ROBOTICS(GE)

Robot: A robot is a machine designed to execute one or more tasks autonomously. Robots are typically
programmable, meaning they can follow a set of instructions (or a program) to perform specific tasks.
These tasks can range from simple operations like moving in a straight line to complex activities like
navigating through an environment or manipulating objects with precision. Robots can be guided by
external control devices or embedded control systems and can range from mobile devices to stationary
machines.

 Robotics: Robotics is an interdisciplinary branch of engineering and science that includes

mechanical engineering, electrical engineering, computer science, and others. Robotics involves the
design, construction, operation, and use of robots. The goal of robotics is to create machines that
can assist humans in various tasks, from manufacturing and surgery to space exploration and
household chores. Robotics combines various fields of technology, such as artificial intelligence (AI),
machine learning (ML), and automation to create robots that can sense, think, and act.

Types of Robots

1. Industrial Robots: These robots are primarily used in industrial applications, such as manufacturing,
assembly, and packaging. They are designed to perform repetitive tasks with high precision and
efficiency, reducing human error and increasing productivity. Examples include robotic arms used in
automobile manufacturing for welding and painting or in electronics for assembly and packaging.

2. Service Robots: Service robots assist humans in everyday tasks. They can be found in households as
vacuum cleaning robots, in retail environments as automated kiosks, and in healthcare settings as
robotic assistants. These robots are designed to enhance the quality of life by taking over mundane
or physically demanding tasks.

3. Autonomous Robots: Autonomous robots have the ability to make decisions and navigate their
environment without human intervention. Examples include self-driving cars, which use sensors and
algorithms to navigate roads, and drones, which can fly and perform tasks like aerial photography or
package delivery.

4. Humanoid Robots: Humanoid robots are designed to resemble and mimic human actions. They
have a human-like appearance and can perform tasks similar to those of humans. Examples include
ASIMO by Honda and Sophia by Hanson Robotics. These robots are used in research, entertainment,
and as personal assistants.

5. Medical Robots: Medical robots assist in medical procedures, patient care, and rehabilitation.
Examples include the Da Vinci Surgical System, which allows surgeons to perform minimally invasive
surgeries with high precision, and robotic prosthetics, which help individuals regain mobility.

6. Military Robots: Military robots are used for defense and security purposes. They can perform tasks
such as surveillance, reconnaissance, bomb disposal, and combat. Examples include drones used for
aerial reconnaissance and robotic tanks for ground operations.

7. Swarm Robots: Swarm robots consist of multiple small robots working together to perform tasks
that a single robot cannot achieve alone. They are used in applications such as search and rescue
missions, environmental monitoring, and agriculture. Swarm robots communicate and collaborate
to achieve their goals.
Components of a Robot

1. Sensors: Sensors are devices that detect changes in the environment and send this information to
the robot's control system. Sensors can measure various parameters, such as temperature,
pressure, light, and movement. Examples include infrared sensors for detecting objects, gyroscopes
for measuring orientation, accelerometers for detecting movement, and cameras for capturing
visual data.

2. Actuators: Actuators are components that convert electrical signals into physical movement. They
are responsible for moving the robot's parts, such as arms, wheels, or legs. Examples include
electric motors that drive wheels, hydraulic cylinders that move arms, and pneumatic systems that
control grippers.

3. Control System: The control system is the brain of the robot. It processes data from sensors, makes
decisions based on this data, and sends commands to actuators to perform actions. The control
system can be a microcontroller, embedded system, or a computer running specialized software.

4. Power Supply: The power supply provides energy to the robot. It can be in the form of batteries,
solar panels, or direct electrical power. The choice of power supply depends on the robot's design
and intended use.

5. End Effectors: End effectors are tools or devices attached to the end of a robotic arm that interact
with objects. Examples include grippers for picking up items, welding torches for joining materials,
and surgical tools for performing medical procedures.

6. Communication System: The communication system allows the robot to send and receive data. It
can use wireless networks, Bluetooth, or direct connections to communicate with other robots,
control systems, or external devices.

Robot Degrees of Freedom (DoF)

Degrees of Freedom (DoF) refer to the number of independent movements a robot can make. Each DoF
corresponds to a specific direction in which the robot can move.

Degree of freedom: In mechanics, the degree of freedom (DOF) of a mechanical system is the number of
independent parameters that define its configuration. It is the number of parameters that determine the
state of a physical system and is important to the analysis of systems of bodies in mechanical engineering,
aeronautical engineering, robotics, and structural engineering. The position and orientation of a rigid body
in space is defined by three components of translation and three components of rotation, which means
that it has six degrees of freedom. Fig 1.8. Six degrees of freedom of movement of a ship The motion of a
ship at sea has the six degrees of freedom of a rigid body, and is described as shown in fig 1.8.

Translation:

1. Moving up and down (heaving);

2. Moving left and right (swaying);

3. Moving forward and backward (surging);

Rotation:

4. Tilts forward and backward (pitching);

5. Swivels left and right (yawing);

6. Pivots side to side (rolling).

 1 to 3 DoF: Robots with limited motion, such as a simple robotic arm that can move up and down or
side to side.

 4 to 6 DoF: Robots with more complex motion capabilities, allowing them to move in multiple
directions, similar to human limbs.

 6+ DoF: Robots with full spatial control, capable of performing advanced tasks that require precise
and coordinated movements.

