Giambattista Vico was born in Naples, Italy,

to a bookseller and the daughter of a

carriage maker. Due to poor health and
dissatisfaction with Jesuit education, he
was home-schooled. After recovering
from typhus in 1686, he worked as a tutor
in Vatolla for nine years. In 1699, he married
Teresa Destito and became a professor of
rhetoric at the University of Naples.
Despite his ambition, he never secured a
chair in jurisprudence. In 1734, he was
appointed royal historiographer by King
Charles III, receiving a higher salary. He held
his rhetoric position until retiring in 1741
due to illness.
On the Study Methods of Our Time
(1709) – educational and philosophical
tract
On the Most Ancient Wisdom of the
Italians (1711) – philosophical
investigation
The Deeds of Antonio Carafa (1716) –
historical biography
Universal Right (1722) – study of
Roman law
The New Science (Scienza Nuova,
1725) – his most influential work;
revised in 1730 and 1744
Autobiography (1728) – narrative of his
intellectual life
Vico's verum factum principle, introduced
in 1710, asserts that truth is known through
creation or invention, not merely through
observation, challenging Descartes’ view.
He claimed, “the true is the made,”
meaning we truly understand something
only if we have made it. This idea became
central in his major work The New Science
(1725), where he argued that human
society and history, like mathematics, are
constructed by human beings and can
thus be truly understood.
Humanist and Pedagogic Concerns
Role as Royal Professor of Latin
Eloquence
Critique of Modern Rhetoric
Vico’s Rhetorical Framework
The Orator’s Role
Influence of Classical Tradition
Vico argued that the realms of verifiable
truth and human concerns only overlap
slightly, but reasoning is essential in both.
He criticized the application of Cartesian
method to practical life, likening it to trying
to apply rigid rules of reason to the
complexities of human affairs, which are
governed by chance, opportunity, and
unpredictability. He also contended that
applying Cartesian principles to political
speech would strip it of depth, reducing it
to dull arguments.
Establishes the “principles of humanity”
and a theory of societal origins and
evolution.
Proposes an ideal eternal history of
nations, emphasizing the human
consciousness as the driving force of
history.
Argues that history is shaped by human
consciousness, with its certainty linked
to the creator of events narrating them.
Influenced Croce and Collingwood, who
viewed historiography as reenacting
historical actions.
Inspired Marx, who appreciated Vico’s
focus on collective mentalities and the
role of shared beliefs in history.
Vico’s emphasis on creativity and
narrative in historiography deeply
influenced the way historians approach
the past.
Georg Wilhelm Friedrich Hegel (1770–1831)
was a German philosopher central to
German Idealism, whose work significantly
shaped European philosophy, Continental
philosophy, and Marxism. His philosophy is
based on absolute idealism, where mind or
spirit evolves through contradictions and
oppositions that are reconciled. Key
concepts like dialectics, Geist (spirit),
negativity, sublation, and the Master/Slave
dialectic have influenced thinkers such as
Marx, Nietzsche, phenomenologists, and
existentialists. Hegel's work remains a
major influence on contemporary
philosophy, with philosophers like Michel
Foucault recognizing his impact.
Hegel's interest in history, influenced by his
classical education, the French Revolution,
and German Idealism, led him to develop a
nuanced analysis of historical events,
particularly the French Revolution. While
he supported the ideals of the Revolution,
he opposed its excesses, especially the
terror. In his Phenomenology and Lectures
on the Philosophy of History, Hegel
examines the Revolution through the lens
of Enlightenment thought, emphasizing the
conflict between faith and reason, and the
tension between individual and universal
consciousness.
Hegel’s Philosophy of History presents a unique
perspective on historiography, in which he
outlines different forms of history writing:
Original Historiography: Contemporary
accounts written by historians who were
witnesses to the events they describe.
Reflective Historiography: Focuses on the
past, divided into:
Universal Historiography: Synthesizes the
history of a people, country, or the world.
Pragmatic Historiography: Unifies
historical events through a general idea.
Critical or Scientific Historiography:
Evaluates the authenticity and credibility
of historical narratives.
Specialized Historiography: Focuses on a
particular perspective or area, such as
art, law, or religion.
Philosophical Historiography: Applies thought
to history, viewing history as a rational
process governed by reason.
Hegel's approach to history builds on Aristotle's
idea that human action is goal-directed
(teleological) and rational. He contends that
history, as the record of human actions, is
rational and can be understood. However,
history is not transparent. It involves both
reason and passion, with ordinary individuals
pursuing personal aims, while world-historical
individuals are driven by deeper, universal
goals. Hegel introduces the "cunning of reason,"
where these individuals, though pursuing
personal passions, unknowingly contribute to
broader historical ends.
Hegel's philosophy of knowledge centers on the
idea that knowledge is historical, evolving
through human practices within social contexts.
Building on Kant’s constructivism, Hegel argues
that knowledge arises not from representing a
mind-independent world but from
understanding the world as it is experienced. He
views knowledge as a process of trial and error,
where concepts are compared to experience,
and theories are revised when discrepancies
arise. In his Phenomenology of Spirit, Hegel
rejects the notion of directly grasping an
objective reality, focusing instead on how
knowledge evolves through historical processes
and changing conceptual frameworks.
Leopold Ranke is considered the founder of
modern scientific historiography, emphasizing
the critical study of sources to uncover the
true history and discredit distortions. His work
focused on European history from the
sixteenth to eighteenth centuries, and he
established the “historical seminar” to train
students in his method. Ranke opposed
speculative philosophers like Hegel, who saw
history as a rational process to be understood
philosophically, instead seeking to determine
"what really had happened" through factual
evidence.
