KYAMBOGO UNIVERSITY

SCHOOL OF COMMPUTING AND INFORMATION SCIENCE

DEPARTMENT OF COMPUTER SCIENCE

Bachelor of Information Technology and computing

Year: 2025

Course Unit: LINEAR ALGEBRA.

Couse Code: SCS 1203

Task: Group work

Group_11

Lecturer’s Name: Dr. Ahishakiye Emmanuel.

Submission date: 31/01/2025

STUDENT NAME STUDENT REGISTRATION

NUMBER
 NGONDE EMMANUEL 24/U/ITE/10220/PE

NAVVUBYA JASCENT 24/U/ITE/10097/PE

MIYINGO ALLAN 24/U/ITE/07208/PE

ARINAITWE MATTHEW 24/U/ISD/03459/PD

TUSIIME MUKAMA MARVIN 24/U/ITE/18719/PE

BUSINGYE PLEASURE 24/U/ITE/17676/PE

BALUKU JOSEPH 24/U/ITE/04239/PE

Contents
Properties of vector space. ............................................................................................................................ 4
Linear independence and dependence........................................................................................................... 8
Linear span. ................................................................................................................................................. 9
Dimension. .................................................................................................................................................. 11
What is a basis and its applications ............................................................................................................. 12
Application of basis .................................................................................................................................... 13
Space. .......................................................................................................................................................... 13
Euclidean space........................................................................................................................................... 14
Vector algebra. ............................................................................................................................................ 15
Orthonormalization. .................................................................................................................................... 16

VECTOR

What is a vector?

A vector is a matrix that has only one row or one column.

There are two types of vectors – row vectors and column vectors.

Row Vector:

If a matrix [A] has one row, it is called a row vector

[𝐴] = [𝑎1 𝑎2 𝑎3 … . . 𝑎𝑛 ]
 [𝐵 ] = [1 2 4 ]

Column vector:

If a matrix [C] has one column, it is called a column vector

1
[ 𝐶 ] = [1 ]
2

A vector space

is a set of objects called vectors which can be added and multiplied by

the scalar.

Vector subspace of 𝑅𝑛 is a vector inside the 𝑅𝑛 . They are also referred

to as the sub sets.

Properties of vector space.

Suppose you have vectors 𝑢, 𝑣 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑤 in the vector space 𝑉

1. It contains the zero vector.
Such that 𝑣 + 0 = 𝑣
Assuming you have
𝑥 𝑥 0 𝑥
𝑣 = [𝑦], then [𝑦] + [ ] = [𝑦]
0
2. Closed under addition that is to say 𝑢, 𝑣 ∈ 𝑉, then 𝑢 + 𝑣 ∈ 𝑉
This means that the sum of the two vectors also belong to the
vector space 𝑉
Example, we have

3 1
𝑣 = [ ],𝑢 = [ ]
1 2
3 1 4
𝑣+𝑢 = [ ]+[ ]= [ ]
1 2 3

3. Closed under a scalar multiplication

For any scalar 𝑐 and vector 𝑣 the scalar multiple 𝑐𝑣 must be in the
vector space
Suppose you have a scalar
1 1 5
𝑐 = 5 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑣 = [2] 𝑡ℎ𝑒𝑛 𝑐𝑣 = 5 [2] = [10]
3 3 15

4. Associativity.
If 𝑢 + (𝑣 + 𝑤) = (𝑢 + 𝑣) + 𝑤
 3 1 1
𝑣 = [ ],𝑢 = [ ],𝑤 = [ ]
1 2 0
1 3 1 1 3 1
[ ] + ([ ] + [ ]) = ([ ] + [ ]) + [ ]
2 1 0 2 1 0

5. Commutativity. 𝑢 + 𝑣 = 𝑣 + 𝑢
1 3 3 1
[ ]+[ ]= [ ]+[ ]
2 1 1 2
6. Distributive property
If 𝑘 (𝑢 + 𝑣) then this is equivalent to 𝑘𝑢 + 𝑘𝑣
Say 𝑘 = 2
1 3 3 9
3 ([ ] + [ ]) = ( ) + ( )
2 1 6 0
7. Additive identity
This states that the sum of two vectors is always a vector.

Linear combination of vectors.

Linear combination the sum of scalar multiples of the elements in the
basis set.

Suppose we have vector 𝑣 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑤

We can have 𝑣 + 𝑤 and we can multiply the vectors with a scalar

𝑐 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑑 to get 𝑐𝑣 + 𝑑𝑤

1 1
Suppose that 𝑣 = [ 0 ] 𝑤 = [1] and a scalar 𝑐 = 3 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑑 = 1
−1 1

Note

The combination of these two axioms, addition and scalar multiple form
one of the greatest principles in vector algebra referred to as linear
combination.

