Chapter D

Integrals

Integrals are often thought of as the “opposite” of derivatives—as

we will see, and a solid understanding of derivatives is an essential

skill for tackling this topic. The basics of integration are important

before moving into future courses in calculus and differential

equations, so study and gain mastery of the concept of integration!

279
280 CHAPTER D. INTEGRALS

D.1 What is an integral?

D.1.1 Approximating areas: Riemann sums

Suppose we wanted to find the area u the graph of a straight

line that lies a the x-axis, b x = a and x = b.

Since we have formulas for find-

ing the area of basic shapes, we

can easily figure this out.

But what about finding the area u the graph of a general

curve y = f (x) and a the x−axis between and

Bernhard Riemann’s idea was to carve up the desired area into

r and use their area to e the true area. He

called this the R S and it goes as follows:

D.1. WHAT IS AN INTEGRAL? 281

Step ①: Choose a number n and divide up the interval [a, b] into n

pieces by choosing a list of points, defining what is called a

partition denoted P:

a = x0 < x1 < . . . < xn = b

The n pieces are sometimes called s of [a, b]. The k-th

subinterval is [ , ].

Step ②: For each subinterval, choose a special x-value x∗k

somewhere in that sub-interval.

x∗k ∈ [xk−1, xk ]

Step ③: For each subinterval, draw a r with

h f (x∗k ) and whose b spans the subinterval [xk−1, xk ].

The area of rectangle k is: Ak =

282 CHAPTER D. INTEGRALS

The total area of all the rectangles x-axis is:

n
X
A1 + . . . + An = f (x∗k )(xk − xk−1)
i=1

This e of the area is called a Riemann sum. To

simplify things, we will often consider a simple special case.

Left/Right Uniform Riemann Sum for f (x) on [a, b]

The uniform Riemann sum with n subintervals divides the in-

terval [a, b] into n e pieces of width

b−a
∆x =
n

The endpoints of the subintervals are given by xk = a + k∆x.

The left/right Riemann sums use the left/right endpoints of the

interval [xk−1, xk ] for the evaluation point x∗

Left Right

x∗k−1 xk−1 xk
n
X n
X
Riemann Sum f (xk−1)∆x f (xk )∆x
k=1 k=1
D.1. WHAT IS AN INTEGRAL? 283

Example 1. Use a right uniform Riemann sum with 2

subintervals to estimate the area below y = 3x on [1, 5]

Example 2. Use a left

uniform Riemann sum with 4

subintervals to estimate the

 
1
area below y = sin x and
2
above the x-axis, between x = 0

and x = 2π.
284 CHAPTER D. INTEGRALS

D.1.2 Limits of Riemann sums

What happens as n increases and the rectangles get s ?

As the width of the rectangles d , the accuracy of our

estimate i . So, what happens if we let the width of all of

the rectangles in the partition approach 0? Notationally:

n
X
lim
n→∞
f (x∗k )∆xk
∥P∥→0 k=1

We should get the e value of the area: That is, our e

becomes e in this limit. Just like derivatives (which were also

a kind of limit), we also have a compact notation for this limit.

D.1. WHAT IS AN INTEGRAL? 285

Definition of the definite integral

Zb n
X
f (x)dx = n→∞
lim f (x∗k )∆xk
∥P∥→0 k=1
a

As long as this limit exists, this limit is the definition of the

d i of f (x) between x = a and x = b. We say

f is i when this happens. We call [a, b] the domain

of integration.

Continuous functions are integrable

If f is continuous on [a, b], then f is integrable on [a, b].

✍ If f is integrable, and a and b are numbers, the definite integral

always gives us a numerical result, since it represents area! Thus,

the variable we use in the integrand is not important, and is often

called a “d variable”: That is,

Z b Z b Z b Z b
f (x) dx = f (t) dt = f (♠) d♠ = f( ) d( ).
a a a a
286 CHAPTER D. INTEGRALS

✍ The integral is the area above the x-axis and below f , as long

as f is p . More generally, for any f , this definite integral

represents the area a the x-axis and b f for intervals

of x ∈ [a, b] where f is positive, minus the area b the x-axis

and a f for intervals of x ∈ [a, b] where f is negative. This is

sometimes called the n area.

Example 3. Using the area of triangle formula, evaluate

Z2
3x dx.
−1
D.1. WHAT IS AN INTEGRAL? 287

D.1.3 Properties of the definite integral

Given our definition, we can determine a few important (and

mostly intuitive!) properties of the definite integral.

For all of the following, suppose that k, a, b, and c are constants

with a < b < c, and that f and g are integrable functions on the

domain of integration. Then,

Z b
k dx =
a

Z a
f (x) dx =
a
288 CHAPTER D. INTEGRALS

Z a
f (x) dx = −
b

Z c
f (x) dx =
Za b Z c
f (x) dx f (x) dx
a b

If f (x) ≤ g(x) for x ∈ [a, b], then

Z b Z b
f (x) dx g(x) dx
a a
D.1. WHAT IS AN INTEGRAL? 289

Z b Z b
kf (x) dx = f (x) dx
a a

Z b
(f (x) − g(x)) dx =
Za b Z b
f (x) dx g(x) dx
a a

Z b
(f (x) + g(x)) dx =
Za b Z b
f (x) dx g(x) dx
a a
290 CHAPTER D. INTEGRALS

D.2 The Fundamental Theorem of Calculus

There is a much easier way to compute integrals than doing the

n → ∞ limit! The trick is to relate integrals to derivatives.

D.2.1 The FToC, Part I

The first FToC is about the derivative of a certain function A(x).

