Chapter One

Introduction to Research Methods

1.1.Introduction
Research is a scientific investigation. Investigation means a search for new facts and ideas in any branch
of knowledge. Thus, we can say that research is a search for knowledge. Research may be considered
as a movement, a movement from the unknown to the known. It is actually a voyage of discovery.
Research is carried out for two purposes; one is the discovery of new facts and the second,
verification of the old ones. Common sense knowledge, based on the accumulated experiences,
prejudices and beliefs of the people is often contradictory and inconsistent. On the other hand, scientific
observations are based on verifiable evidence or systematic body of proof that can be cited. For
example, some common sense statements are: man is more intelligent than woman; married men remain
happier than single people; rural people are more hardworking than urban people etc. Contrary to this,
the scientific research or scientific inquiry finds that woman is as intelligent as man; there is no
association in happiness and marriage; hard work is not related to environment alone. Thus, a statement
based on common sense is just a guess or prejudice or mistaken interpretation, though at times it may
be true, wise and a useful bit of knowledge. But it is not based on any scientific evidence. A scientific
statement is based on accumulated systematic knowledge through research.
Research is an Organized and Systematic way of finding answers to Questions. Systematic because
there is a definite set of procedures and steps which you will follow. There are certain things in the
research process that are always done in order to get the most accurate results. Organized in that there
is a structure or method in going about doing research. It is a planned procedure, not a spontaneous one.
It is focused and limited to a specific scope. Finding answers is the end of all research. Whether it is
the answer to a hypothesis or even a simple question, research is successful when we find answers.
Sometimes the answer is no, but it is still an answer. Questions are central to research. If there is no
question, then the answer is of no use. Research is focused on relevant, useful, and important
questions. Without a question, research has no focus, drive, or purpose. The word research is derived
from the Latin word meaning to know. It is a systematic and a replicable process, which identifies
and defines problems, within specified boundaries. It employs well-designed method to collect the data
and analyses the results. It disseminates the findings to contribute to generalizeable knowledge.
Definitions: Various social and behavioural scientists have defined the word research in different ways.
Some of the most popular definitions are:
1. “Endeavour to discover facts by scientific study, course of critical investigation”, by Pocket
Oxford Dictionary.
2. “Systematic investigation to establish facts or collect information on the subject”, by Collins
Concise Dictionary.
3. “Research is systematized effort to gain new knowledge”, by Redman and Mory.
4. “Research is the manipulation of things, concepts or symbols for the purpose of generalizing
to extend, correct or verify knowledge, whether that knowledge aids in construction of theory
or in the practice of an art”, by Encyclopedia of Social Sciences.
Thus, we can say that research is a systematic and objective attempt to study a problem for the purpose
of deriving general principles. In other words, research is a systematic, controlled, empirical and
critical investigation of hypothetical propositions about the presumed relations among
phenomena.
1.2.Why do we do Research
We engage in research for several important reasons:
1. Advancing Knowledge: Research is conducted to expand our understanding of the
world around us. It aims to generate new knowledge, theories, and insights in various
fields of study. Through research, we seek to uncover new information, explore
uncharted territories, and contribute to the existing body of knowledge.

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 2. Addressing Knowledge Gaps: Research helps to fill gaps in our current understanding.
It allows us to investigate unanswered questions, explore unresolved issues, and bridge
the knowledge gaps that exist in different disciplines. By conducting research, we strive
to provide solutions, explanations, and insights into the phenomena and problems we
encounter.
3. Problem Solving and Innovation: Research is crucial for solving practical problems
and driving innovation. It allows us to identify challenges, analyze them systematically,
and develop effective solutions. Through research, we can discover new technologies,
methodologies, and approaches that lead to advancements, improvements, and
breakthroughs in various fields.
4. Informing Decision Making: Research provides evidence-based information that
helps in making informed decisions. Whether in policy development, business
strategies, healthcare practices, or engineering designs, research findings contribute to
evidence-based decision making. Research helps to evaluate options, assess risks, and
determine the most appropriate courses of action.
5. Improving Society: Research has the potential to bring positive change to society. It
addresses societal needs, challenges, and aspirations. Through research, we can
develop sustainable technologies, improve public policies, enhance healthcare
practices, and contribute to social, economic, and environmental well-being. Research
plays a critical role in shaping a better future for individuals and communities.
6. Personal and Professional Growth: Engaging in research cultivates critical thinking,
problem-solving skills, and intellectual curiosity. It allows individuals to develop
expertise in their chosen field and contribute to the advancement of knowledge.
Research also promotes lifelong learning, encourages creativity, and fosters personal
and professional growth.
7. Validating and Challenging Existing Knowledge: Research helps to validate or
challenge existing theories, concepts, and assumptions. It allows us to critically
evaluate and refine existing knowledge, test hypotheses, and explore alternative
perspectives. Through research, we can build upon previous work, correct
misconceptions, and uncover new paradigms.
8. Academic and Career Advancement: Research is an integral part of academic and
professional development. It is essential for students, scholars, and professionals to
engage in research to gain expertise, contribute to their field, and establish their
credibility. Research achievements are often recognized and rewarded in academic and
professional settings.
Generally, research is conducted to advance knowledge, address knowledge gaps, solve
problems, drive innovation, inform decision making, improve society, foster personal and
professional growth, and validate or challenge existing knowledge. It is a fundamental process
that pushes the boundaries of human understanding and contributes to the well-being and
progress of individuals and society as a whole.

