POWDER METALLURGY

POWDER METALLURGY

The powder metallurgy process consists of mixing elemental or alloy powder, compacting
the mixture in a die and then sintering or heating the resultant shape in a controlled
atmosphere. Powder metallurgy is a highly developed method of manufacturing ferrous and
nonferrous materials. It is a chip less working process. This process is cost effective in
producing simple or complex part in manufacturing (Production) rates which can range from
a few hundreds to several thousands parts per hour. Due to high cost of die and equipment
this process is suitable for mass production only. The basic steps involved in the production
process are given below.

• Preparation of powder or powders of desired composition.

• Mixing and blending – Powder are mixed thoroughly and blended to ensure desired
property.
• Compacting the powders into desired shape and size and providing strength to the parts.
• Sintering – Green compacts are heated at elevated temperature to impart strength.
ADVANTAGE OF POWDER METALLURGY

• Parts with closed dimensional tolerance (nearest shape) and good surface finish can be
produced.
• It eliminates or minimizes scrap losses by more than 97% of the raw material in the finished
part, unlike other process.
• Process can be fully automated hence unskilled labour can be employed which reduces
labour cost.
• It eliminates or minimizes machining.
• It facilitates manufacture of certain parts by mixing different metals, metals and non-metals,
metals and ceremics etc to obtain desired properties which is impossible with other working
processes.
• High production rates from 500-1000 parts/hour can be achieved.
• It facilitates manufactures of small and unique shape part which cannot be produce by any
other manufacturing process.
• Detect free component with uniform structure can produce.
• Non equilibrium composition possible e.g. cr. alloys.
LIMITATIONS OF POWDER METALLURGY

• The cost of material in powder form is quite high this cost is offset for Large volume
production by absence of scrap and low labour cost.
• Products with intricate design are difficult to produce as there is little flow of metal powder
during compaction.
• The residual porosity left in sintered parts makes then rough.
• This process is economically feasible for Large volume production due to high cost of dies
and equipment’s.
• Producing parts of Large size and weight is quite expensive due to costly dies.
• It is difficult to compress some metal powders and also difficult to procure some metal
powders.
• The density of compact is not uniform throughout.
• Some e.g. zr present explosion hazard.
• Parts produce by powder metallurgy have low impact and fatigue strength as compared to
other method.
• Health problems from atmospheric contamination of the work place.

APPLICATION OF POWDER METALLURGY

The application of powder metallurgy components fall in two main groups-

First are component that are difficult to manufacture by other method such as those made
from tungsten, Molybdenum and tungsten carbide.

The second group consists of components that offer a cost- effective alternatives to
machined components, casting and forging.
Some applications are as follows-
• Used to produce porous parts e.g filters.
• Some components of tungsten employed in jet engines are made by powder metallurgy.
• Auto mobile components such as clutch plates, connecting rods, cam shafts and piston
rings etc.
• Many types of hard and soft magnetic components.
• Grinding wheels are manufactured by using steel and diamond powder.
• Nozzle for rockets and missiles are made using silver infiltrated tungsten.
• It is used to produce complex shaped parts which require machining when produced by
other methods e.g. gears.
• Electrical bushes for motors are made by combining metallic and non-metallic material.
• Some parts used in clocks, type writers, calculators, permanent magnet etc. are made by
powder metallurgy
PRODUCTION OF METAL POWDER

Some common methods used in powder production depending on type and nature of
metals are as follows.
1. Atomization

In this process molten metal is broken up into small droplets by spraying it on the streme of
inest gas or air jets and rapidly frozen before the drops come into contact with each other or
with the solid surface this technique is applicable to all metals that can be melted and is used
commercially for the production of iron, copper, brass, bronze, lead, zinc etc.

2. Crushing and Milling

Crushing and milling operations are perform on brittle or less ductile materials (metals).
Metal particles are crushed in crushing m/c for final powder.

3. Electrolysis Process

By choosing suitable conditions such as electrolytic composition and concentration temp and
current density many metals can be deposited in a spungy or powdered state further
processing is required which yields high purity and high density powders. Cu is the primary
mental produced.

4. Chemical Process

The most common chemical powder treatments involve oxide reduction precipitate form
solution and thermal decomposition. The powder produced can have a great variation in
properties and yet have closely controlled particle size and shape.