Robot Joints

Joints determine the flexibility and movement of a robot. They are categorized as:

Joints and Links: The manipulator of an industrial robot consists of a series of joints and links. Robot
anatomy deals with the study of different joints and links and other aspects of the manipulator's physical
construction. A robotic joint provides relative motion between two links of the robot. Each joint, oraxis,
provides a certain degree-of-freedom (dof) of motion. In most of the cases, only one degree-of- freedom is
associated with each joint. Therefore the robot's complexity can be classified according to the total number
of degrees-of-freedom they possess. Each joint is connected to two links, an input link and an output link.
Joint provides controlled relative movement between the input link and output link. A robotic link is the
rigid component of the robot manipulator. Most of the robots are mounted upon a stationary base, such as
the floor. From this base, a joint-link numbering scheme may be recognized as shown in Figure 1.1. The
robotic base and its connection to the first joint are termed as link-0. The first joint in the sequence is joint-
1. Link-0 is the input link for joint-1, while the output link from joint-1 is link-1 which leads to joint-2. Thus
link 1 is,simultaneously, the output link for joint-1 and the input link for joint-2. This joint-link-numbering
scheme is further followed for all joints and links in the robotic systems

a) Linear joint (type L joint) The relative movement between the input link and the output link is a
translational sliding motion, with the axes of the two links being parallel.

b) Orthogonal joint (type U joint) This is also a translational sliding motion, but the input and output links
are perpendicular to each other during the movement.
c) Rotational joint (type R joint) This type provides rotational relative motion, with the axis of rotation
perpendicular to the axes of the input and output links.

d) Twisting joint (type T joint) This joint also involves rotary motion, but the axis or rotation is parallel to
the axes of the twonlinks. 😁❤️

e) Revolving joint (type V-joint, V from the “v” in revolving) In this type, axis of input link is parallel to the
axis of rotation of the joint. However the axis of the output link is perpendicular to the axis of rotation.

Robot Coordinates

Robots operate within coordinate systems that define their spatial positioning:

1. Cartesian Coordinates (X, Y, Z): Used in industrial robots for precise positioning in a three
dimensional space.

2. Polar Coordinates: Define position using radial distance, angle, and height, often used in robotic
arms.

3. Cylindrical Coordinates: Common in robotic arms that move in a cylindrical workspace, allowing for
combined linear and rotational movement.

4. Spherical Coordinates: Used in robots that operate in a spherical range, providing a comprehensive
range of motion.

Robot Reference Frames

A reference frame determines a robot's positioning relative to a set point:

1. World Frame: A fixed, absolute reference coordinate system used to define the robot's position in
the environment.

2. Base Frame: The reference point attached to the robot’s base, used to determine its position
relative to its starting point.

3. Joint Frame: Defines the movement of individual joints, allowing for precise control of each joint's
position and orientation.

4. Tool Frame: Specifies the position of the robot’s end effector, used to control the interaction
between the robot and objects.

Robot Characteristics

1. Payload
➔ The maximum weight a robot can lift, carry, or manipulate without losing balance, speed, or function.
Example: If a robotic arm can lift up to 20 kg, that's its payload limit. Loading more might slow it down or
damage it.

2. Reach
➔ The maximum distance the robot's arm can stretch from its base to perform tasks.
Example: A welding robot with a 1.5-meter reach can weld parts up to 1.5 meters away from its base.
3. Precision
➔ How close the robot gets to a specified target point each time it moves.
Example: If a robot aims to drill a hole and ends up just 0.02 mm off the mark, it has high precision.

4. Repeatability
➔ How reliably the robot returns to the exact same position when asked to perform the same action
repeatedly.
Example: A robot assembling smartphones places components within ±0.01 mm every time — that's good
repeatability.

5. Sensor Range
➔ The span between the minimum and maximum values that a sensor can measure.
Example: A temperature sensor with a range of -40°C to 150°C can work in both freezing and hot
environments.

6. Sensor Sensitivity
➔ How much the sensor's output changes with a small change in input.
Example: If moving an object by 0.025 mm changes a voltage output by 0.02 volts, the sensitivity is 0.8
V/mm.

7. Sensor Accuracy
➔ How close the sensor's reading is to the actual real-world value.
Example: If the true temperature is 100°C, and the sensor reads 99.8°C, the sensor is highly accurate.

8. Sensor Response Time

➔ How quickly a sensor detects and reacts to a change in the environment.
Example: A smoke detector that senses smoke and sounds the alarm within 1 second has a fast response
time.

9. Sensor Resolution
➔ The smallest change a sensor can detect in the measured variable.
Example: A digital scale that can detect a weight change of just 0.01 grams has high resolution.

10. Sensor Precision

➔ The sensor's ability to give the same reading consistently under the same conditions (repeatability).
Example: A distance sensor that measures 10.05 cm every time for a fixed 10 cm distance is highly precise.
11. Longevity
➔ How long the sensor can function properly without failure.
Example: Industrial sensors that last for 10+ years in harsh factory environments show excellent longevity.

Laws of Robotics (Asimov’s Three Laws)

1. First Law:

"A robot may not injure a human being or, through inaction, allow a human to come to harm."

Meaning:
➔ Robots must never hurt people, and they must act to prevent harm if they can.

Example:
A robot sees a child about to walk into traffic. Even if it’s not given a specific order, the robot must step in
and pull the child to safety, because preventing harm comes first.

2. Second Law:

"A robot must obey the orders given to it by human beings, except where such orders would conflict with
the First Law."

Meaning:
➔ Robots must do what humans tell them — unless the command would cause harm to someone.

