DEFINITIONS

Hardware – the physical parts of the computer. e.g. keyboard, printer, memory boards
Program – a set of instructions to achieve ONE main task. e.g. analyse the customer file and
display all customers who have not paid within a given time-scale.
Package – a set of programs designed to perform ALL aspects of a MAJOR business
application. e.g. to deal with customer orders, purchase orders, stock control etc. The
package probably would include features for automatic installation, user customisation,
built-in help, manuals (on or off line) etc.
Software – a general name for a program or package. The distinguishing factor between:
Application Software – software to solve a business application.
System Software – software to assist the computer in organising itself.
See notes in GENERAL PURPOSE SOFTWARE for more details and also below.
Data – The raw facts input into a computer. It can also refer to data held on computer file
for later processing. See Information.
Information – strictly this refers to data that has been processed and therefore has an
associated meaning. Computer output should be information.
Parameter – an item of data which shows HOW a process should be performed. e.g. an
indicator to show a sort program which is the key file for sorting.
DATA CAPTURE
Data capture should be as automatic as possible with as little user intervention as possible.
The reasons for this are:
• humans make mistakes
• humans cost money because they must be paid
• data is captured at source and there is therefore less chance of it being lost in its
passage to the computer
KEYBOARD
Possesses the standard typewriter layout of letters/digits and punctuation. In addition it has
function keys which are used by particular software for pre-arranged purposes. e.g. F1 is
often used for HELP features. A separate numeric keypad is useful for pure numeric entry
such as in retail data entry. Additional keys may be available for Internet access.
Note particular function keys in describing use of software because these keys may only
apply to that particular package.
Uses – Text data entry where there is little structure such as names and addresses.
Corrections to data.
Entries to general purpose software programs such as word processing.
Advantages – Ideal where data is unpredictable or of a variable shape.
Limitations – Limited to the speed and accuracy of the keyboard operator. Expensive
because it is user intensive.
TOUCH SCREEN
The finger breaks vertical and horizontal cross beams just in front of the screen to pinpoint
the position on the screen. It is suitable for data input where the data is limited in range and
effectively represents a series of options. Some areas of the screen can allow a move to a
submenu of options.
Note: This must not be confused with VDU which is an output device
Uses – Tourist areas to pinpoint the locations of particular places of interest that could be
buildings or items within a building.
Restaurants to select from a limited menu to transmit the order directly to the kitchen and
to generate customer billing.
Choices for a bank customer at an ATM.
Advantages – provides information with little user action (or skill).
Cuts out the need for human information providers.
Limitations – only suitable where the data is a small FIXED range of items. The width of a
human finger limits the number of items that can appear on the screen. If sub menus are
used, this further limits the number of options on the main screen.
MICR (Magnetic Character Recognition)
Banks originally developed this data capture method with a view to processing huge
numbers of cheques received AND to provide some security against possible fraud. If
another business decided it wanted to use MICR for data input, it would find it difficult to
obtain a supplier of the hardware because banks have the vested interest. The only
hardware available would read cheque-format data. This method is very effective for a quite
specific purpose.
Uses – Cheque reading ONLY.
Advantages – Fast
Cheques can still be read even if they have minor damage. The only human action is in
feeding the reader.
Limitations – Reads only one line of data and a small character set.
Requires line-up characters for the hardware to location the position of data. Line of data is
always in the same position on ALL cheques.
Stylised characters only can be read.
Requires additional software to convert the input signals to meaningful information.

OCR (Optical Character Recognition)

Standard shaped characters (typically output by printers) are read by optical scanning and
interpreting the returned signals from patterns held on file. More sophisticated hardware
will now read hand-written data provided it is well formed or in strict positions.
Uses – Utility bills (electricity, gas, water) sent to customers can be re-input to signal that
the bill has been paid in full because it holds the customer number and amount due (turn
around document).
Advantages – Eliminates the need for human keying of data
Limitations – only suitable for small quantities of data.