His scientific approach to history emphasized four
key principles: objectivity, the primacy of facts, the
uniqueness of historical events, and the centrality
of politics.
Objectivity: Historians should avoid moralizing
or instructing the present; their role is to show
"what actually happened" without subjective
interference.
Primacy of facts: Historians must focus on
presenting events as they occurred, based on
evidence, and avoid abstract theories or
philosophical speculation.
Uniqueness of historical events: Each historical
event, epoch, or process is unique and should
be understood in its own context, without being
subordinated to larger philosophical narratives
like progress.
Centrality of politics: Ranke's historiography
primarily focused on politics and states, viewing
them as the central units of historical analysis,
though social and economic factors were also
considered in their political context.
Leopold Ranke's historiography rejected the
philosophical systems of Hegel and Fichte, focusing
instead on understanding what truly happened in
history, without moral or philosophical judgments.
He emphasized the uniqueness of each historical
event and figure, opposing the idea of reducing
history to rational patterns or laws. Ranke's
approach was grounded in source analysis but also
acknowledged a divine purpose in history, although
less systematically than the philosophers. Later in
life, he became more open to the idea of a
developmental totality in history, viewing past and
present as interconnected, with divine governance
shaping human destiny. His philosophy of history
was evolving and not systematic, reflecting his
views on history's continuity and purpose.
Ranke saw history’s continuity as essential both
for scholarly inquiry and political stability,
opposing liberal reforms that ignored historical
context. He believed that history could reveal
the trends and ideas of different eras, offering
insights for political decisions rooted in the
complexities of the past.
For Ranke, historiography was a means of
reconciling contradictions in human nature and
society, connecting the particular with the
universal. His work sought to integrate national
histories with universal ones, viewing history as
a continuous process. Ranke argued that
historians should focus on the actual events
and their spiritual significance, without applying
philosophical or theoretical
Benedetto Croce and Robin George
Collingwood were influential philosophers who
focused on history and historiography, shaping
areas like moral, social, and political
philosophy. They built on a tradition from
thinkers like Vico, Kant, and Hegel, but uniquely
placed reason in individual human actions,
asserting that history is shaped by liberty and
freedom. For both, historiography was not just
theoretical but had practical significance,
influencing present possibilities and guiding
future actions. Croce saw historiography as
preparing for action, while Collingwood viewed
it as shaping choices and actions. Despite
shared philosophical connections, their ideas
should be understood separately.
Viewed history as a cycle of aesthetic,
logical, practical, and ethical activities of
the mind.
Believed historiography combines intuition
from art and logic from philosophy.
Emphasized that all knowledge and action
are rooted in history.
Advocated "absolute historicism," rejecting
abstract concepts outside of history (e.g.,
determinism).
Saw historiography as a tool to help
individuals confront reality and make
informed decisions.
Viewed history as a product of human
action and choice, with an evolving
concept of mind and morality.
Believed historiography was essential for
understanding human actions and making
rational decisions.
Linked moral choices to duty, not utility or
rules.
Argued that historiography provides
insight into the historical context of
actions.
Believed understanding history is crucial
for self-knowledge, understanding others,
and making ethical and political decisions.
Saw historiography as a key tool for
diagnosing moral and political issues
through insight into human action.
Emphasized the importance of textual
interpretation and memory in
historiography.
Argued that "all true history is
contemporary history," meaning history is
always linked to the present and must
resonate with the historian's mind.
Believed history involves critically
engaging with documents and interpreting
them.
Argued that moral-political action,
particularly liberty, drives and shapes
history, providing explanations for
historical events.
Believed historiography should be based
on reason and inference rather than
external facts.
Argued that historical knowledge is gained
through interpreting evidence, connecting
actions, and constructing coherent
narratives.
Developed the theory of re-enactment,
where historians recreate the thoughts
and reasoning of historical agents.
Emphasized reason over empathy or
intuition in understanding historical
actions.
Stressed that historiographic narratives
should explain the human past through
the actions and reasoning of historical
agents.
Believed these narratives must be open to
criticism and revision.
Both thinkers connected history and
historiography to contemporary concerns
and political significance.
Rejected formal or speculative
approaches to history.
Focused on history as the realm of moral
acts and choices.
Believed history is shaped by moral
agency.
Emphasized liberty as the driving force
behind history, particularly in 19th-century
Europe.
Argued that when liberty is detached from
its moral roots, it leads to misguided
pursuits of power
Focused on the political and social
implications of liberalism and its potential
distortions.
Rejected the distinction between theory
and practice in history.
Argued that history is understood from
within, as people are both the creators and
subjects of history.
Linked society’s development to free will,
seeing civilization as a process of people
coming together through common
actions.
Emphasized that civilization is not just
about following rules but is built on free
choice and understanding, especially
through education and art.
Believed that a society that understands
its history and embraces historiographic
thought can more effectively address its
moral and political issues.
Croce and Collingwood's philosophies of history
and historiography center on the activity of reason,
positioning historiography as a fundamental aspect
of philosophy. Croce presented a unified account
of mind with history at its core, while Collingwood
developed a more critical approach, emphasizing
the understanding of history both as a subject and
an object. Both thinkers rejected speculative
philosophies of history and moralizing approaches
that treat history as a guide to ethics.
Their perspectives differ from later analytical
philosophies of historiography, which tend to be
more theoretical and neutral in significance. Instead,
Croce and Collingwood's views incorporate
metaphysical and substantive elements that
challenge scientism. They placed historiography at
the heart of philosophical thought, contrasting with
later thinkers who saw the philosophy of history as
a discrete, theoretical field.