Example:
If a human orders a robot, "Go push that person," the robot must refuse because pushing could cause
injury, violating the First Law.
But if a human says, "Bring me a glass of water," the robot would obey, because it’s safe.

3. Third Law:

"A robot must protect its own existence as long as such protection does not conflict with the First or
Second Law."

Meaning:
➔ Robots should try to avoid being damaged or destroyed — but saving humans and obeying safe orders is
more important.

Example:
If a fire breaks out, the robot should save itself only after making sure no human needs rescuing and after
fulfilling any human orders related to the emergency.

Introduction to Computer Vision and Pattern Recognition

  Computer Vision: A field of artificial intelligence that enables robots to interpret and analyze visual
data from the world. It involves processing images and videos to extract meaningful information,
such as object recognition, scene understanding, and motion detection.

 Pattern Recognition: Identifies patterns and regularities in data. It is used in applications such as
facial recognition, object detection, and machine learning. Pattern recognition algorithms analyze
data to classify objects, detect anomalies, and make predictions.

Signal Conditioning and Industrial Applications of Robots

 Signal Conditioning: The process of modifying sensor signals to ensure accurate data processing. It
involves filtering, amplification, and conversion to make the signals suitable for analysis and
decision-making.

 Industrial Applications:

1. Manufacturing: Robots automate assembly, welding, and quality inspection, increasing

efficiency and reducing human labor.

2. Logistics: Autonomous robots streamline warehouse operations and delivery systems,

improving inventory management and order fulfillment.

3. Healthcare: Surgical robots, robotic prosthetics, and telemedicine applications enhance

medical procedures and patient care.

4. Agriculture: Robots assist in planting, harvesting, and precision farming, increasing

productivity and sustainability.

UNIT 2
Robot Programming and Programming Environments

Robot Programming Modes

1. Physical Setup Mode:

o In this mode, the robot's hardware is physically assembled and configured. This includes
connecting sensors, actuators, and other components to the robot's main control system.
The physical setup ensures that all parts are correctly aligned and connected, enabling the
robot to perform its intended tasks efficiently. Engineers may calibrate sensors, test
actuators, and verify that communication links between components are functioning
properly. This foundational step is crucial for the robot's overall performance and reliability.

2. Teach Mode:

o Teach Mode involves an operator manually guiding the robot through a sequence of
movements. The robot's control system records these movements, which can later be
replayed during actual operations. This mode is often used in industrial applications where
precise, repetitive tasks are required, such as welding, painting, or assembly. By manually
guiding the robot, the operator can ensure that the robot performs the task accurately and
consistently. Teach Mode is particularly useful for tasks that require a high level of precision
and dexterity.
 3. Continuous Walkthrough Mode:

o Continuous Walkthrough Mode is similar to Teach Mode but involves guiding the robot
through a continuous sequence of actions. The robot records the entire sequence, which can
then be replayed autonomously. This mode is beneficial for programming robots to perform
complex, continuous tasks, such as navigating through a manufacturing floor or performing a
series of inspection steps. The robot's ability to accurately replicate the recorded actions
ensures consistency and reliability in its performance.

4. Software Mode:

o In Software Mode, the robot is programmed using a software interface. Programmers write
code or use graphical programming tools to create the robot's behavior and actions. The
code is then uploaded to the robot's control system for execution. Software Mode provides a
high level of flexibility and precision, allowing programmers to define complex behaviors and
decision-making processes. This mode is commonly used for advanced robotics applications,
such as autonomous navigation, machine learning, and AI-driven tasks.

Integrated Development Environment (IDE) for AVR Microcontrollers

An Integrated Development Environment (IDE) is a comprehensive software suite that provides tools for
writing, testing, and debugging code for microcontrollers. For AVR microcontrollers, several IDEs are
available that offer features specifically designed for programming and development.

1. AVR Studio:

o AVR Studio is an IDE developed by Atmel (now Microchip Technology) for programming AVR
microcontrollers. It provides a user-friendly interface for writing and debugging code, as well
as tools for simulating and testing the microcontroller's behavior. AVR Studio supports
various programming languages, including C and assembly. It also includes integrated
debugging tools that allow developers to step through their code, set breakpoints, and
inspect variables, making it easier to identify and fix issues.

2. WIN AVR:

o WIN AVR is a free collection of development tools for AVR microcontrollers. It includes a
compiler (GCC), a debugger (GDB), and other utilities for programming and testing AVR
microcontrollers. WIN AVR provides a user-friendly interface and is compatible with various
operating systems, including Windows. It offers features such as code highlighting, project
management, and integrated debugging, making it a popular choice for AVR microcontroller
development.

Installing and Configuring for Robot Programming

To start programming robots, you need to install and configure the appropriate IDE and tools for your
microcontroller. This process typically involves the following steps:

1. Download and Install the IDE:

o Download the IDE (e.g., AVR Studio or WIN AVR) from the official website and install it on
your computer. Follow the installation instructions provided by the IDE.

2. Set Up Drivers and Libraries:

 o Install the necessary drivers and libraries required for the microcontroller. These may include
USB drivers for programming interfaces, device-specific libraries, and additional software
tools.

3. Configure the IDE:

o Configure the IDE to recognize and communicate with the microcontroller. This may involve
selecting the correct microcontroller model, setting up the programming interface (e.g., USB,
ISP), and configuring the compiler and debugger settings.

4. Write and Test Code:

o Use the IDE to write and test your code. The IDE provides tools for code editing, project
management, and debugging. You can write code in various programming languages, such as
C or assembly, and use the IDE's integrated tools to compile, debug, and simulate your code.

