Soils of India

Soil and water are the two invaluable basic natural resources, which constitute the physical basis
of plant growth. Soil resource database with detailed knowledge as possible about their genetic
characteristics is urgent necessity in the new millennium.
Soils, our vital land resource are being sapped by erosion , water logging, salinization,
sodification, acidification and indiscriminate nutrient mining.
This precious soil is either accumulating in different reservoirs, river beds or is finding way to
the oceans. About 57 per cent of the total geographical area in the country is suffering from
various forms of degradation like water and wind erosion, chemical and physical deterioration.
Over 5.3 billion tones of top soil and 8 million tones of plant nutrients are lost annually,
indirectly accounting for food grain production loss of the order of 3 million tones. Soil resource
base is shrinking at an alarming pace of 0,25 m ha. Per annum due to rapid industrialization and
urbanization.

In order to efficiently manage our soil resources of the country knowledge about their salient
characteristics is essential. Salient characteristics of the main soil groups of India are presented
below.

Alluvial soils:

.These are one of the important groups of soils for agricultural production. They are extensively
distributed in the states of Punjab, Haryana, Uttar Pradesh, Uttaranchal, Bihar,West Bengal,
Assam and coastal regions of India and occupy approximately 75 Mha in the Indo-Gangetic
plains and Brahmaputra valley alone.
The parent material of these soils (alluvium) is of recent origin and has been derived from the
deposition of erosion products brought and laid down by various river systems; coastal alluvium
is however laid down by sea currents.

They are fluvial in nature (stratified) which is reflected in their texture and irregular distribution
of organic matter with depth. They are either alkaline or acidic. They exhibit different profile
development from the least developed A-C to well developed A-B-C profile, depending on the
prevailing climate and age of the alluvium.

They are inherently rich in plant nutrients. In general, they are fairly sufficient in phosphorus and
potassium , but are deficient in nitrogen and organic matter contents.

Alluvial soils are classified in the orders: Entisol (with A-C) profiles, Inceptisols (with A-B-C
profiles), Alfisols (with A-Bt-C profiles) and Aridisols (with A-B-C profiles ).

Land use:
The major constraints of some of these soils are stratification that restricts leaching and drainage,
extreme sandy nature that promotes excessive leaching of water and plant nutrients,
hydromorphic condition that promotes reduction and results in poor aeration for plant growth.
These soils if managed properly are best agricultural soils are used for growing most agricultural
crops especially wheat, rice maize, ground-nut, and berseem. Because of unjudicious use of
irrigation water some soils have been rendered waterlogged and pose problem of soil salinity/
sodicity.

Black soils:
The name is given to soils that are very dark grey to black in colour, highly clayey, the clay
content varies from 35 to 60 per cent and the nature of the clay is dominantly smectite. The soils
turn extremely hard on drying and sticky and plastic on wetting, and hence are very difficult to
cultivate and manage. Major areas of black soils are in the Deccan plateau and its periphery
falling in Maharashtra, Madhya Pradesh and parts of Andhra Pradesh,Gujarat and Tamilnadu.

These soils being calcareous have pH ranging from 7.8 to 8.7 , which may go up
to 9.5 under sodic conditions. Being rich in smectitic –clay minerals, they have high exchange
capacity (30-60 cmol(p+)kg-1 soil.

These have high water and nutrient holding capacity. The moisture holding capacity, although is
high (150-250 mm/m), large part of it is not available for plant growth because it is held tightly
by the smectitic clay. It also reduces permeability and hence posses drainage problem.

These do not exhibit any elluviation or illuviation process, because of churning. Churning causes
vertical mixing in the soils and leads to development of deep(>50 cm) and wide (>1cm) cracks,
gilgai micro-relif and /or closely intersecting slickensides. These are very dark in colour which
may be due to clay-humus complexes and/or the presence of titaniferous magnetite mineral.

According to soil taxonomy shallow black soils on slopes have been classified in the order
Entisols and Inceptisols while deep and medium black soils in the order Vertisols.

Land Use:
The major constraint in their land use are narrowing of workable moisture range, low infiltration
rate, and poor drainage, poor moisture and nutrient availability for plant growth.

These soils are poor in available nitrogen, phosphorous, sulphur and their calcareous nature
adversely affects the availability of micronutrients.

The soils are inherently fertile and under rainfed condition, they are used for growing cotton,
sorghum, millet, soyabean, pigeonpea etc. Under irrigated condition they can be used for a
variety of other crops, such as sugarcane, wheat and citrus plantations.

Red Soils:
Red soils are generally red and reddish brown in colour and rich in sesquioxides. These soils are
are derived from granites, gneiss and other metamorphic rocks either in situ or from the
decomposed rock materials washed down to lower level by rain. The profiles of red soils show
clear A and B horizons with occasionally the C horizon. These soils are predominantly
observed in the southern parts of the peninsula comprising the states of Andhra Pradesh, Tamil
Nadu, Karnataka, Maharashtra, Kerala, Orissa, Goa, West Bengal and NE states. In Andhra
Pradesh the Red and Black soils occur under similar bioclimatic conditions, but on different
parent material and landforms. The Red soils develop on igneous(acidic) rocks and occupy
higher topographic positions whereas the Black soils develop on basalt (basic) rock on or
alluvium derived from basalt, and occupy lower position on the landscape.