Requires line-up characters for the hardware to locate the position of data.
Keyboard entry is still needed, in the case of utility bill, if the payment is for an amount
other than that stated on the form or if the paper is folded and the data cannot be read.
Requires optical character recognition software to convert the input signals to meaningful
information. This is prone to errors if the input is hand-written.
BAR CODE READING
Bar codes are read by optical scanning and the returned signals are converted into binary.
They are used purely for identification.
Uses – Supermarket checkouts to identify the product bought.
Libraries (2 uses) – to read the book identifiers and also the borrower’s ticket code.
Hotel – to identify guest and enable internal charging to an account for all services used.
Ticket entry to events with pre-purchased tickets.
Forms issued (and returned completed) to identify the recipient.
Advantages – Eliminates the need for pricing every item in a supermarket because the
manufacturer prints the item code on the package in the form of the bar code.
Less staff needed in a supermarket.
Enables the price of a product to be changed by a single entry on the main file.
Cuts down queues at supermarket checkout and less checkout errors.
Now enabling self-service in supermarkets with one supervisor to oversee several checkouts
to resolve problems.
Better customer receipts at supermarkets and automatic stock updating.
Bar codes can be read at any angle.
Bar codes are also printed with numeric code for human interpretation.
Limitations – some codes will not read properly and need to be keyed in.
Requires line-up marks (centre of bar code) for the hardware to locate the position of data.
NOTE: Bar codes do NOT contain item price on a product. The reasons for this are:
• Products may be made in other countries where the currency is different.
• Prices are often set by the seller and varied for “special offers”.
OMR (Optical Mark Recognition)
Pencil/ink marks are placed at specific positions on paper and detected by the machine by
optical scanning and testing the reflected signal. The position of the mark identifies its value
and this is then converted into a binary value.
Uses – Multiple-choice examination input. The candidate places a mark to indicate his/her
chosen answer.
Lottery tickets. The purchaser marks the chosen numbers.
Stock auditing. A warehouse clerk marks the number of items actually on the shelves.
Meter reading in private houses/businesses. The current value on each meter is recorded.
Street surveys. To record the views of people outside of buildings.
Advantages – The data is recorded in computer readable format at the place where the data
occurs.
Limitations – Small Numeric data only.
Requires line-up characters (side of page) for the hardware to locate the position of data.
Difficult to correct errors at the point of capture resulting in the need for keyboard
correction/entry on faulty documents.
MOUSE / DIGITISER
The mouse is used to control movement of the cursor through different programs, files, etc.
Uses – Navigation through menus
Selection of input, commands, text, images,
Drag and drop operations
Control in games
Computer Aided Design/Drawing (CAD). The mouse can be used to select a standard object
(circle) but its main function is in positioning the object and adjusting its size by dragging
handles. Objects can then be turned, inverted, coloured under mouse control (this is the
DATA element).
Advantages – Any other form of input device does not have the controls for drawing.
Limitations – Needs complex software to enable accurate drawings to be made.
VOICE RECOGNITION
Human voice signals are converted to waveforms and binary signals are then compared with
standard patterns held on file.
Uses – Control of machinery remotely or in “dirty”/busy situations such as a machine
room/warehouse.
Direct input to a text editor.
For handicapped people unable to use other means of input of data.
Advantages – Hands free input.
Limitations – Needs complex software to enable accurate identification of words.
Small vocabulary and limited by regional accents.
Needs to be calibrated for particular users.
Subject to errors when voice changes (colds).
SCANNER
Paper documents are optically scanned and converted to electrical and then bit-map binary
signals. Some scanners give higher resolution than others (dpi).
Uses – Archiving of documents – legal requirements.
Advantages – Documents can be entered into computer readable form without the need for
any user input. These can then be edited through the use of OCR.
Limitations – Resolution can be variable, sometimes resulting documents are hazy.
The documents take up a large storage capacity.
CHOOSING THE RIGHT CAPTURE METHOD
Points needed to be considered when choosing a method of data capture for a given
application are:
• Human involvement in the input process – normally required to be minimum for cost
purposes.