In-System Programmer (ISP)

An In-System Programmer (ISP) is a device used to program microcontrollers while they are installed in a
system. ISP tools allow you to upload code to the microcontroller without removing it from the circuit. This
is particularly useful for updating firmware, debugging, and making changes to the program while the
microcontroller is in its operational environment.

1. Connecting the ISP:

o Connect the ISP device to the microcontroller using the appropriate interface (e.g., USB,
JTAG). Ensure that the connections are secure and that the ISP is properly powered.

2. Uploading Code:

o Use the IDE to compile your code and generate the necessary binary files (e.g., HEX files).
The IDE will typically provide tools for uploading the compiled code to the microcontroller
via the ISP. Follow the instructions provided by the IDE to initiate the upload process.

3. Verifying the Upload:

o After uploading the code, verify that the microcontroller is functioning as expected. This may
involve running tests, checking sensor readings, and observing the robot's behavior to
ensure that the program has been successfully uploaded and is executing correctly.

Loading Programs on Robots

Loading programs onto robots involves transferring the compiled code from the development environment
to the robot's control system. This process typically includes the following steps:

1. Compile the Code:

o Use the IDE to compile the code and generate the necessary binary files. The compilation
process converts the source code into machine code that the microcontroller can execute.

2. Transfer the Code:

o Connect the microcontroller to the programming interface (e.g., ISP, USB) and use the IDE or
programming tool to transfer the compiled code to the microcontroller. This process may
 involve selecting the correct target device, configuring the programming settings, and
initiating the transfer.

3. Test and Debug:

o After transferring the code, test the robot's functionality to ensure that the program is
running correctly. Use debugging tools provided by the IDE to identify and fix any issues. This
may involve setting breakpoints, stepping through code, and inspecting variables.

4. Iterate and Refine:

o Programming robots often requires multiple iterations to refine the code and achieve the
desired behavior. Make any necessary adjustments to the code, recompile, and reload the
program onto the robot. Repeat this process until the robot performs as expected.

UNIT 3
Actuators

Characteristics of Actuating Systems: Actuating systems are essential components in robotics and
automation, converting electrical signals into physical movements. Key characteristics of actuating systems
include response time, precision, force/torque, range of motion, and durability. Response time refers to
how quickly the actuator can respond to an input signal, impacting the overall speed and efficiency of the
system. Precision measures the accuracy of the actuator in reaching a specified position or following a
commanded path. Force or torque indicates the amount of mechanical power the actuator can generate,
crucial for tasks requiring strength. The range of motion specifies the extent to which the actuator can
move or rotate, determining its operational flexibility. Durability assesses the lifespan and reliability of the
actuator under various operating conditions, ensuring consistent performance over time.
An actuator is a component of a machine or system that moves or controls the mechanism or the system
upon receiving a control command. An actuator is the mechanism that accepts a control command (mostly
in the form of electrical signal) and produces a change in the physical system by generating force, motion,
heat, flow, etc. An actuator requires a control signal and a source of energy Comparison of Actuating
Systems:

1. Hydraulic Actuators: Hydraulic actuators use pressurized fluid to generate mechanical movement.
They are known for their high force and torque capabilities, making them ideal for heavy-duty
applications. Hydraulic systems offer smooth and precise control, essential for tasks requiring fine
adjustments. However, they require complex maintenance due to the potential for fluid leaks and
are generally heavier and bulkier than other actuating systems. Despite these drawbacks, their
power density and precision make them a preferred choice in industries such as construction and
aerospace.

2. Electric Actuators: Electric actuators rely on electric motors to produce movement. They are
favored for their ease of control, clean operation, and low maintenance requirements. Electric
actuators can be highly precise and are commonly used in applications where accuracy is critical.
However, they generally have a lower force output compared to hydraulic actuators and can be
affected by electrical noise. Their versatility and user-friendly nature make them suitable for a wide
range of applications, including robotics and automation.
 3. Pneumatic Actuators: Pneumatic actuators utilize compressed air to generate movement. They are
characterized by their quick response times and simple design, making them lightweight and cost-
effective. Pneumatic actuators are ideal for applications requiring rapid actuation and moderate
force. However, they offer limited precision and lower force output compared to hydraulic and
electric systems. Additionally, pneumatic actuators can be noisy due to the nature of compressed
air. They are commonly used in industries such as packaging and material handling, where speed
and simplicity are key considerations.

DC Motors:

DC motors convert electrical energy into mechanical motion using direct current (DC). They are widely used
due to their simplicity and effectiveness in various applications. DC motors consist of a rotor, stator,
commutator, and brushes, which work together to produce rotational motion. The speed and direction of
the motor can be easily controlled by adjusting the voltage and current supplied. Gearing systems are
often used with DC motors to reduce speed and increase torque, enhancing the motor's efficiency. DC
motors are commonly found in household appliances, automotive systems, and industrial machinery.

