loose. For loose soils, the
volume of the soil decreases during shearing. Loose soils are contractive, and the soil particles
move into existing voids. As a result, the soil undergoes a net decrease in volume as ΔV decreases.
For dense soils, the volume of the soil increases during shearing as the soil dilates. For dense soils,
the soil particles must move up and over one another for the soil to shear, so the soil undergoes a
net increase in volume as ∆V increases. This phenomenon is referred to as dilation. Examples of
the contractive and dilative behavior of loose and dense soils are illustrated in Fig. 6.4.

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Figure 6.3 Shear stress vs horizontal displacement plots

Figure 6.4 Vertical displacement vs horizontal displacement plots

6.5 Equipment
Direct shear device, Load and deformation dial gauges, Balance.
The direct shear machine is illustrated schematically in Fig. 6.5. Soil specimens are typically
cylindrical, and are placed inside a square shear box. The minimum specimen diameter is 2.0 in.,
but the diameter must be at least 10 times the maximum particle size. The thickness of the specimen
must be at least 0.5 in., and the minimum diameter : thickness ratio is 2:1.

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Figure 6.5 Schematic illustration of a direct shear machine

The shear box (Fig. 6.6) consists of an upper and lower half. Two locking pins hold the top and
bottom of the shear box together while the soil specimen is placed inside, but they must be removed
during testing. Failure to remove the locking pins during testing will result in damage to the shear
box. The four separating screws pass through the top half of the shear box, and the tips of the
screws rest on the bottom half. The separating screws are used to separate the top and bottom
halves of the shear box during testing to minimize the effect of metal-to-metal friction on the shear
load. The shear box is placed in the direct shear machine, and the test is conducted so
that the plane corresponding to the boundary between the upper and lower halves of the shear box
is the failure plane. The top half of the shear box is fixed against a load cell (or proving ring), and
the bottom half of the box is free to move over roller bearings. Normal load, N, is usually applied
to the failure plane through a loading cap on top of the specimen using dead weights. Some
systems, however, use hydraulic or pneumatic pressure to apply N. Shear load, F, is applied to the
failure plane by pushing against the bottom half of the box with a screw at a controlled deformation
rate of between 0.0001 and 0.04 in./min. For granular soils, the strain rate can be closer to 0.04
in./min because it is not necessary to allow for excess pore pressures to dissipate. Since the top
half of the box bears against the load cell, the amount of shear load carried by the failure plane and
transferred from the bottom half to the top half of the box is measured directly.

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Figure 6.6 Shear box (shown disassembled); the hole in the middle of the shear box is filled with
soil during testing. Shown in photograph: a. Loading cap; b. Top half; c. Bottom half; d.
Separating screws (4); and e. Locking pins (2).
Horizontal and vertical displacement (ΔH and ΔV) are measured during the test using deformation
indicators. Horizontal displacement must be measured to the nearest 0.001 in., while vertical
displacement must be measured to the nearest 0.0001 in. There are several devices available for
use on newer machines to measure deformation, including proximeters, LVDTs, and digital dial
gauges. These devices can be calibrated to output directly in units of length, and use of these
devices is relatively straightforward. However, many older machines are instrumented with analog
dial gauges (Fig. 6.4). Readings are taken on an analog dial gauge in units of divisions, which are
later converted to units of length using a conversion factor (e.g. 0.0001 in./division). Most direct
shear machines measure F using a load cell, but many older machines are instrumented with a
proving ring. A proving ring is a large metal ring with a dial gauge positioned on the inside. As
the proving ring is loaded in a radial direction, it deforms from a circular shape into an oval shape,
and the amount of deformation is recorded using the dial gauge. There is a linear relationship
between deformation and applied load, so the deformation observed using the dial gauge can be
converted to load using a calibration constant (e.g. 30 lbs./division). There have been many
different configurations for direct shear machines manufactured and used over the years. Each
design is slightly different, but all possess the same basic components shown in Fig. 6.5. A
photograph of one type of direct shear machine is shown in Fig. 6.7. This particular machine is
configured with a load cell for measuring F, analog dial gauges for measuring ΔH and ΔV, and a
dead weight system for applying N.