Example.

1 3
𝑣 = [ ]and 𝑤 = [ ]
2 4
4
𝑣+𝑤 = [ ]
6

Supposing we have 𝑐 = 1 , 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑑 = 2

1 3
Then the linear combination is 𝑐𝑣 + 𝑑𝑤 = 𝑐 [ ] + 𝑑 [ ]
2 4
7
=[ ]
10
Linear independence and dependence.
Linear dependence.

A set off vectors is linearly dependent if there exist non -zero

scalars(numbers)

𝑐1, 𝑐2 … . 𝑐𝑛 such that 𝑐1𝑣1 + 𝑐2𝑣2 + ⋯ 𝑐𝑛𝑣𝑛 = 0, where

𝑣1. 𝑣2, … . 𝑣𝑛 are vectors in the set.

Example,

Determine whether the set of vectors below are linear independent or

dependent

2 1
𝑣1 = [ ] , 𝑣2 = [ ]
4 2
2 1 0
𝑐1 [ ] + 𝑐2 [ ] = [ ]
4 2 0
2 1 0
(1) [ ] + (−2) [ ] = [ ]
4 2 0
Linear independence.

1. A set of vectors is linearly independent if the only way to write a

linear combination of the vectors as the zero vector is by setting all
the scalar coefficients to zero.

1 1 2
𝑣1 = [ ] , 𝑣2 = [ ] , 𝑣3 = [ ] such that 𝑐1 = 0, 𝑐2 = 0, 𝑐3 = 0
2 4 4

After the linear calculations, we see that the vectors are linearly
independent.

2. Two vectors are linearly independent if neither of the vectors is a

scalar multiple of the other.

Linear span.
A set of vectors spans a space if every vector in that space can be written
as a linear combination of the given set of vectors.
Given a set of vectors 𝑣1, 𝑣2, 𝑣3, … . 𝑣𝑛 in a vector 𝑉 then the span is
defined as;

Span{V} = {𝑐1𝑣1 + 𝑐2𝑣2 + − − 𝑐𝑛𝑣𝑛 and 𝑐𝑛 ∈ 𝑅 and 𝑐1, 𝑐2, 𝑐3 are

also real numbers.

Testing whether a particular vector is in the span or not

1. If it has a solution, the vector is in the span

2. If it doesn’t have a solution, it is out of the span

Example

Consider the vector space R2 which consists of all 2D vector in the real
number components.

Let’s take two vectors in R2

2 −1
𝑣1 = [ ] , 𝑣2 = [ ]
3 4
5
Let 𝑤 = [ ]
2

To check, we need 𝑎𝑣1 + 𝑏𝑣2 = 𝑤

2 −1 5
𝑎[ ]+𝑏[ ] = [ ]
3 4 2

𝑎 = 2, 𝑏 = −1

So 𝑤 = 2𝑣1 − 1𝑣2

Thus 𝑤 is in the span of 𝑣1 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑣2

Example 2

Check whether b is in the span

1 5 −3
𝑣1 = [−2] 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑣2 = [−13] and 𝑏 = [ 8 ]
3 −3 1

SUBSPACE

A subset W of a vector space V is called a subspace of V if W satisfies

the condition and the properties of a vector space.

If 𝑣 and 𝑤 are vectors in the sub space and 𝑐 is a scalar, then;

1. 𝑣 + 𝑤 is in the sub space

2. 𝑐𝑣 is in the sub space.

Note that the properties of a subspace are similar to the properties of a

vector space.

Dimension.
Dimensions are the number of bases in the vector space
For example.

𝑅1 (1𝐷 𝑠𝑝𝑎𝑐𝑒) any non-zero sector. (e.g.) spans the space dim(𝑅1 ) = 1

𝑅 2 (2𝐷 𝑠𝑝𝑎𝑐𝑒) The standard basis (0,1), (1,0) has two independent
vectors dim(𝑅 2 ) = 2

𝑅 3 (3𝐷 𝑠𝑝𝑎𝑐𝑒) The standard basis (1,0,0), (0,1,0), (0,0,1) has three
independent vectors dim(𝑅 3 ) = 3

What is a basis and its applications

A basis is a set of linearly independent vectors that span the entire space

1 0 0
Example 𝑣1 = [0] , 𝑣2 = [1] , 𝑣3 = [0]
0 0 1

The number of vectors in the basis is called the dimension of the space.

Properties of a basis

1. They are linearly independent

2. They span the space
Application of basis
1. Computer graphics and 3D designing
In computer graphics, the basis vectors define the coordinate
system for rendering the 3D objects.
They are used to modify objects in the virtual coordinate system

2. Data science and Machine learning.

Machines use basis in image compression and facial recognition
3. Signal processing and communication
Signal is made up of essentially waves. These waves contain basis,
simple vector coordinates which can be manipulated and altered to
a desired outcome.