How to Wire it

// Motor control pins

int IN1 = 8;

int IN2 = 9;

int ENA = 10; // Speed control (PWM pin)

void setup() {

pinMode(IN1, OUTPUT);

pinMode(IN2, OUTPUT);

pinMode(ENA, OUTPUT);

void loop() {

// Move motor forward

digitalWrite(IN1, HIGH);

digitalWrite(IN2, LOW);

analogWrite(ENA, 200); // Speed (0–255)

delay(3000); // Run for 3 seconds

 // Stop motor

digitalWrite(IN1, LOW);

digitalWrite(IN2, LOW);

delay(2000); // Pause for 2 seconds

// Move motor in reverse

digitalWrite(IN1, LOW);

digitalWrite(IN2, HIGH);

analogWrite(ENA, 200);

delay(3000); // Run for 3 seconds

// Stop motor

digitalWrite(IN1, LOW);

digitalWrite(IN2, LOW);

delay(2000); // Pause for 2 seconds

Servo Motors:

Servo motors provide precise control of angular position, velocity, and acceleration. They use feedback
mechanisms, such as encoders or potentiometers, to monitor and adjust their movement accurately. This
feedback loop ensures that the servo motor can achieve and maintain the desired position with high
precision. Servo motors are used in applications requiring accurate and repeatable movements, such as
robotics, CNC machinery, and camera positioning systems. Their ability to deliver precise control makes
them indispensable in tasks where accuracy and reliability a re paramount.

Stepper Motors:

Stepper motors divide a full rotation into a number of equal steps, allowing precise control of angular
movement. Each step corresponds to a fixed angle, enabling the motor to achieve exact positioning without
the need for feedback systems. Stepper motors are ideal for applications where precise, incremental
movements are required, such as 3D printers, CNC machines, and automated stage lighting. Their simplicity
and reliability make them a popular choice in various industries.

Type Definition

A motor powered by direct current, where current flows in one direction, creating
DC Motor
continuous rotation.

Stepper Motor A motor that moves in discrete steps, used for precise positioning without a
Type Definition

feedback system.

A motor with a feedback mechanism that allows precise control of angular

Servo Motor
position.

A motor powered by alternating current, commonly used in appliances and

AC Motor
industry.

Brushless DC Motor A more efficient and durable version of a DC motor that uses electronic
(BLDC) commutation instead of brushes.

Motor Control and Its Implementations:

Motor control involves regulating the speed, direction, and position of electric motors. Pulse Width
Modulation (PWM) is a common technique used to control the speed of DC motors by varying the width of
the pulses in a pulse train. Feedback control systems use sensors to provide real-time data to the control
system, ensuring accurate control of motor position and speed. These control methods are implemented in
various applications, from simple household appliances to complex industrial machinery, to achieve precise
and efficient motor operation.

Grippers (Types Only):

 Parallel Grippers: Feature two parallel jaws that open and close to grasp objects. Commonly used in
industrial automation for handling parts.

 Angular Grippers: Have jaws that rotate around a pivot point to grasp objects. Suitable for
applications requiring angular movements.

 Vacuum Grippers: Use suction to pick up flat or smooth objects. Ideal for handling delicate items
like glass or electronic components.

 Magnetic Grippers: Use magnetic force to pick up ferromagnetic objects. Often used in
manufacturing processes involving metal parts.

Sensors

White Line Sensors: White line sensors detect white lines on a surface, making them essential for line-
following robots. These sensors typically use infrared light to distinguish between the white line and the
surrounding surface. When the sensor detects the white line, it sends a signal to the robot's control system,
guiding the robot to follow the line. This technology is commonly used in autonomous robots for navigation
in environments with predefined paths, such as warehouses and production lines.

A white line sensor is a device commonly used in line-following robots to detect lines on the ground,
usually white or black lines. It works by using an infrared (IR) LED to shine light onto the surface and a
photodiode or phototransistor to detect the amount of light reflected back. When the sensor is over a
white surface, more light is reflected, giving a higher signal. When it is over a black surface, less light is
reflected, resulting in a lower signal. The robot's microcontroller (like an Arduino) reads these signals and
makes decisions: if the center sensor sees the white line, the robot moves forward; if the left or right
sensors detect the line, the robot turns accordingly to stay on track. By continuously reading sensor values
and adjusting its movement, the robot can follow the path accurately. The overall system includes the
sensor, a microcontroller to process the information, and motors to drive the robot based on sensor input.

Start

Read sensor values

If sensor detects white:

Robot keeps moving forward

Else if sensor detects black on left:

Robot turns left

Else if sensor detects black on right:

Robot turns right

Else:

Stop or correct the path

Repeat

IR Range Sensors of Different Range: IR range sensors measure the distance to an object using infrared
light. These sensors emit an IR beam that reflects off an object and returns to the sensor. By measuring the
time it takes for the light to return, the sensor can calculate the distance to the object. IR range sensors
come in various ranges, including short-range, medium-range, and long-range, to suit different applications.
They are commonly used for obstacle detection, distance measurement, and proximity sensing in robots
and automated systems.

Analog IR Proximity Sensors: Analog IR proximity sensors detect the presence of objects using infrared
light and provide an analog output proportional to the distance of the object. These sensors emit an IR
beam that reflects off nearby objects and is detected by the sensor's receiver. The strength of the reflected
light varies with the distance of the object, allowing the sensor to provide an analog signal that
corresponds to the object's proximity. Analog IR proximity sensors are used in applications such as object
detection, proximity sensing, and collision avoidance.

Analog Directional Light Intensity Sensors: Analog directional light intensity sensors measure the intensity
of light from a specific direction and provide an analog output. These sensors typically use photodiodes or
phototransistors to detect light levels. The analog signal generated by the sensor corresponds to the
intensity of the detected light, allowing for precise measurement of light levels. These sensors are used in
applications such as light-following robots, light intensity measurement, and ambient light sensing.