The “Area-up-to-x” function

Given a function f and a starting point a, the area-up-to-x

function is defined by:

Z x
A(x) = f (t) dt.
a

(Since the upper bound depends on x, this is a function of x.)

D.2. THE FUNDAMENTAL THEOREM OF CALCULUS 291

Zx
Example 1. Let f (x) = 3x and let a = 1. Let A(x) = 3t dt.
1

(a) Find a formula for A(x) by using the formula for the area

of a trapezoid: Area = (Average Width) × (Height)

(b) Compute A′(x).

This suggests an interesting relationship, and that relationship is as

follows:

Fundamental Theorem of Calculus - Derivative Version

Let f (x) be a function that is continuous on [a, b], and define
Rx
A(x) to be the “area-up-to-x” function A(x) = a f (t) dt. Then

A(x) is differentiable and its derivative is

Z x
d
A′(x) = f (t) dt = f (x) for all x ∈ [a, b]
dx a
292 CHAPTER D. INTEGRALS

Proof of the FToC, Part I : Let x ∈ (a, b) and choose any h so

that x + h ∈ (a, b). From the definition of A′(x),

1
A′(x) = lim (A(x + h) − A(x))
h→0 h
 
1
= lim − 
h→0 h
 
1
= lim  + 
h→0 h
 
1
= lim  
h→0 h

We will show that this equals f (x)!

First, since f is continuous on [a, b], f is continuous on [x, x + h]

By the E V T , there exists

m, M ∈ [x, x + h] such that f (m) ≤ f (t) ≤ f (M ) ∀t ∈ [x, x + h].

D.2. THE FUNDAMENTAL THEOREM OF CALCULUS 293

By one of our definite integral properties, we have that

Z x+h Z x+h Z x+h
f (m) dt ≤ f (t) dt ≤ f (M ) dt
x x x

Z x+h
≤ f (t) dt ≤
x

Dividing everything by , we obtain:

And by our limit properties, taking the limit as h → 0 yields:

Remember that m, M ∈ [x, x + h]:

As h → 0, x + h approaches . That is, the interval s

to just the value . In this process, m and M have nowhere to

go and are f to the value as well.

294 CHAPTER D. INTEGRALS

Similarly, since f is continuous, f (m) and f (M ) are forced to the

value f (x).

Therefore, we have
Z x+h
1
≤ lim f (t) dt ≤ .
h→0 h x

Z x+h
1
By the S T , lim f (t) dt = .
h→0 h x

In other words, we have shown that:

which completes the proof!

D.2. THE FUNDAMENTAL THEOREM OF CALCULUS 295

D.2.2 The FToC, Part II

So far, the Fundamental Theorem of Calculus has shown us a very

important property concerning the derivative of a definite integral.

But how do we evaluate definite integrals to actually find areas of

all kinds? The second part of this theorem sheds some light on how

to do that.

The Fundamental Theorem of Calculus, Part II

Let f (x) be a function which is continuous on an interval [a, b],

and let F (x) be any a of f (i.e.F ′(x) = f (x)).

Then:
Zb
f (t) dt = F (b) − F (a)
a

To prove this, we’re going to have to answer a pretty obvious

question: What exactly is an antiderivative?

To put it simply, an antiderivative of f (x) is defined as a function

F (x) whose derivative is f (x).

296 CHAPTER D. INTEGRALS

Let’s talk about some basic properties. For these, let F ′(x) = f (x)

and G′(x) = g(x):

Antiderivative of 0 is a constant
Suppose f (x) = 0. Then F (x) = C is an antiderivative of f ,

where the arbitrary constant C is any real number.

Antiderivatives of the same function differ by a constant

Suppose f (x) = g(x). Then F (x) = G(x) + C is an antideriva-

tive of f , where C again is an arbitrary constant.

The proofs of these are not hard, and the properties are plain to see

simply by taking the derivatives of f (x) in each of these cases!

These tell us what we should intuitively expect: That any function

always has an i number of antiderivatives, all differing only

by what we call an a c .
D.2. THE FUNDAMENTAL THEOREM OF CALCULUS 297

Proof of the FToC, Part II.

Zx
Let F be any antiderivative of f . Let A(x) = f (t) dt. From
a
′ ′
FToC derivative version, A (x) = f (x) = F (x). From the previous

page, we know that F and A must only differ by a c :

F (x) = for some C. Then,

F (b) = , F (a) =

So,

F (b) − F (a) =

=
298 CHAPTER D. INTEGRALS

D.2.3 Evaluating integrals with the FToC

As long as we know an antiderivative, the Fundamental Theorem

gives us a powerful tool to easily evaluate definite integrals!

Z 2
1 d 1
Example 2. Evaluate dt using the fact that (ln(t)) = .
1 t dt t

Z 5
Example 3. Evaluate s2 + 1 ds using the fact that
  1
d 1 3
s + s = s2 + 1.
ds 3
D.2. THE FUNDAMENTAL THEOREM OF CALCULUS 299

D.2.4 Riemann Sums and Introduction to Integrals - FYTT

1. Use a Riemann Sum to estimate the area below y = x2 + 1 and above the x-axis,
between x = 1 and x = 4. Use a partition of three uniform subintervals, and choose the
evaluation points to be the left endpoints of each subinterval.

Final Answer: The area estimate is 17 square units.

√
2. Use a Riemann Sum to estimate the area below y = x and above the x-axis, between
x = 0 and x = 8. Use a partition of four uniform subintervals, and choose the evaluation
points to be the midpoints of each subinterval.

Final Answer: The area estimate is 15.228 square units.