CHARACTERISTICS OF METAL POWDERS

Some characteristics on which behaviour of metal powder depends are described below-
1. Particle shape & size distribution

The shape of particles depends mainly on the method of production of powders, spheroidal
shaped particles have excellent sintering property and irregular shaped particles are good for
moulding. Mostly 100 μ size powders are used.
2. Density

True density is mass per unit volume of the solid material apparent density is defined as the
mass of loose powder per unit actual volume filled by the powder it depends on particle
shape, size distribution powders with high apparent density require shorter compressive
strike to produce a compact of given density and size.
3. Flow Rate

It is defined as the time required for a measured quantity of powder to flow out of a standard
orifice flow rate should be high to obtain high production rate.
 4. Compressibility and Compression Ratio
Both depends upon shape size and size distribution of particles compressibility is defined as
the ratio of initial volume of the powder (Un pressed volume) to final volume green strength
to powder also known as mechanical strength of compressed part.

PROCESSING OF POWDERS
Processing of powder has been classified in two groups-
(A) PRIMARY PROCESS

1. Mixing and Blending of Powder

Mixing means the intermixing of powders of two or more materials. Intermixing of a

powder and binder or intermixing of a powder and lubricants. The mixing and blending of
metal powder is done under controlled condition to avoid contamination and deterioration.
It fulfil following purposes.
• It produces a uniform distribution of particle shape and size.
• It allows different metal to be mixed to obtain specific physical property.
• It improves metal powder interaction by addition of lubricants (e.g stearic acid, Zinc stearate
in proportion of 0.25 to 0.5% by weight) to the powder improves the flow characteristics of
the powder. Such blends result in reduced friction between the metal particles, improved
flow of powder metal into dies and longer die life.
• Co-combine metallic and non metallic powder.
2. Compacting or Briquetting

The mixed powders are compacted in die to form the size and shape of the desired part,
parts fo produced are known as green compact. The density after compaction is called
green density. Depends upon the compaction pressure, dimensions of the compacted
parts and powder hardness. The compacting is carried out at room temp. in dies. The die
cavity is filled with required amount of mixed powder for uniform distribution of
pressure two punches are generally used one from top and other from bottom side of
powder. The green compact expand slightly when taken out of die to elastic recovery this
expansion depends of the pressure and extend of plastic deformation in powder particles.

3. Pre-Sintering (Not done when machining is not required)

It is defined as a process in which green compact is heated to temperature below final
sintering temperature to increase the strength. It also removes the lubricant and binders
added during blending. After this the final sintering operation is performed.
 4. Sintering

Sintering is the process of heating the material to a temp. below the melting temp. but high
enough to allow bonding or fusion of individual particles under protective atmosphere
prevent oxidation. Continuous sintering furnace are used which have 3 chambers-
• A chamber to volatize (easily becoming goes or dangerous) the lubricants in the green
compact in order to improve bond strength and prevent cracking it. It is called brunt off
chamber. It slowly raises the temp. in a controlled manner.
• A high temperature chamber for sintering for bonding b/w the powder particles the time
during the second stage must be sufficient to produce the desired density and final properties.
• A cooling chamber.

B) SECONDARY OPERATIONS
These operation are carried out to obtain desired dimensional tolerances, physical property
improve its strength, hardness and wear resistance etc. finishing operations are often perform
after sintering for better dimensional accuracy different machining operations are performed.
Heat treating the sintered part will improve its hardness, strength and wear resistance.
Finishing operation is perform to improve the surface characteristics of part.

1. Infiltration

Purpose: Enhances density, mechanical properties, and erosion resistance by filling pores with a
secondary metal.

Process:

After sintering, the carbide part is placed in contact with a lower-melting-point metal (e.g., copper,
nickel, or bronze).The assembly is heated above the infiltrant’s melting point but below the
carbide’s sintering temperature. Capillary action draws the molten metal into the porous structure,
filling voids and creating a dense composite.

Key Applications:

• Erosion-resistant cladding: Infiltrating with ductile metals (e.g., copper) improves

toughness in mining tools or drill bits exposed to abrasive environments.

• Gradient structures: Surface layers with infiltrated metals absorb impact, while the hard
WC-Co core retains wear resistance.