 • Cost of data capture.
• Accuracy of the received data.
• A means of correction or alternative means of input when the chosen method fails.
• Can the data be captured at source – in the class room, on the street etc ?
• Volume of the data. Large data entry may need a different method from small data
entry.
• Comparison of alternative methods of data capture.
DATA OUTPUT
Data can be output using a:
1. VDU (monitor, screen, display) – suitable where it is needed only temporarily
(perhaps for checking data from a file).
2. Printer – as a permanent visible record.

3. Plotter - for large complex diagrams/charts/drawings.

4. Film/Microfiche – photographic storage for large quantities of data.

5. Sound – for instructions to people in unusual situations. Voice simulation can sound
artificial.
PRINTERS
The range of printers over the years has increased but must printers now used are from the
following list:
• Dot-Matrix printer – Although of 1980’s design, improved versions are still used.
Print heads contain a grid of 24 pins. One character at a time is printed by hammering a
selection of pins against a print ribbon onto the paper. The quality is poor but often
adequate for internal memoranda in a company or for transaction slips. Pre-carboned
paper enables multiple copies to be produced with one printing. Crude graphic characters
are possible with different combinations of the 24 pins. Different models allow continuous
stationary or single sheets to be used. The speed is measured in characters per second.
• Laser printer - Light is modulated by the computer and directed onto a drum by
rotating mirror. The chemical coating on the drum is electrostatically charged. Where light
shines on the drum, the charge is removed. Toner powder is attracted to the charged parts
and this is transferred to paper during the rotation. Heating the paper helps to fi x the
printing. The quality is very high allowing graphics to be printed. The speed is measured in
pages per minute. The cost depends on the quality printout. It is commonly attached to a
LAN to service all work stations.
• Ink-jet printer – Ink is sprayed onto the paper through tiny nozzles by either heating
for a short time or by pressure. It is slower than the laser with typical speed of 4 pages per
 minute. However, it is able to print graphics and in colour making it superior to the dot
matrix. It is one of the cheapest printers now around and is often attached to stand-alone
computers in the office or at home.
• Line printer – Two types are still available having been the printers of the mainframe
as far back as the 1960’s. The barrel/ drum printer has a line of each character embossed
on the drum so that all occurrences of the same character in a line of print are produced at
the same time. The drum then rotates to print all occurrences of the next character. The
hammers hit the paper and carbon roll onto the drum. The speed of the drum is so fast
that one revolution of the drum produces one line of print. 2000 lines per minute are
achievable. The chain printer has a chain revolving horizontally and carries several copies
of all the characters. A line of print is achieved by hammering each character of the line
onto a ribbon as one of the appropriate characters on the chain is in position. These types
of printers are still used for large print runs such as printing many thousands of utility bills
in one run. They are now being replaced by large scale laser printers.
DISPLAY OR PRINT?
1. The screen gives a temporary output and is useful when a printed record is not
needed. The limited size of the screen means that is limited for viewing long or wide
documents where scrolling would need to be used continuously. The screen is
inappropriate when it is necessary to be checking back and forwards through a lengthy
document.
2. Printed output gives a permanent record with the option of multiple copies. The
output may be needed elsewhere by people not producing this output. However, it does
waste much paper. Despite the move towards a “paper-less society”, printouts are
frequently produced which are unnecessary.
PLOTTERS
They are usually on a larger scale than printers for fi ne drawings. Lines can be drawn at any
angle. Text is actually drawn rather than printed. There are basically two type:
Flatbed – an arm holds a pen and different colours are possible using different pens. The
arm moves along the paper to give an X movement. The pen moves along the arm to give a
Y movement. A combination of these enables inclined lines are shapes such as circles to be
drawn.
Drum – the paper is wrapped around two rollers that rotate to feed the paper in the X
direction. The pen moves across a bridge to produce the Y movement.