3. Use a Riemann sum with 4 uniform subintervals, evaluated at left endpoints to

Z 2
approximate sin(πx2 ) dx.
0

1
Final Answer: √
2

4. (a) Use a Riemann sum with 5 uniform subintervals, evaluated at right endpoints to
Z 1
approximate ln(2x + 3) dx.
0
(b) What is the error in your approximation for (a)?
Z
(Hint: Recall that ln(x) dx = x ln |x| − x + C.)

Final Answers: (a) 1.4259 (b) 0.05019

300 CHAPTER D. INTEGRALS

5. Consider the problem of approximating the area above y = −x3 and below y = x2 ,
between x = 0 and x = 2. How could you use a Riemann Sum to tackle this problem? Use
4 uniform subintervals and choose the evaluation points to be the right endpoints of each
subinterval to get an estimate using your adapted approach.

Final Answer: A hint for how to do this Riemann Sum-style: Consider how to calculate
the heights of each rectangle involved using the heights of the functions in the question.
You should arrive at an estimate of 10 square units.

2
6. Consider finding the area below f (x) = xex and above the x−axis between x = 0 and
x = 3.

(a) Find the exact area defined by this problem.

(b) Use a Riemann sum with 6 uniform subintervals evaluated at left endpoints to
approximate this area.

(c) Repeat the process in (b) this time using right endpoints.

(d) Which of your approximations is more accurate?

Final Answers: (a) 4051.042 (b) 710.910 (c) 12865.536 (d) the left
endpoints, with an error of 3340.131. The approximation here is rather poor because we
simply have not considered enough subintervals. In fact, it takes over 36000 subintervals to
get an error below 1 for this problem!

7. Consider the following problem:

(a) Use a Riemann sum with 4 uniform subintervals evaluated at midpoints to

Z 6
approximate |x| dx.
−2
D.2. THE FUNDAMENTAL THEOREM OF CALCULUS 301

(b) Plot the area of interest and the area found by the Riemann sum.

(c) What is the exact value of this integral?

(d) The rectangles used by the Riemann sum and the true area represented by the
integral occupy different regions of the plane; yet, the error in the approximation is 0.
Why?

Final Answers: (a) 20

(b)

(c) 20

(d) The excess and shortfall amounts (which happen to form triangles in this case) in the
Riemann approximation exactly cancel out.
302 CHAPTER D. INTEGRALS

10. Consider finding the area below f (x) = x2 and above the x−axis between x = −1 and
x = 1.

(a) Draw a picture of this area.

Z 1
1
(b) Calculate the area, i.e. x2 dx. Use the fact that x3 has a derivative of x2 .
−1 3

(c) f (x) = x2 is an even function (i.e. f (−x) = f (x)). It is symmetric about the y−axis;
that is, the area to the right of the y−axis is equal to the area to the left of the
y−axis. As a result, we could instead find the area to one side of the y−axis and
multiply our answer by 2 to get the total area. Use symmetry to evaluate this
integral.

(d) Based on what you have learned in this question, complete the following statement:
Z a
If f (x) is an even function and a ∈ R then f (x) dx =
−a

Final Answers:

2
(a) (b) units2
3

Z 1  
2 1 2
(c) 2 x dx = 2 =
0 3 3

Z a Z a
(d) f (x) dx = 2 f (x) dx
−a 0
D.2. THE FUNDAMENTAL THEOREM OF CALCULUS 303

11. Consider finding the net area below f (x) = x3 and between x = −1 and x = 1.
Z 1
(a) Draw a picture of this area, and (b) Calculate the net area, i.e. x3 dx. Use the
−1
1
fact that x4 has a derivative of x3 .
4

(c) f (x) = x3 is an odd function (i.e. f (−x) = −f (x)). It is symmetric about the origin;
that is, the graph remains unchanged after a rotation of 180 degrees about the origin.
The contribution of area above the x−axis is equal to the contribution of area below
the x−axis. However, one is positive and the other is negative and so the net area is
0! To verify this, break the integral in this question into two pieces (i) from x = −1
to x = 0 and (ii) from x = 0 to x = 1 and add these two pieces together.

(d) Based on what you have learned in this question, complete the following statement:
Z a
If f (x) is an odd function and a ∈ R then f (x) dx =
−a

Final Answers:

(a) (b) 0

Z 0 Z 1
3 1 1
(c) x dx + x3 dx = − + = 0
−1 0 4 4

Z a
(d) f (x) dx = 0
−a
304 CHAPTER D. INTEGRALS

D.3 More on Calculating Antiderivatives

By using the FToC we can compute definite integrals as long as we

can find a . How do we do this for more complicated

functions?

Example 4.

(a) Find an antiderivative of f (x) = 2x.

(b) Find all the antiderivative of f (x) = 2x. (Hint: What do

we know about antiderivatives of the same functions)

Another way to think about this question is: “What function do I

have to take the derivative of in order to get an answer of 2x?”

D.3. MORE ON CALCULATING ANTIDERIVATIVES 305

An antiderivative vs. all the antiderivatives

If F (x) is an antiderivative for f (x), then the set of all possible

antiderivatives for f (x) is

F (x) + C for some constant C

D.3.1 Indefinite integrals

Because of the FToC, finding antiderivatives is very common. We

make a new notation called the “indefinite integral” to capture this

The Indefinite Integral

Let f (x) be a function. Then the indefinite integral of f (x) is

defined to be:
Z
f (x) dx = F (x) + C,

where F (x) is any antiderivative of f (x) and C is a r

n . This represents all the possible antiderivatives of

f (x). The function f , as was the case for definite integrals, is

called the i .
306 CHAPTER D. INTEGRALS

✍ WARNING: Do not confuse this with the definite integral

Zb
f (t) dt! The two notations look very similar but they mean
a
different things.