Position Encoders: Position encoders measure the position of a rotating shaft or linear movement and
provide feedback to the control system. There are two main types of position encoders: incremental
encoders and absolute encoders. Incremental encoders generate pulses as the shaft rotates, which can be
counted to determine the position. Absolute encoders provide a unique position value for each shaft angle,
allowing for precise and unambiguous position measurement. Position encoders are used in applications
such as motor control, robotics, and automation systems for accurate position tracking.

Servo Mounted Sensor Pod/Camera Pod: A servo-mounted sensor pod or camera pod is a configuration
where sensors or cameras are mounted on servos, allowing adjustable positioning. This setup enables the
sensors or cameras to be oriented in different directions as needed, providing flexibility and improved
coverage. Servo-mounted sensor pods are commonly used in vision systems and adjustable sensing
applications, where the ability to change the sensor's orientation enhances performance and adaptability.

Wireless Colour Camera: A wireless color camera provides live video feed wirelessly, making it suitable for
surveillance, remote monitoring, and inspection tasks. These cameras transmit video signals over wireless
networks, eliminating the need for physical connections. Wireless color cameras are used in various
applications, including security systems, aerial drones, and remote-controlled vehicles, providing real-time
visual data for monitoring and decision-making.

Ultrasound Scanner: An ultrasound scanner uses ultrasonic waves to measure distance or detect objects.
The scanner emits ultrasonic pulses that reflect off objects and return to the scanner. By measuring the
time it takes for the pulses to return, the scanner calculates the distance to the object. Ultrasound scanners
are commonly used in robotics for obstacle detection, distance measurement, and mapping, as they can
provide accurate measurements even in low-visibility conditions.

Gyroscope and Accelerometer:

Gyroscope

A gyroscope is a device used to measure angular velocity—the rate at which an object rotates around an
axis. Gyroscopes rely on the principle of angular momentum, which states that a spinning object resists
changes to its orientation due to inertia. Traditional gyroscopes consist of a spinning rotor mounted on
gimbals, allowing it to freely orient itself regardless of the movement of its housing. Modern gyroscopes,
such as MEMS (Microelectromechanical Systems) gyroscopes, are compact(small, chip based gyroscopes
found in smartphones , drones ,game cantoller) and use vibrating structures to measure angular motion.
Optical gyroscopes, like fiber-optic or ring-laser gyroscopes, use light to detect angular velocity without any
moving parts. Tells you tilt, shake, or linear movement.Example: Detects if your phone is lying flat or being
shaken

How it works:

1) A spinning object resist changes to its orientation due to angular momentum

2) When the base of the gyroscope rotates , the spinning wheel maintains its orientation , and
sensors measure this change.

 Applications in Technology:

1. Aviation: Gyroscopes are integral to airplane navigation and stabilization systems. They help
maintain the aircraft's orientation, ensuring safe and controlled flight, especially in turbulent
conditions.

2. Space Exploration: In spacecraft, gyroscopes are used for attitude control, enabling precise
positioning of satellites or telescopes.

3. Consumer Electronics: Smartphones and gaming consoles use gyroscopes to enable motion-
sensitive features, such as screen rotation and immersive gameplay experiences.
Accelerometer

An accelerometer is a sensor that measures linear acceleration—how quickly an object's velocity changes
along an axis. Accelerometers are based on the principle of inertia and typically consist of a mass
suspended by springs within a housing. When the mass moves in response to acceleration, the
displacement is converted into an electrical signal to calculate the acceleration. MEMS accelerometers are
widely used for their small size, high sensitivity, and cost-effectiveness.

 Applications in Technology:

1. Automotive Safety: Accelerometers are used in airbag systems to detect rapid deceleration
during a collision and trigger the deployment of airbags to protect passengers.

2. Fitness and Wearable Devices: In fitness trackers, accelerometers measure movements,

such as walking, running, or exercising, to count steps, estimate calories burned, and analyze
activity levels.

3. Machinery Monitoring: Industrial accelerometers monitor vibrations in equipment to detect

faults or abnormalities, helping prevent breakdowns and ensuring smooth operation.

Combined Use

In many applications, gyroscopes and accelerometers are integrated to provide comprehensive motion
tracking. While the gyroscope detects rotational movements, the accelerometer measures linear motion
and vibrations. Together, they form Inertial Measurement Units (IMUs), which are essential for various
systems requiring precise navigation and responsiveness.

 Examples of Combined Use:

1. Drones: IMUs in drones help maintain stability and orientation while measuring acceleration
for smooth flight. These sensors allow drones to hover steadily, navigate obstacles, and
respond dynamically to external forces like wind.

2. Self-Driving Vehicles: Gyroscopes and accelerometers assist autonomous cars by detecting

road conditions, enabling accurate positioning, and ensuring stability during motion.

3. Robotics: Robots equipped with gyroscopes and accelerometers can balance themselves
(like humanoid robots), adapt to uneven terrain, and respond effectively to environmental
changes.

Magnetometer: A magnetometer measures the strength and direction of magnetic fields, acting as a
compass. This sensor detects the Earth's magnetic field and provides data on the robot's orientation
relative to the magnetic poles. Magnetometers are used in navigation systems, orientation detection, and
applications where accurate heading information is required.