Uses – architectural drawings, circuit design, car design. Plotters can be very large – to plot
the lines of a car FULL SIZE.
MICROFORM (Microfiche, Microfilm)
The output is effectively photographed and transferred to a fi lm in the form of a sheet or
roll. A projection device is needed to view the microform. Microfiche typically stores
hundreds of “sheets” on one flat film card with each sheet being a rectangular frame. The
first frames show the index of the contents of the whole card. The microfiche reader is a
back projection screen to magnify the tiny images to a readable size. The user moves the
card around physically to select the required frame. It is particularly useful for viewing large
data files where conditions do not suit the use of a computer – dirty workshop.
Uses - archiving data, catalogues of parts in a garage where the data changes only
infrequently.
THE COMPUTER PROCESSOR BOX DEFINITIONS
Tower Main tall box holding the Processor unit and various storage drives. Its shape is
designed to minimise the space taken up on a desk
Binary Unlike the decimal system which uses the digits 0 to 9, binary is a system which uses
only 0 and 1 but uses the same basic rules of number systems. See Notes for Number and
Logic. It means that lengthy binary numbers can represent relatively small decimal numbers.
The reason for the use of binary is that electrical/magnetic properties are usually two-state
(on/off ) and devices using them can be small, cheap and very fast.
Byte 8 binary digits (BITS).
MB Megabyte. Size of memory or hard disc in millions of bytes.
ROM Non-volatile main/primary memory used for start-up. Contents are systems programs
and parameters relating to running the computer system. Memory is retained when the
power is switched off.
RAM Volatile main/primary memory used to store user programs and data. It is for
temporary storage and the contents will be lost when the power is switched off .
EPROM Erasable Programmable ROM memory which can be reprogrammed with an EPROM
blower using a ultra-violet light source to erase previous contents. Used mainly by software
developers or institutions that have highly specialised needs and need a fast running
program. EPROMs are susceptible to erasure by ordinary light and therefore need to be
shielded from light.
PROM Programmable ROM which can be programmed once only. Also used by developers.
SRAM Static RAM for temporary user data programs which retains its data while the
computer is on. It is faster than DRAM but more expensive to produce.
DRAM Dynamic RAM is more densely packed onto a chip and is therefore cheaper but is
slower to access. It uses less power than SRAM. It needs to be refreshed regularly otherwise
its contents are lost.
Cache Fast memory to store regularly used routines or data thus anticipating future calls to
memory -some delays could otherwise occur accessing data from dynamic RAM.
A cache works in both hardware and software to provide similar functionality. In its physical
or hardware form, it is a small form factor of internal memory that stores instances of the
most frequently executed programs in the main memory to enable faster access when they
are requested by the CPU
VRAM Video random access memory (VRAM or video RAM) is a high-speed array of dynamic
random access memory (DRAM) used to store the image and video data that a computer
displays. VRAM is an integrated circuit that serves as a buffer between the CPU and video
card. VRAM was originally designed as a high-resolution graphics adapter. The higher the
video memory, the higher the capability of the system to handle more complex graphics at a
faster pace.
VRAM is also known as a frame buffer or simply video memory.

THE PROCESSOR
This is the “engine room” which provides the computer’s power. Its speed of operation is
dependent upon the clock speed. All operations are synchronised with the system clock
which acts rather like the beating of a drum with actions taking place on the beat. The
control unit, synchronised with the clock, ensures that data and instructions move between
the correct parts of the computer. It sends signals to component parts of the computer to
activate them after deciphering program instructions brought in from memory. e.g.
peripheral devices to receive or send data or ALU to perform an arithmetic operation.
MEMORY
Programs are loaded into memory in order to be run under the control of the control unit.
Some areas of memory will be used to hold data as named program variables. Other areas
will be used as buffers to hold blocks of data read in from a peripheral or secondary storage
area. Buffers are also needed for output devices. The screen uses video RAM. The contents
of memory are brought into the processor along buses under the control unit. (see Fetch-
Execute cycle later).