Advantages:

• Increases density and transverse rupture strength.

• Reduces porosity, enhancing corrosion and oxidation resistance.

2. Impregnation

Purpose: Introduces functional materials (e.g., lubricants, polymers, or corrosion inhibitors) into
pores to enhance performance.

Process:Sintered carbide parts are immersed in a fluid (oil, resin, or molten metal) under vacuum or
pressure.The fluid permeates the pores, often followed by curing or solidification.

Key Applications:

• Self-lubricating components: Oil/grease impregnation reduces friction in carbide bearings

or seals.

• Corrosion protection: Polymers or sealants block pore ingress of corrosive agents in

chemical processing tools.

• Electrical conductivity: Silver or copper impregnation improves conductivity in electrical

contacts.

Advantages:

• Extends service life in harsh environments.

• Adds multifunctionality (e.g., lubrication + wear resistance).

• Maintains structural integrity while addressing surface vulnerabilities.

Production of Cemented Carbides:

Cemented carbides are composite materials combining hard carbide particles (e.g., tungsten
carbide) with a metallic binder (e.g., cobalt). Their production involves precise powder metallurgy
techniques to achieve high hardness, wear resistance, and toughness. Below is a detailed breakdown
of the manufacturing process:

1. Raw Material Preparation

• Tungsten Carbide Synthesis:

Tungsten oxide (WO₃) is reduced with carbon in a furnace at ~1,500°C to form tungsten
carbide (WC).
WO3+3C→WC+2COWO3+3C→WC+2CO

• Binder Addition:
Cobalt (Co) powder is mixed with WC in ratios ranging from 3–25% by weight. Higher
cobalt increases toughness, while lower cobalt enhances hardness.

• Mixing and Milling:

The WC-Co mixture is ground in a ball mill to achieve a fine, homogeneous powder.
Additives like titanium carbide (TiC) or tantalum carbide (TaC) may be included for
specialized applications.

• Spray Drying:
The powder is spray-dried to improve flowability for pressing.
2. Forming (Pressing)

• Compaction:
The powder is pressed into "green" compacts using CNC-controlled hydraulic or mechanical
presses at 100–600 MPa. Dies are designed to account for ~50% shrinkage during sintering.

• Methods:

• Uniaxial pressing for simple shapes (e.g., rods, inserts).

• Extrusion for long rods, limited to ~350 mm lengths.

• Injection molding for complex geometries.

3. Pre-Sintering

• Thermal Treatment:
Green compacts are heated to 600–1,000°C in a hydrogen atmosphere to remove binders
(e.g., paraffin) and strengthen the structure for machining.

• Shrinkage:
Parts shrink by ~15–20% linearly at this stage.

4. Sintering

• High-Temperature Processing:
Parts are sintered at 1,300–1,500°C in vacuum or hydrogen furnaces. Cobalt melts,
infiltrating WC particles to form a dense composite.

• Shrinkage Control:
Total linear shrinkage reaches ~50%, requiring precise pre-sintering dimensions.

• Hot Isostatic Pressing (HIP):

Optional post-sintering HIP at ~1,400°C and 100 MPa eliminates residual porosity,
enhancing density and mechanical properties.

5. Post-Processing

• Grinding and Machining:

Sintered parts are ground using diamond tools to achieve tight tolerances (±0.001 mm) and
surface finishes (Ra < 0.1 µm).

• Coating (Optional):
Cutting tools are often coated with TiN, TiCN, or Al₂O₃ via chemical vapor deposition
(CVD) or physical vapor deposition (PVD) to improve wear resistance.

6. Quality Control

• Dimensional Inspection:
Coordinate measuring machines (CMMs) verify geometry against specifications.
• Magnetic Properties:

• Coercive Field Strength (Hc): Correlates with carbide grain size. Lower Hc indicates
larger grains (higher toughness), while higher Hc signifies finer grains (greater
hardness).

• Magnetic Saturation: Ensures correct carbon balance. Deviations indicate defects

like the brittle "eta phase" (η-phase) from under-carburization.

• Mechanical Testing:
Hardness (HRA 85–94), transverse rupture strength (1,500–3,500 MPa), and fracture
toughness are measured.