Z Z
✍ The integral symbol and the “dx” are a pair; that is, f (x)

without the “dx” has no mathematical meaning.

✍ Once you have taken the antiderivative these symbols should no

longer appear. That is, we write:

Z Z Z
2x dx = x2 + C and NOT 2x dx = x2 + C dx.

Z
✍ The +C does not “r ” the and dx symbols! Bear

in mind that this constant is an important part of the

antiderivative. In fact, it is critical in some applications that many

of you will see in other courses in the future. Stay tuned for more

on this in MATH*2270 (Applied Differential Equations)!

D.3. MORE ON CALCULATING ANTIDERIVATIVES 307

D.3.2 Basic Antiderivative rules

In much the same way as we did with derivatives, we can generate a

set of r for finding antiderivatives, derived simply by thinking

of our familiar derivative rules in r .

Antiderivatives of Bread and Butter functions

R
f (x) dx F (x) + C Notes
1
R p p+1
x dx p+1 x + C “Reverse Power Rule”. p ̸= −1.
R
k dx kx + C k is any number.
R x
e dx ex + C The antiderivative of ex is itself!
R
ax ln(a) dx ax + C a is any positive number.
R 1
x dx ln |x| + C ln |x| handles both x > 0 and

x < 0; when x > 0 only, ln(x)+

C is also correct.
308 CHAPTER D. INTEGRALS

Some More Antiderivative Formulas!

R
f (x) dx F (x) + C Notes
R
cos(x) dx sin(x) + C
R
sin(x) dx − cos(x) + C Don’t forget the minus

sign!
R
sec2(x) dx tan(x) + C
R
csc(x) cot(x) dx − csc(x) + C Don’t forget the minus

sign!
R
sec(x) tan(x) dx sec(x) + C
R
csc2(x) dx − cot(x) + C Lots to keep in mind?

The best trick for becoming confident with your techniques in

finding antiderivatives is k y d formulas

inside and out!

D.3. MORE ON CALCULATING ANTIDERIVATIVES 309

Example 5. Evaluate the following integrals.

Z
(a) x6 dx

Z √
4
(b) t dt

Z
1
(c) dx
x5/3

Z
(d) π dx

Z
(e) 0 dx

Z b
(f ) 0 dx, where a and b are real numbers.
a
310 CHAPTER D. INTEGRALS

Let’s expand our library of the kinds of functions that we can find

antiderivatives for:

Multiplicative Constants
Z
If f (x) dx = F (x) + C and k is any constant then
Z Z
kf (x) dx = k f (x) dx = kF (x) + C

✍ Constants can be f in or out as necessary. Grow to be

very comfortable with this!

Example 6.
Z
(a) 4x7 dx =

Z
π
(b) √ dt =
t

Z
(c) 3z dz =
D.3. MORE ON CALCULATING ANTIDERIVATIVES 311

Additions and Subtractions

If f (x) and g(x) have antiderivatives F (x) and G(x), then
Z Z Z
f (x)±g(x) dx = f (x)dx± g(x)dx = F (x)±G(x)+C

Example 7.
Z
(a) (3x2 + 5) dx =

Z  
1 2
(b) − dx =
x3 x2

Z
6
(c) 4x ln(4) + 5ex − dx =
x
312 CHAPTER D. INTEGRALS

D.3.3 Simplify-first Antiderivatives

Sometimes we need to s the i a little bit before

we can apply the rules we just introduced. This can transform an

integral from one that looks tough to something much easier.

Example 8.
2s3 − 5s4
Z
ds
3s2

Example 9.
Z  
1 1
+ 2 (3 + 2x2) dx
x x
D.3. MORE ON CALCULATING ANTIDERIVATIVES 313

D.3.4 Chain rule in reverse

Remember how the chain rule for derivatives works:

f (u(x)) = f ′(u(x))u′(x)

Going backwards gives the chain rule in reverse antiderivative rule

Z
f ′(u(x))u′(x) dx = .

✍ Notice that in the integration, the “u′(x)” piece disappears; the

final answer involves just f (u(x)).

In practice, it helps to break problems like this down into a few

steps that you should get used to. Computationally:

Step ①: Identify the c layer u(x).

Step ②: Identify the d of the core layer u′(x) (perhaps

off by a multiplicative constant).

314 CHAPTER D. INTEGRALS

Step ③: Identify the o layer f ′.

Step ④: Apply the chain rule in reverse:

Z
f ′(u(x))u′(x) dx =

✍ Note that sometimes, it can be very tricky to correctly identify

these different layers. You may need to manipulate the integrand a

little bit to make u′(x) appear exactly! Like many things in math,

this just takes lots of p .

Z
Example 10. (6x2 + 1) sin(2x3 + x) dx

Z
Example 11. sec2(4t) dt
D.3. MORE ON CALCULATING ANTIDERIVATIVES 315
Z
Example 12. 4x3(3x4 − 1)14 dx

Z 1
ex
Example 13. dx
4x2

Z
Example 14. t2 sec(t3) tan(t3) dt

Example 15. Try to use your intuition to integrate in one

Z   
1
step: e−2t + sin(3t) + cos t dt
4
316 CHAPTER D. INTEGRALS

D.3.5 Substitution method

The idea behind the method of substitution is to change

v An integral in terms of one variable, say x, becomes an

integral in terms of some other variable, (u is a common choice),

using a substitution.
Z Z
complicated(x) dx = nice(u) du

Change of variables for integrals

Z
du
g(u(x)) dx =
dx

As long as we can change all of the original variables over to the

du
new variable u, AND we can introduce , the C.O.V. will allow us
dx
to integrate with respect to the new variable u.