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Figure 6.7 Photograph of a direct shear machine

6.6 Test Procedure
The following describes the procedure for performing a direct shear test to derive a single point
(σ,f ) for the Mohr-Coulomb failure envelope:
1) Assemble the shear box and fill it with soil provided by your laboratory instructor. Place the
soil in the shear box by dropping it through the funnel from a height of approximately 1.0 in. (Fig.
6.7). Using a consistent specimen preparation method assures uniformity between specimens to
obtain a linear Mohr-Coulomb failure envelope.
[If undisturbed is collected from field using generally thin-walled Shelby tube or from block
sample, extrude or trim the soil sample from the sampler to fit in the shear box using a wire saw
to minimize sample disturbance. Specimens shall be prepared using the compaction method, water
content, and unit weight prescribed by the individual assigning the test. Place the sample material
in the shear box and use the compaction tool to compact the soil dynamically or statically until the
desired/prescribed unit weight is obtained. Level and smooth the upper surface of the sample]
2) Measure the diameter of the soil specimen and calculate the area, A.
3) Place the shear box in the direct shear machine. Clamp the shear box in, and advance the screw
manually so that all moving parts (screw, shear box, and load cell/proving ring) are seated snugly
against one another.
4) Place the normal load, N, onto the specimen to achieve the desired level for f (Fig. 6.8). If your
machine has a dead weight hanger with a mechanical advantage, multiply the weight by the
mechanical advantage to calculate the true normal force applied to the specimen. If your machine
is configured with a hydraulic or pneumatic system instead of a dead weight system, ask your
instructor for guidance.

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Figure 6.8 Preparing a specimen for direct shear testing by placing soil in the shear

Figure 6.9 Applying normal load to the specimen using a dead weight system. The system shown
in the photograph has a 10:1 mechanical advantage.

5) Position and zero the deformation indicators and load cell. If your machine is configured with
analog dial gauges for measuring deformation, record the displacement conversion factors for the
horizontal and vertical dial gauges, KH and KV. If your machine is configured with a proving ring
instead of a load cell, record the proving ring constant, KF.
6) REMOVE THE LOCKING PINS FROM THE SHEAR BOX (Fig. 6.9) and turn the separating
screws one-quarter of a turn to separate the top and bottom halves of the shear box.

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Figure 6.10 Removing the locking pins from the shear box prior to shearing (WARNING:
Failure to remove the locking pins prior to shearing may seriously damage the shear box and
direct shear machine!)
7) Begin shearing the specimen at a deformation rate ΔH/Δt of approximately 0.5 mm/min. Record
your data on the attached Direct Shear Test Data Sheet, and use additional sheets as needed.
a. If your deformation indicators are digital dial gauges, LVDTs, or proximeters, your horizontal
and vertical measurements will be ΔH and ΔV, and will be in units of length. If your machine is
configured with analog dial gauges, your horizontal and vertical measurements will be GH and GV,
and will be in units of divisions.
b. If your force indicator is a load cell, your measurement will be F, and will be in units of force.
If your force indicator is a proving ring, your measurement will be GF, and will be in units of
divisions.
c. Record measurements frequently enough so that the peak value for F is recorded (a recording
interval of ΔH = 0.01 in. should be adequate). Shear the specimen until ΔH reaches 0.3 in.
d. Vertical displacement readings will be either positive or negative, depending on whether your
specimen dilates or contracts. Make sure you know the sign convention for the vertical deformation
indicator so that you can accurately determine whether the specimen dilated or contracted.
8) If your deformation indicators are analog dial gauges, convert the horizontal and vertical dial
gauge readings GH and GV to horizontal and vertical displacement, ΔH and ΔV using the following
relationships: ΔH = GHKH and ΔV = GVKV. If your machine is configured with a proving ring,
convert the proving ring reading GF to shear force F using the following relationship: F = GFKF.
9) Calculate  for each measurement, and plot  versus ΔH to identify f. For dense soils, f will
correspond to the peak value of . For loose soils, f will correspond to the value of  at large
strains, where  has reached a constant value.
10) Repeat Steps 1-9 using different values for σ to derive 4 or more points for plotting of the
Mohr-Coulomb failure envelope. Plot f versus σ using these points to identify c’ and φ’.