GPS Receiver: A GPS receiver determines the geographic location of a robot using signals from GPS
satellites. The receiver calculates the robot's position based on the time it takes for the signals to reach it
from multiple satellites. GPS receivers are used in applications such as navigation, location tracking, and
autonomous vehicles, providing accurate position data for mapping and route planning.
Battery Voltage Sensing: Battery voltage sensing involves measuring the voltage level of a robot's battery
to monitor its charge status. This sensor provides crucial data on the battery's voltage, allowing the control
system to determine whether the battery is charged, partially discharged, or needs recharging. By
monitoring battery voltage, robots can avoid unexpected power loss and ensure continuous operation. This
sensor is particularly important for autonomous robots that rely on battery power for mobility and
functioning.

Current Sensing: Current sensing measures the electric current flowing through a circuit, providing data on
the power consumption of the robot's components. This information is vital for monitoring the robot's
energy usage and detecting any anomalies that may indicate faults or inefficiencies. Current sensors can
help prevent damage to the robot's electrical components by alerting the control system to excessive
current draw. They are commonly used in battery management systems, power monitoring, and fault
detection in robots and electronic devices.

Indicators

LEDs (Light Emitting Diodes): LEDs are semiconductor devices that emit light when an electric current
passes through them. They are widely used as indicators in robotics and electronic systems due to their low
power consumption, long lifespan, and bright illumination. LEDs can be used to provide visual feedback,
status indications, and notifications to users and operators. For example, LEDs can indicate the robot's
power status, operational mode, or sensor activation. Their versatility and reliability make LEDs an essential
component in many robotic systems.

Buzzer: A buzzer is an electronic device that produces sound when an electric current is applied. Buzzers
are used in robotics to provide audible alerts and notifications. They can signal various events, such as the
completion of a task, an error condition, or a low battery warning. Buzzers are particularly useful in
environments where visual indicators may not be easily noticed. Their simple design and effective sound
production make them a valuable addition to robotic systems for ensuring clear and immediate
communication of important information

UNIT 4
Robot Control and Communication Technology

PWM Generation and Its Applications

Pulse Width Modulation (PWM): PWM is a technique where the width of the pulses in a pulse train is
varied to control the amount of power delivered to an electrical device. This is achieved by adjusting the
duty cycle, which is the ratio of the pulse width (on time) to the total period of the pulse train. By
increasing or decreasing the duty cycle, the average power delivered to the device can be controlled. PWM
is highly efficient and is widely used in various applications to control motor speed, position, and other
parameters.

1. Motor Velocity Control: PWM is used to control the speed of DC motors by varying the average
voltage applied to the motor. A higher duty cycle means the motor receives more power, resulting in
higher speed. Conversely, a lower duty cycle reduces the power, slowing down the motor. This
 allows precise control over the motor's speed, making PWM ideal for applications like robotic arms,
conveyor belts, and mobile robots.

2. Servo Control: Servo motors require precise control of their angular position. PWM signals are used
to achieve this by encoding the desired position into the width of the pulses. The servo motor's
internal controller interprets the pulse width and adjusts the motor's shaft to the corresponding
angle. This enables accurate and repeatable positioning, essential for tasks like camera gimbals,
robotic joints, and CNC machines.

3. Motor Position Control: PWM can be used in conjunction with feedback systems to control the
position of a motor. By using encoders or potentiometers to provide real-time position feedback,
the control system can adjust the PWM signal to maintain the desired position. This closed-loop
system ensures that the motor reaches and holds the specified position accurately, which is crucial
for precision applications like 3D printing and robotic surgery.

4. Event Scheduling: PWM can also be used for event scheduling, where the timing and duration of
events are controlled by varying the duty cycle. For example, in automated irrigation systems, PWM
can control the opening and closing of solenoid valves to regulate water flow and timing. This allows
precise control over irrigation schedules, improving water efficiency and crop health.

Communication Technology

Wired RS232 (Serial) Communication:

RS232 is a standard protocol used for serial communication, allowing data to be transmitted one bit at a
time between devices over a wired connection. It is an asynchronous communication method, which
means that there is no separate clock signal shared between the devices; instead, both the sender and
receiver must agree on a common baud rate (such as 9600 or 115200 bps) to interpret the timing of bits
correctly. RS232 operates using specific voltage levels, where logic high (1) is represented by -12V and logic
low (0) by +12V, which is opposite to the logic levels used by typical microcontrollers (like Arduino or
STM32) that use 0V for low and +5V/+3.3V for high. Therefore, to connect a microcontroller to an RS232
device, a level converter such as the MAX232 IC is required to match the voltage levels safely.

RS232 communication uses two main lines: TX (transmit) and RX (receive), along with a common GND
(ground). These lines are used in full-duplex mode, meaning data can be sent and received simultaneously.
When transmitting data, RS232 sends a start bit to signal the beginning of a data packet, followed by the
data bits (usually 8), an optional parity bit for error checking, and one or more stop bits to mark the end of
the transmission. This format helps the receiver identify each complete character even without a shared
clock.

Despite being an older technology, RS232 remains widely used in industrial systems, embedded devices,
and robotics due to its simplicity and reliability over medium distances (up to 15 meters). A common
application in robotics is to establish communication between a PC and a robot for data monitoring,
command control, or firmware uploading. For example, you might use a USB-to-RS232 adapter on a PC to
connect to a microcontroller's UART pins, enabling bidirectional communication for tasks such as debugging
or sensor data logging. RS232 is still a foundational communication method and serves as a building block
for understanding more advanced interfaces like USB, SPI, or I2C.