✍ Note that substitution is very similar to chain rule in reverse. In

practice, subsitution is more formalized and involves writing down

some steps, while chain rule in reverse is more “in your head”.
Z
We learn through example: (6x + 4)(3x2 + 4x)5 dx
D.3. MORE ON CALCULATING ANTIDERIVATIVES 317

Identify the c layer of the onion, call u(x) =

it u(x).

du
Find the d of the core. (This =
dx
should also appear somewhere in the inte-

grand...perhaps off by a multiplicative con-

stant.)

Z
Transform from an integral in (6x + 4)(3x2 + 4x)5 dx

to an integral in the new variable

using the change of variables.

Integrate.

Convert back to the original variable by

s u(x) back in.

318 CHAPTER D. INTEGRALS

✍ The key is that all of the original variables, x in this case, must

be t so that the new integrand is in terms of o

the new variable u.

Similar to chain rule in reverse, the hard part is knowing what to

choose as u(x). This gets easier with practice. Look for the core

layer and its derivative (perhaps off by a multiplicative constant) in

the integrand.
Z
Example 16. Calculate sin(x)e5 cos(x) dx
D.3. MORE ON CALCULATING ANTIDERIVATIVES 319

Let’s tackle a few more examples. For many of these, we can use

either CRIR or substitution to solve!

Z
x
Example 17. Calculate dx
(5x + 7)3

✍ In Example 17 the substitution rule works well since we can

simply r our expression for u(x) in order to t

the remaining x in the integrand. In general, substitution works

much better for some more-involved problems like these than the

first method we used for tackling CRIR.

320 CHAPTER D. INTEGRALS

− t12 + 1
Z
Example 18. Integrate: q dt
1
t +t

Z
Example 19. Integrate: (1 + 900x)1/15000 dx

Z
Example 20. Integrate: sin(θ)(cos3(θ) − cos5(θ)) dθ
D.3. MORE ON CALCULATING ANTIDERIVATIVES 321
Z
7x
Example 21. Integrate: dx
4x2 + 9

√
Z
Example 22. Integrate: (2x + 5) 3 3x + 1 dx

✍ Practice makes perfect. Since this is a new topic for most of you,

you’ll have to focus some time on learning it well! It will be an

absolutely essential skill in MATH*1210 and possibly many of

your upper-year courses. It is vital to develop finesse in integration

now!
322 CHAPTER D. INTEGRALS

D.4 Integrals-For You to Try

1. Find the following antiderivatives.

Z   Z √
3 5 3 4
(a) 4x − 3x + x dx (b) r7 dr
4

2 5
!
s3 − s2
Z Z p
5
(c) ds (d) 5y + 7 dy
s2

Z Z
0.7t
(e) 5e dt (f) sin(πw) cos(πw) dw

Z Z
3z ln(3x)
(g) √ dz (h) dx
3 − 7z 4x

5x − 6
Z Z
(i) dx (j) (sec(7t) tan(7t)) dt
(2x + 3)9

csc2 (4x)
Z Z
(k) 0 dz (l) dx
cot(4x)

Z   Z   
2 2 3 2 1 2
(m) 4x + 5 csc (x) − dx (n) 4s − + s ds
x s 3s

Z Z
4
(o) 2z(z − 1) dz (p) cot(3θ) csc(3θ) dθ

ew − e−w
Z Z
sin(2x)
(q) dx (r) dw where n > 0
cos(2x) (ew + e−w )n

(Hint for (r): Reverse power rule just can’t work for one special value of n: Consider two
different cases based on this! )
D.4. INTEGRALS-FOR YOU TO TRY 323

Final Answers:
1 3 4 11
(a) x4 − x6 + x2 + C (b) r4 +C
2 8 11

−3 2 3 1 6
(c) − s2 + C
1 (d) (5y + 7) 5 + C
s 33 6

50 0.7t −1
(e) e +C (f) cos2 (πw) + C
7 2π

2 18 1
(g) (3 − 7z)3/2 − (3 − 7z)1/2 + C (h) (ln(3x))2 + C
49 49 8

5 27 1
(i) − 7
+ +C (j) sec(7t) + C
28(2x + 3) 32(2x + 3)8 7

1
(k) C (l) − ln | cot(4x)| + C
4

4 3 4 2
(m) x − 5 cot(x) − 3 ln |x| + C (n) s + s4 + − s2 + C
3 3 3s

1 2 1
(o) (z − 1)6 + (z − 1)5 + C (p) − csc(3θ) + C
3 5 3

ln(ew + e−w ) + C, if n = 1


1
(q) − ln | cos(2x)| + C (r)
2 w −w 1−n
 (e +e )


1−n
+ C, if n ̸= 1

1
✍ Note that your answer to (f) could also be written as sin2 (πw) + C.
2π
324 CHAPTER D. INTEGRALS

2. Find the following antiderivatives.

√
√
Z Z Z
3 4 2 ln( z)
(a) r (r + 3) dr (b) dz (c) (3t + 5) 5 t − 3 dt
z

sin2 (x)
Z Z Z
1 2 2
(d) dy (e) sec (4y) tan (4y) dy (f) dx
y ln(y) cos(x)

2
cos πx


3setan(s )
Z Z Z p
(g) dx (h) ds (i) sin(θ) 3 5 cos(θ) dθ
x2 cos2 (s2 )

p √
r2 − 2 p2 − 10 p3
Z  
sin( 3 x + 3)
Z Z
(j) − 1 dr (k) dp (l) p dx
r2 + 2r p5 3
(x + 3)2

(Hint: For (f ) try using a trig identity to massage the integral and use the fact that
Z
sec(x) dx = ln | sec(x) + tan(x)| + C.)