They are shallow and gravelly in the uplands to very deep , fertile in the plains and valleys.
They are well to excessively drained, depending upon their topographic position and texture.
They are in general neutral to acidic in nature, depending upon the content of iron oxides. The
SiO2/sesquioxide rati o(in clays) varies from 2.5 to 3.0; the amounts of iron and aluminium are
generally high(30-40%).

The cation exchange capacity and the base saturation of these soils are relatively lower than the
Black or Alluvial soils. Some Red soils occurring in association with Lateritic soils, have low
exchangeable bases. The CEC(clay) ranges from 25 to 40 cmol(p+)kg-1 soil.

These soils are generally deficient in nitrogen and phosphorus and potassium. They are also poor
in organic matter and lime contents.These show common presence of kaolinitie (1:1 type) clay
mineral.

According to soil taxonomy they key out as : Alfisols and Ultisols, Entisols or as Inceptisols.

Land use:
The soils pose limitations of soil depth ( on hill and hill slopes), poor water and nutrient holding
capacity, surface crusting and hardening, excessive drainage and runoff, poor natural
fertility(N,P,Ca, Zn,S). Under good management practices , these soils can be profitably used for
a variety of Agricultural, horticultural and plantation crops, such as millets, rice, maize,
groundnut, soybean, pigeonpea, greengram, jute, tea, cashew, cocoa, grapes, banana, papaya,
mango,etc.

Laterite and Lateritic soils:

The laterites are formed in tropical and sub-tropical climates having an alternate wet and dry
season. These soils form under monsoon type of climatic conditions and from basic rocks, the
siliceous matter is leached almost completely during weathering and the sesquioxides are left
behind which on drying are converted into irreversible Fe and Al oxides. The laterite soils have
reddish soil colour with maximum intensity in the B horizon. These soils are generally deeply
weathered. They are generally observed on hill- tops and plateau landforms of Orrisa, Kerala,
Tamilnadu etc.
The Lateritic soils are formed under almost comparable climatic conditions but do not require
alternate wet and dry conditions and the ground water level may not be very near the surface.
Such soils are widely distributed in the states of Maharashrta, Andhra, Karnataka, Tamilnadu and
North-East regions and occupy about 25 Mha of the total geographical area.

Land Use:
The major limitations posed by these soils are the deficiency of P,K,Ca,Zn, B etc., and the high
acidity and toxicity of aluminium and manganese. Liming of these soils is not practical because
of non-availability of lime and high cost of transportation. Evidences suggest that calcium is
more important as a nutrient than for neutralization of acidity.
 The laterites of lower topographic positions are used for growing rice, banana, coconut and
arecanut, and for higher topographic positions, for cocoa, cashew, tea, coffee, rubber, etc.
Shifting agriculture is mainly practiced in these areas, but the shifting cycle should be of 20
years or more.

Desert soils:
The desert soils support negligible vegetation, except xerophytic plants, unless irrigated. Such
areas are observed in cold or hot temperature regime. A large tract of hot arid region, with a
growing period<60 days in a year is situated in the north-west India( Rajasthan, Gujarat, Haryana
and Punjab). It differs from cold desert areas ( Leh and Ladhak). The sandy material, under arid
climatic conditions, results in poor profile development.

Land Use:

The major constraint of these soils is of water deficiency which restricts their use for raising
agricultural crops, however the in the interdunal valleys receiving additional rain water as runoff
from the surrounding areas, are used for growing crops ( millet,or pulse) during monsoon period.
If irrigated these soils can be profitably used for growing two crops in a year.

Forest and Hill soils:

These are soils developed under forest cover. In India total area under different forest species
(tropical, deciduous, coniferous, tropical evergreen) is estimated to be 75 Mha. While the
climatic conditions and altitude control the kind of forest species, the kind of forest and
topography control the kind of soils and their degree of profile development. The major soils
observed in different forest areas are: brown forest and podsoilc (in northern Himalayas) and red
and lateritic ( in Deccan plateau). The Himalayan soils have developed on sand-limestones,
conglomerates, granites, gneisses and schists under cool/cold sub-humid climate (acidic
environment). The Deccan Plateau soils are formed on igneous and metamorphic rocks(basalt,
granite, gneisses) under sub-tropical climatic conditions(slightly acidic, neutral or basic
environments), and hence differ in their properties.

Land use:
The podsolic soils developed under pinus vegetation and cool sub-humid conditions qualify
largely for Alfisols, but those under per-humid conditions for Ultisols. The soils on the slopes are
Inceptisols. These soils face major problem of erosion by water. They are used for growing
variety of crops, especially rice, maize, soybean etc. on terraces and tea and other fruit plants on
slopes.

The Brown forest soils develop on sedimentary rocks and alluvium under sub-humid to humid
climate and mixed vegetation and are non-calcic. These soils have great potential for growing
crops such as rice maize and fruit plants such as apple, almond, pear apricot etc.