Wireless Zigbee Communication:

Wireless Zigbee Communication is a low-power, low-data-rate, and cost-effective wireless communication
technology based on the IEEE 802.15.4 standard. It is designed for short-range wireless communication,
typically up to 100 meters, and is widely used in embedded systems, IoT (Internet of Things), and robotics.
Zigbee supports mesh networking, where multiple nodes (devices) can connect and relay data to each
other, making the system more reliable and scalable. This mesh feature allows communication over longer
distances by hopping data from one node to another. Zigbee devices are categorized into coordinators,
routers, and end devices. The coordinator initializes the network and manages data flow, routers help
forward messages, and end devices are usually low-power sensors or actuators that communicate with
their parent router or coordinator.

In robotics, Zigbee modules such as XBee are commonly used to establish wireless communication
between robots or between a robot and a computer or base station. For example, a robot can send sensor
data to a remote monitoring system or receive commands wirelessly from a user interface. Communication
is done via serial interfaces (UART), so integrating Zigbee into a microcontroller-based system is
straightforward. Compared to other wireless technologies like Wi-Fi or Bluetooth, Zigbee offers lower
power consumption, making it ideal for battery-operated devices that need to operate for long periods
without frequent charging or replacement. Additionally, the protocol includes built-in security features like
encryption and authentication, which are important for reliable and secure communication in critical
systems.

USB Communication:

USB Communication (Universal Serial Bus) is a widely used interface that enables fast, reliable, and
standardized data transfer and power supply between electronic devices. In the context of robotics and
embedded systems, USB is commonly used to connect microcontrollers to computers, allowing for tasks
such as programming, debugging, sensor data transfer, and real-time monitoring. USB supports plug-and-
play functionality, meaning devices can be detected and used by a computer without requiring manual
configuration. USB communication follows a host-device model, where the host (typically a PC) controls the
connection and initiates data transfers, while the device (like a robot's microcontroller) responds
accordingly.

Most microcontroller boards (like Arduino, STM32, or ESP32) feature a USB-to-serial converter chip (e.g.,
CH340, CP2102, FT232) that allows serial communication over USB using standard protocols like UART. This
setup lets the microcontroller appear as a virtual COM port on a PC, so developers can easily send and
receive data through serial terminal applications such as PuTTY or the Arduino Serial Monitor. USB is
capable of handling higher data rates than traditional RS232 serial ports and supports multiple device
classes, including Human Interface Devices (HID) like keyboards, Mass Storage Devices, and CDC
(Communication Device Class) for serial communication.

In robotics, USB is often used for uploading firmware, logging sensor data, or even powering small robots
directly from a USB port. It also supports hot-swapping, allowing devices to be connected or disconnected
without restarting the system. USB’s versatility, speed, and power delivery capabilities make it an essential
part of modern embedded communication systems

Simplex Infrared Communication (IR Remote to Robot):

Simplex Infrared Communication is a one-way wireless communication method commonly used in basic
robotics and consumer electronics, where an IR (infrared) remote control sends signals to a robot or device.
The term simplex means that data flows in only one direction—from the transmitter (IR remote) to the
receiver (robot), with no feedback or acknowledgment in return. Infrared communication uses light signals
in the infrared spectrum (around 940 nm), which are invisible to the human eye but easily detected by IR
receivers like the TSOP1738 or VS1838. These receivers are built to detect modulated signals, typically
around 38 kHz, which helps avoid interference from ambient light sources.

In a robot, the IR receiver is connected to a microcontroller (like Arduino), which reads the incoming signal
and decodes it into a specific command. Each button on the IR remote sends a unique binary code. For
example, pressing the "up" button might send the code 0x18E7, which the microcontroller interprets as a
command to move forward. The robot’s microcontroller continuously listens for these codes using
interrupts or polling, and then takes appropriate actions like moving, stopping, or turning.

IR-based simplex communication is inexpensive, easy to implement, and ideal for short-range control
applications—typically within 5 meters and requiring line-of-sight. However, it has limitations such as no
confirmation of message delivery, susceptibility to ambient light interference, and inability to handle bi-
directional data exchange. Still, it remains a popular choice for simple home automation projects and
beginner-level robot control systems.

LCD Interfacing:

LCD (Liquid Crystal Display) interfacing involves connecting an LCD screen to a microcontroller or control
system to display information. LCDs are used in robotics to provide visual feedback, status indications, and
user interfaces. Interfacing an LCD requires configuring data lines, control signals, and initializing the display
settings. The microcontroller sends commands and data to the LCD to control its operation and display
content. LCDs can display text, numbers, and graphical information, enhancing the robot's interaction with
users and improving usability.

The Arduino Uno board features several important components that work together to make it functional.
The microcontroller (ATmega328P) is the brain of the board, executing your code. It is supported by a USB
port (Type-B) for uploading code and powering the board, and a power jack (barrel jack) for external
power supplies. The voltage regulator ensures the board gets a stable 5V supply, whether from the USB or
an external power source.

The board has 14 digital pins (0 to 13) that can read digital inputs or output a HIGH/LOW signal, with six
pins (3, 5, 6, 9, 10, 11) offering PWM capability for analog-like output. Additionally, there are 6 analog
input pins (A0 to A5) to read analog signals, such as from sensors, and convert them into digital values. The
power pins include a 3.3V and 5V output, a GND pin for ground, and a VIN pin for input voltage when using
the power jack.

The reset button restarts the microcontroller, while LEDs on the board include the power LED (ON), the
built-in L LED on pin 13 for testing, and TX/RX LEDs indicating serial communication. The board also
features an ICSP header for direct programming of the microcontroller and an 16 MHz crystal oscillator
that helps control the board’s clock speed, ensuring the microcontroller runs at the correct rate.