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6.7 Expected Results

Typical values of c’ for cohesionless soils are around zero (hence the term “cohesionless”). Typical
values of φ’ for cohesionless soil range from 30-40 degrees. Friction angle increases with
increasing particle angularity, and with decreasing void ratio.
6.8 Sources of Error
Since φ’ is dependent upon void ratio, the most likely source of error in the direct shear test is in
specimen preparation. In the experiment described herein, each specimen is prepared in a
consistent manner by dropping the soil through a funnel from a height of 1.0 in. If different
preparation methods are used, however, the specimens will have different void ratios. φ’ increases
with decreasing void ratio. Thus, a Mohr-Coulomb failure envelope constructed with specimens
prepared using different methods will not be linear.
6.9 Additional Considerations
If direct shear testing is performed as part of a Construction Quality Assurance (CQA) program
for a given project to assure that design criteria are satisfied, it is important to perform the
laboratory tests under conditions that are consistent with the design criteria. For example, if design
criteria state that sand used for a drainage layer is to be placed at a dry unit weight of 120 pcf, then
the specimens in the laboratory should be prepared at the same dry unit weight. In this instance,
extra effort would be required to measure the mass and volume of the soil in the shear box, densify
the soil using either compaction or vibratory densification, and perform weight-volume
calculations.
During shearing, the actual sheared area decreases as the bottom half of the shear box moves
relative to the top half, which has a slight effect on f, and σ’.To correct for this effect for a round
specimen with diameter D, f and σ‘ would be calculated using a corrected area, Acorr, where:

Application of this correction, however, will move a given f -σ’ data point up and to the right, thus
keeping it more or less on the Mohr-Coulomb failure envelope and ultimately having a negligible
effect on the final calculated values for c’ and φ.’ Therefore, this correction is usually not
performed, nor is it described in the ASTM D3080 test standard.
6.10 Suggested Exercises
1) Perform 4 direct shear tests on the soil provided by your instructor using normal stresses ranging
between 5 to 100 psi. Record your data on the attached Direct Shear Test Data Sheet.
2) Plot shear stress (f ) versus horizontal displacement (ΔH) for each test, and identify the shear
stress at failure (f ) for each test.
3) Plot vertical displacement (ΔV) versus ΔH for each test. Did your specimens dilate or contract?
4) Plot a Mohr-Coulomb failure envelope of f versus normal stress, σ for the soil. Use the Mohr-
Coulomb failure envelope to calculate the cohesion (c’) and friction angle (φ’) for the soil.

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6.11 Assignments
(i) What is the purpose of the Direct Shear Test? Which soil properties does it measure?
(ii)Why are porous stones used in the direct shear test serrated or toothed?
(iii) Under which circumstances and soils should a very slow shearing speed be used?
(iv) Is the shear strength of coarse-grained soils influenced by the shearing rate in a direct shear
test?
(v) On which basis, is the rate of shearing selected for coarse-grained soils?
(vi) Why are the peak frictional angle and the residual frictional angle of L-soil/NC soils the same?
(vii) Why do the peak frictional angle and the residual frictional angle of D-soil/OC soils differ?

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Direct Shear Test

Data Sheet
Group No: Roll No:
Soil Description: Date of Testing:

Sample Diameter, D0 (mm) = Displacement rate (mm/min) =

Sample Height, H0 (mm) = Dry mass of soil, Ms (gm) =
Initial area, A0 (mm2) = Dry density, ρs (gm/cc) =
Proving ring constant, KF (kN/div) = Max dry density, ρmax (gm/cc) =
Hori. Dial gauge conversion, KH (mm/div) = Max dry density, ρmin (gm/cc) =
Verti. Dial gauge conversion, KV (mm/div) = Initial relative density, Dr (%) =

Normal stress, σ՛ (kPa) =

GH (div) H = GH KH GV (div) V = GV Shear F = GFKF A  =106F/A
GF (div)
(mm) KV (mm) (kN) (mm2) (kPa)

fp (kPa)=
f r(kPa)=

__________________
Signature of the course teacher

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Normal stress, σ՛ (kPa) =

GH (div) H = GH KH GV (div) V = GV Shear F = GFKF A  =106F/A
GF (div)
(mm) KV (mm) (kN) (mm2) (kPa)

fp (kPa)=
f r(kPa)=

Normal stress, σ՛ (kPa) =

GH (div) H = GH KH GV (div) V = GV Shear F = GFKF A  =106F/A
GF (div)
(mm) KV (mm) (kN) (mm2) (kPa)

fp (kPa)=
f r(kPa)=

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The peak friction angle, 𝜑𝑝 =

The displacement at peak, 𝛿𝑝 =

The residual friction angle, 𝜑𝑟 =

The displacement at residual, 𝛿𝑟 =

__________________
Signature of the course teacher

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