Final Answers:
1 4 1 15 35
(a) (r + 3)3 + C (b) (ln(z))2 + C (c) (t − 3)11/5 + (t − 3)6/5 + C
12 4 11 3

1
(d) ln | ln(y)| + C (e) tan3 (4y) + C (f) ln | sec(x) + tan(x)| − sin(x) + C
12

−1 π  3 tan(s2 ) 3
(g) sin +C (h) e +C (i) − (5 cos(θ))4/3 + C
π x 2 20

−1 10 √
(j) − ln |r2 + 2r| + C (k) 2
+ 37 + C (l) −3 cos( 3 x + 3) + C
2p 37p 10
√
✍ Note that the answer to 2.(b) can also be written as (ln( z))2 + C. As an exercise, use
your log rules to see how these could be the same.

3. Most of the following are integrals that you can’t do directly (yet!) Even still, by
differentiating, show that
Z
(a) ln(x) dx = x ln |x| − x + C
D.4. INTEGRALS-FOR YOU TO TRY 325

ax
Z
x
(b) a dx = + C, where a > 0 and a ̸= 1
ln(a)
Z
(c) tan(x) dx = − ln | cos(x)| + C
Z
(d) sec(x) dx = ln | sec(x) + tan(x)| + C
Z
(e) csc(x) dx = − ln | csc(x) + cot(x)| + C
Z
(f) cot(x) dx = ln | sin(x)| + C

✍ Note that you can actually integrate (c) and (f) using CRIR methods. How? Try it!

df 2x
4. Suppose that a curve y = f (x) has the derivative =1− 2 . If the curve passes
dx x +1
through the point (0, 2), find the function f (x).

Final Answer: f (x) = x − ln |x2 + 1| + 2.

5. Calculate each of the following integrals. These ones are a little bit more interesting ,.
Z  s 
e −s2
(a) + se ds
es − 5

1 − e−t
Z
(b) dt
e−t + t
Z
(c) z 2 (z − 1)4 dz
Z
x
(d) dx
x−3

Final Answers:

1 2
(a) ln |es − 5| − e−s + C
2

(b) ln |e−t + t| + C

1 1 1
(c) (z − 1)7 + (z − 1)6 + (z − 1)5 + C
7 3 5
326 CHAPTER D. INTEGRALS

(d) x − 3 + 3 ln |x − 3| + C (we could write simply x + 3 ln |x − 3| + C, since −3 + C is

just another constant!)

6. Consider the problem in 5.(d).

(a) Why is this not a “Chain Rule in Reverse” question?

(b) Use Substitution to tackle this problem, if you haven’t already.

(c) Try another approach to solving this problem, by subtracting and adding 3 in the
numerator, and then carefully using fraction rules to divide things up.

7. Evaluate the following definite integrals.

Z 1
x
Z 10 Z 9 √
(a) dx (b) 4 dz (c) t dt
0 x2 + 1 −10 4

Z 3 √
Z t Z −1
1
(d) x + 1(x + 2) dx (e) sin(2θ) dθ (f) dx
0 −π/2 −3 x2

Z 5 Z π Z 0
3 2 +2s
(g) dx (h) cos(3θ) dθ (i) (3s + 1)e3s ds
3 4x − 5 −π/4 −1

π/3 5 √ 1
Z Z Z
2x
(j) tan(y) dy (k) (1 + 3x) x − 1 dx (l) √
3
dx
π/4 1 −1 3x2 + 4

100 x2 1
,
Z Z Z
1
(m) 6d (n) √ ds (assume x > 0) (o) sec2 (πt) tan(πt) dt
−29 x s3 3/4
D.4. INTEGRALS-FOR YOU TO TRY 327

Final Answers:
1 38
(a) ln(2) (b) 80 (c)
2 3

256 1 1 2
(d) (e) − cos(2t) − (f)
15 2 2 3

3 1 1
(g) (ln(15) − ln(7)) (h) √ (i) (1 − e)
4 3 2 2

   
1 1 896
(j) ln √ − ln (k) (l) 0
2 2 15

2 2 1
(m) 774 (n) − + √ (o) −
x x 2π

ln(2)
✍: In (j) you could use log rules to write your answer as .
2

8. Evaluate the following:

Z 1
3/20
Z 7π/6 Z 5 √
(a) (t + 1500) dt (b) sec(t) tan(t) dt (c) 5x dx
0 3π/4 0

Z 4.1 Z 1 Z a
(d) 3.9 ds (e) 1 dx (f) a dx, for a constant a
4 0 0

√
Z ex Z 3 Z 0
cos(y) 3 (x + 1)
(g) dy (h) √
(t − t) dt (i) dx
x sin(y) + 1 2 −1 (2x + 3)7

Z x Z x Z x 
3 3 d 3
(j) s ds (k) s ds (l) s ds
2 1 dx 1

Z 912 
d 2 x 2
(m) x e cos(x ) dx
dx 104

Z b 
d
(n) f (x) dx , for constants a and b.
dx a
328 CHAPTER D. INTEGRALS

Final Answers:
√ 2 50
(a) 2.9953 (b) 2− √ (c)
3 3

(d) 0.39 (e) 1 (f) a2

3
(g) ln | sin(ex ) + 1| − ln | sin(x) + 1| (h) (i) 0.0081847
4

x4 x4 1
(j) −4 (k) − (l) x3
4 4 4

(m) 0 (n) 0

Z
9. Evaluate (tan2 (3θ) + 1) dθ. (Hint: This is a “massage-first” integral, using a different
trick. Think trig identities! )

1
Final Answer: tan(3θ) + C
3
Z  
x 1 1
10. Evaluate + − dx. (Hint: Again, find a way to massage. A
x2 − 3x 2x 2x − 6
good way to deal with many fractions with different bases is to...)