Space.
Space is a vector field that follows specific mathematical properties.

The space 𝑅 𝑛 consists of all column vectors v with 𝑛 component.

The vector space 𝑅 𝑛 is represented by the usual xy plane. Each vector v

in 𝑅 𝑛 has two components. The word "space" asks us to think of all
those vectors-the whole plane. Each vector gives the x and y coordinates
of a point in the plane: v = (x, y). Similarly, the vectors in 𝑅 3
correspond to points (x, y, z) in three-dimensional space. The one-
dimensional space R 1 is a line (like the x axis). As before, we print
vectors as a column between brackets, or along a line using commas and
parenthese

Examples of vector space.

1. Euclidean spaces.

This contains sets of all n-dimensional vectors with real entries e.g
𝑅 𝑛 (𝑛𝑡ℎ 𝑠𝑝𝑎𝑐𝑒), 𝑅 3 (3𝐷 𝑠𝑝𝑎𝑐𝑒)

2. Matrix space. The set of 𝑚 ∗ 𝑛 matrices form a vector space under

the matrix addition and scalar multiplication.

Euclidean space.
This is a finite dimensional inner product space over the real number.

Applications of Euclidean space.

Machine learning: used in classifying and clustering algorithms.

Computer graphics: Used in 3D rendering, modeling, animations and

simulations.
Geometry and engineering: Used to design, construct, and navigate
systems.

Vector algebra.
This is a branch of mathematics that deals with vectors, their
operations, and their properties.

Here are some of the operations that can be performed in vector

algebra.

1. Length of the vector

Example

𝟏
𝒗 = [ 𝟐]
𝟑

The length is ‖𝑣 ‖ = √((12 ) + (22 ) + (32 ) )

= √14

This operation is used in finding the orthonormal expressions.

2. Inner product (Dot-product/ Minor product)

 General expression

𝑎. 𝑏 = 𝑎1 𝑏1 +𝑎2 𝑏2 + 𝑎3 𝑏3 + − − − − 𝑎𝑛 𝑏𝑛

Example.

1 1
𝑎 = [3] 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑏 = [1]
2 1

𝑎. 𝑏 = (1)(1) + (3)(1) + (2)(1)

=6

These two concepts are vital in vector algebra operations

Orthonormalization.
This is the process that produce a set of vectors that are orthogonal and
normalized.

It’s a technique used in linear algebra to make vector sets easier to work
with.

Orthogonality.

Properties of orthogonality
 1. 𝑢𝑇 𝑣 = 0
Proof this
2 2
||𝑢|| + ||𝑣|| = ||𝑢 + 𝑣||2
This is the same as saying
𝑢𝑇 𝑢 + 𝑣 𝑇 𝑣 = (𝑢 + 𝑣)𝑇 (𝑢 + 𝑣)
This will give us the above expression in property 1

Orthogonal: Two vectors are orthogonal if their inner product (dot

product) is zero.

Normalize: A vector is normalized if it has a length of 1

Projection
Imagine the vectors above.

The projection p is just a fraction of the vector a

𝑝 = 𝑥𝑎

For the property of orthogonality

𝑎𝑇 𝑒 = 0

𝑎𝑇 (𝑏 − 𝑝) = 0

𝑎𝑇 𝑏
𝑥= ( 𝑇 )
𝑎 𝑎

𝑎𝑇 𝑏
Projection of b unto a 𝑝 = ( 𝑎)
𝑎𝑇 𝑎

Gram Schmidt

The gram Schmidt process helps us to make vectors orthogonal and

normal to each other.

Example.

1 1
Suppose 𝑎 = [ ] 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑏 = [ ]
1 −1

First choose the vector to normalize say vector a

||𝑎|| = √2
 1
2
𝑎 = [√1 ] this is the normalized vector
√2

Finding the projection of b unto a

𝑎𝑇 𝑏
𝑝𝑟𝑜𝑗𝑎 (𝑏) = ( 𝑇 𝑎)
𝑎 𝑎

=0

We must normalize vector 𝑏

||𝑏|| = √2

1
√2
The normal vector of 𝑏 = [ 1 ]
−
√2

And if you try the expression for orthonormalization,

𝑎𝑇 𝑏 = 0

It is satisfied; hence they are orthogonal and normal to each other

The application of orthonormalization include the following;

Used in 3D graphics (to create perfect camera angles).

Used in machine learning (to make sure data is independent).
Used in quantum mechanics (for orthonormal wave functions).
Used in communication systems (to separate signals cleanly)