ARITHMETIC LOGIC UNIT (ALU)
This performs basic calculations under the control of control unit. Arithmetic operations are
performed using the accumulator as a temporary working area.
e.g. ADD P might be the instruction “Add the contents of P to the accumulator”.
Similarly, all decision instructions are processed here.
e.g. BNZ P might be the instruction “Branch to label P in the program if the accumulator
holds a value which is non-zero. The ALU will set a 1-bit flag to 1 if conditions are met or 0 if
not. In this case, when control detects a 1, it will change the program counter to the address
of P so that the next instruction obeyed as at location P.
BUSES
Address Bus carries a memory address to and from memory.
Data Bus carries data to and from memory or an instruction from memory to the control
unit. Both these buses are PARALLEL devices so that many bits can be transferred at the
same time. Serial transmission would be too slow.
REGISTERS
Key single storage locations are used for particular purpose during the processing of
instructions. Their precise uses are described in Fetch-Execute cycle section.
Accumulator – the temporary working area for calculations and logic operations
Program counter (PC) – this holds the address in memory of the next instruction. Normally
this register is incremented (1 added) during the processing of an instruction to show that
the next instruction will be found in the next physical location in memory. However, after a
decision (see ALU above), the next logical instruction may be in a different part of memory
and the program counter will adjusted to the appropriate address.
Current Instruction Register (CIR) – This holds the latest instruction brought from memory
on the data bus which the control unit will decipher and then signal other parts of the
computer to take action.
Memory Address Register (MAR) – This holds the address in memory for the next item to
be fetched. It could refer to an instruction (from the PC) or a data location value (from or to
memory).
Memory Buffer Register (MBR) – An instruction collected from memory is stored in this
register before being moved to the CIR. Similarly, if an instruction requests access to a data
value or it is to be returned to memory, the data is placed here. Some books refer to the
MBR as the Memory Data Register.
FETCH-EXECUTE CYCLE
The execution of a single instruction in a program normally passes through 3 phases:
1. Fetch phase when the instruction is obtained from memory.
a. PC holds the address of the instruction
b. Address in PC is passed to MAR
c. Control places this value on address bus
d. Instruction at the memory address given in the address bus is placed in MBR
e. This instruction is transferred back to the processor along the data bus.
f. The contents of the data bus is placed in the CIR
2. Decode phase when the binary instruction is broken down ready for execution.
a.The control unit breaks up the instruction in the CIR into operation code and address
parts (in the simplest instruction formats)
 b.Control decodes the operation code. It could be arithmetic (e.g. ADD - see above),
decision (e.g. BNZ – see above) or instructions to send or receive data from
peripherals/storage.
3. Execution phase when the instruction is obeyed.
a. Appropriate signals are sent to other parts of the system. e.g. ADD and BNZ would
require a signal to the ALU indicating the type of action to take. A read/write instruction
would mean a signal to the peripheral or storage device.
b. Arithmetic instructions will require a memory read. e.g. ADD P. The address P is
placed in the MAR and sent down the address bus. The contents of P are placed on the
data bus and returned to the ALU where the value will be added to the accumulator.
c. A store instruction (Store contents of accumulator to memory) will require the
storage address to be placed in the MAR and then transmitted along the address bus.
The value of the accumulator will be placed in the MBR and transferred down the data
bus where it will then be placed in memory.
d.A decision instruction will require the appropriate flag to be checked. If it is found to
be 1, the address in the CIR will then be transferred to the PC. (see ALU above).
FLAG REGISTER (or STATUS REGISTER)
Single bits are set to 1 if a particular event has occurred.
Sign flag – set to 1 if a test for negative has occurred, 0 if positive
Zero flag – set to 1 if the last arithmetic operation produced a zero
Carry flag – set to 1 if the last arithmetic operation resulted in a carry
Overflow flag – set to 1 if the last arithmetic operation overflowed the available memory
Other bits are used to show different types of interrupts, some would have priority over
others.