1
Final Answer: ln |2x2 − 6x| + C, which can simplify to
p 2
ln( |x(x − 3)|) + C
D.4. INTEGRALS-FOR YOU TO TRY 329

11. Fill in the following table as a quick guide to antiderivatives.

Basic Formula Formula for Composed Functions

R
k dx =
R
kf (x) dx =
R
(f (x) ± g(x)) dx =

u′ sin(u) dx =
R R
sin(x) dx =

u′ cos(u) dx =
R R
cos(x) dx =

u′ sec(u) tan(u) dx =
R R
sec(x) tan(x) dx =

u′ sec2 (u) dx =
R R
sec2 (x) dx =

u′ csc2 (u) dx =
R R
csc2 (x) dx =

u′ csc(u) cot(u) dx =
R R
csc(x) cot(x) dx =

u′ au ln(a) dx =
R x R
a ln(x) dx =

u′ eu dx =
R x R
e dx =

u′ u ln(a)
R 1 R 1
x ln(a)
dx = dx =

u′ x1 dx =
R 1 R
x
dx =

where a > 0, a ̸= 1 and n ̸= −1.

330 CHAPTER D. INTEGRALS

D.5 What can we use integrals for?

Just like derivatives, there are many many applications of integrals.

Here are a few examples

ˆ Length of curves ˆ Velocity

Z
ˆ Areas of 2D shapes
= Acceleration dt

ˆ Volume of 3D shapes Z
ˆ Energy = Force dx
ˆ Continuous Probability
Z Z
ˆ Position = Velocity dt ˆ Charge = Current dt

In this course, we will only cover a few basic applications.

D.5.1 Areas

As our discussion of the Riemann Sum suggested, we can use the

definite integral to calculate the area b a curve f on an

i [a, b]. Specifically, if f (x) ≥ 0 for x ∈ [a, b], then

Z b
f (x) dx calculates the area u the curve f (x) and a
a
the x-a between and .
D.5. WHAT CAN WE USE INTEGRALS FOR? 331

Example 1. Find the area below the curve f (x) = sin(x) and
π
above the x−axis between x = and x = π.
2

Z 1
Consider calculating the definite integral x3 dx. This is easy!
−2

Z 1
x3 dx =
−2

We got a n answer! Remember our conversation from

earlier about n area, and then take a look at the graph of the

function f (x) = x3:

332 CHAPTER D. INTEGRALS

• Not all of f is a the x−axis

on [−2, 1].

• The area below the x−axis

s from the area above the

x−axis.

It is more correct to think of a definite integral as being “the area

under the curve” only when the curve is n -n on the

domain of integration.

So, let’s use some ingenuity to solve a related problem:

Example 2. Calculate the area between the x-axis and the

curve x3 on the interval [−2, 1]. (Not just the area above the

x-axis!)
D.5. WHAT CAN WE USE INTEGRALS FOR? 333

What if we have a more interesting situation where more curves are

involved? For instance, how do we find the area between two

curves, f and g?

Using what we know about areas and definite integral and a little

bit of picture math:

In pseudo-math, the area between two curves is calculated via:

334 CHAPTER D. INTEGRALS

Example 3. Calculate the area bounded by y = 2x + 2 and

y = x2 − 2x − 3.

What if the “top” and “bottom” functions switch roles? In this

case, we must split the problem into multiple area problems, as we

will see in the next example!

D.5. WHAT CAN WE USE INTEGRALS FOR? 335

Example 4. Calculate the area shown in the diagram below,

√
bounded by y = −x, y = x, and y = −x2 + 2 between x = 0

and x = 2.
336 CHAPTER D. INTEGRALS

It can be advantageous to change v from functions of

to functions of . This is equivalent to using horizontal

rectangles rather than v rectangles in the Riemann sum

and we integrate with respect to instead of .

Example 5. Find the area bounded by y 2 = x + 4 and

1 1
y = x+ .
2 2
D.5. WHAT CAN WE USE INTEGRALS FOR? 337

D.5.2 Integration word problems

In practice, real-world problems will rarely be presented to us as

“calculate the integral of f (x) =...”. But given a word problem,

how would we know when to use an integral to help solve it?

Integrals are good for calculating totals. They can be used to add

up a lot of different things: More than just bits of a ! For

dx
example, suppose we are given the rate of change of a particular
dt
quantity x(t). We can then add up the accumulated amount of that

quantity over a period of time by using an integral. This isn’t

magic: It’s the Fundamental Theorem of Calculus!

✍ Word problems like the ones that are to come can be handled by

using definite integrals, where we choose appropriate bounds given

the problem. We also have the option to use i integrals,

where we determine an i c that makes sense for

the problem; this allows us to figure out what the value of the

c C is after integrating! Either approach will generally

work fine.
338 CHAPTER D. INTEGRALS

Example 6. John is watering plants in his yard when he runs

out of water in his watering can. A tap fills his watering can at

a rate of r(t) = 4 − 0.3t litres per minute. How much water is

in his watering can after 15 seconds?

D.5. WHAT CAN WE USE INTEGRALS FOR? 339

Example 7. The speed of an automobile (in feet per second) is

900
modelled by the equation v(t) = 2at + , for a ∈ R and
t + 10
t ≥ 0. If after t = 20 seconds has elapsed, the automobile is

accelerating at a rate of 0.5 feet/sec2, find an equation for the

position of the automobile at time t, assuming that the

automobile’s starting point was at 0 feet. What is the position

of the automobile at t = 30 seconds?

✍ These are some simple examples closely related to differential

equations. These are studied in detail in MATH∗2270 - stay tuned!

340 CHAPTER D. INTEGRALS

D.6 Integration Applications - For You to Try

1. Find the area above the x-axis and below the following curves:

6
(a) y = and between x = 0 and x = 4.
4x + 3
3 +9
(b) y = 4x2 e5x and between x = −1 and x = 3.

1 1
(c) y = csc(πx) cot(πx) + 2 and between x = and x = .
4 2

(d) y = 3, between x = −100 and x = −99.

(e) y = tan(x), between x = 0 and x = 1.57079.

1
(f) y = , between x = 1 and x = 10000.
x

Final Answers:

3 ln(19) 3 ln(3)
(a) −
2 2
4e144 4e4
(b) −
15 15
√
2 2+π−2
(c)
2π

(d) 3

(e) 11.9707

(f) 9.2103
D.6. INTEGRATION APPLICATIONS - FOR YOU TO TRY 341

2. Bacteria in a petri dish are growing at a rate of

B ′ (t) = 100ekt bacteria per day,

where k is a constant growth rate. Assume that no bacteria were placed in the petri dish
initially (at t = 0).

(a) Find an expression for the number of bacteria present at time t.

(b) If the constant k is determined to be 3, how many bacteria are present after 10 days?

Final Answers:
100 kt
(a) B(t) = (e − 1)
k
100 30
(b) with k = 3, B(10) = 3
(e − 1) ≈ 3.562 × 1014 bacteria!

3. A patient enters the emergency room and requires an intravenous drip of an antibiotic
to eliminate a poison from a particular organ. The antibiotic

ˆ enters the bloodstream at a rate of a cm3 /sec

ˆ leaves the bloodstream at a rate of b cm3 /sec

ˆ has an initial concentration of x0 g/cm3

and the organ has a volume of V cm3 . The concentration of the antibiotic in the organ at
time t is increasing at a rate of

1 bt
P ′ (t) = (a − bx0 )e− V g/cm3 /sec.
V

Find an expression for the concentration of antibiotic in the organ at time t (leave any
constants of integration arbitrary).
342 CHAPTER D. INTEGRALS
 a  − bt
Final Answer: P (t) = x0 − e V +C
b

4. Jo is starting a workout program to lose weight before their wedding. Suppose that the
rate of change of their weight is given by

6
R(t) = − pounds per week.
3 + 0.02t

(a) How much weight do they lose in the first 3 weeks?

(b) If they want to lose a total of 25 pounds before the wedding how soon before the
wedding must they start the workout program?

Final Answers:

(a) Approximately 5.94 pounds in the first 3 weeks.

(b) They would need to start approximately 13.0356 weeks before the wedding (or just
over 3 months).

√
5. Calculate the area between x = 0 and x = 1, below the function y = 4
x and above the
x-axis in two ways:

(a) Using vertical rectangles.

(b) Using horizontal rectangles.

4
Final Answer:
5

6. Calculate the area bounded by y = 2x2 , y = 1, and x = 2 in two ways:

(a) Using vertical rectangles.

(b) Using horizontal rectangles.

D.6. INTEGRATION APPLICATIONS - FOR YOU TO TRY 343
√
10 + 2
Final Answer:
3

7. Calculate the area between x = −1 and x = 2, below the function



2x + 3, if x < 1

f (x) =
6 − x 2 ,

 if x ≥ 1

and above the x-axis, in two ways:

(a) Using vertical rectangles.

(b) Using horizontal rectangles.

29
Final Answer:
3

8. Calculate the area between x = 1 and x = 4, below the function


 √
 x,
 if 0 ≤ x < 3
f (x) =

4 − x, if x ≥ 3


and above the x-axis, in two ways:

(a) Using vertical rectangles.

(b) Using horizontal rectangles.

√ 1
Final Answer: 2 3 −
6

9. Calculate the area bounded by the following curves.

(a) y = 5 + 6x − x2 and y = x2 + 5.

(b) y = sin(x) and y = cos(x) between x = 0 and x = 2π.

344 CHAPTER D. INTEGRALS

(c) y = x2 + 1 and y = x1/3 + 1 between x = −1 and the y-axis.

Final Answers:

(a) 9

√
(b) 4 2

13
(c)
12

10. Jean Louis Marie Poiseuille was a French physician who studied in both Physics and
Mathematics. He was most interested in human blood flow. In particular, he was able to
show that the velocity of blood within a particular artery is given by

Z R
k
V (t) = t(R2 − t2 ) dt, cubic centimetres per second,
0 L

where k is a constant, L is the length of the artery, and R is the radius of the artery.
(Treat L and R also as constants.)

Find an alternative expression for V (t) by evaluating the integral.

kR4
Final Answer: V (t) =
4L

For Questions 11 and 12, we explore one last application of integration: The average
value of a function f over an interval [a, b] is given by the following:

Z b
1
f (x) dx.
b−a a

11. Find the average value of the following functions on the indicated intervals:

(a) f (x) = cos(x) on the interval x ∈ [−π, π]

(b) g(x) = e2x on the interval x ∈ [0, ln(3)]

D.6. INTEGRATION APPLICATIONS - FOR YOU TO TRY 345

4
Final Answers: (a) 0 (b)
ln(3)

12. Find an expression for the average value of h(x) = xk on the interval [0, 1], where k is
any positive real number.

1
Final Answer:
k+1