1.3. Characteristics of Research

A well-organized research must possess certain characteristics features, which includes the following:
1. Logical and replicable: Research is based on logical reasoning and follows a logical structure.
The inferences and generalizations thus made must be logical. It involves clear and well-
defined steps that can be replicated by other researchers to verify or build upon the findings.
For example, all illiterate people in the village live longer than the educated people in the cities

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 leads to the conclusions that illiteracy is the cause of longevity. This is an example of illogical
research conclusion.
Replicability ensures that research results are reliable and can withstand scrutiny.
2. Unbiased and Objective: Observing true picture of a phenomenon without being affected by
observers own opinion is termed as ‘objective’. Research strives for objectivity and neutrality
It aims to minimize biases and personal opinions in the research process. Researchers employ
rigorous methods to gather and analyze data, ensuring that the findings are based on evidence
rather than personal beliefs or preferences. . The criterion of objectivity is that all researchers
should arrive at the same conclusion about the phenomenon on which they are pursuing
research.
3. Systematic Approach: In a research there should be well-defined steps. Research follows a
systematic and orderly process. Each step should be sequentially linked with another, so that,
the whole research work is an organized structure. Researchers adhere to a predefined
research design, data collection methods, and analysis techniques.
4. Empirical Evidence: Research is based on empirical evidence derived from observations,
experiments, surveys, simulations, or data analysis. It relies on the collection and analysis of
data to draw conclusions and make informed interpretations. Empirical evidence provides a
foundation for the findings and outcomes of research. Research rejects assumptions and
dogma as methods of established knowledge. It accepts only what is verified by empirical
observations.
5. Analytical and Critical thinking: Research requires analytical and critical thinking skills.
Researchers analyze data, identify patterns, and draw meaningful conclusions. They critically
evaluate existing knowledge, theories, and methodologies to contribute new insights or
challenge prevailing assumptions.
6. Continuous and Iterative: Research is a continuous process of discovery and learning. It
often builds upon previous research, refines existing knowledge, or generates new research
questions. Researchers iterate and refine their methods based on feedback, new insights, or
changing circumstances.
7. Communicative: Research aims to communicate findings and contribute to the collective
knowledge of the field. Researchers share their results through publications, presentations,
conferences, and other means of dissemination. Effective communication ensures that
research has an impact and contributes to the advancement of knowledge.
8. Impartiality or Ethical Considerations: Research adheres to ethical principles and guidelines.
A dishonest research may select data items of individuals to draw conclusions to his favor. This
brings bias into research, which affects the objective of the study. Therefore a true research
must be impartial and unbiased. It ensures the protection of human subjects, respects privacy
and confidentiality, and maintains integrity in data collection, analysis, and reporting. Ethical
considerations are fundamental to responsible and credible research.
9. Generalizability: Research often aims to generalize findings beyond the specific study
context. Researchers strive to ensure that the results are relevant and applicable to a broader
population or situation. Generalizability enhances the impact and utility of research findings.
1.4.Types of Research
Research can be classified into various categories depending on the perspective under which the
research activity is initiated and conducted. The categorization depends on the following perspectives
in general:
 Application of research study
 Objectives in undertaking the research
 Inquiry mode employed for research
A. Classification based on Application:
Here are some common classifications of research based on applications:

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1. Pure / Basic / Fundamental Research: Basic research, also known as fundamental or pure
research, is conducted to enhance scientific knowledge and understanding without any
immediate or specific practical application in mind. Its primary goal is to expand theoretical
understanding, explore new concepts, or test hypotheses. Basic research provides the
foundation for applied research and contributes to the advancement of knowledge in various
fields.
As the term suggests a research activity taken up to look into some aspects of a problem or an
issue for the first time is termed as basic or pure. It involves developing and testing theories
and hypotheses that are intellectually challenging to the researcher but may or may not have
practical application at the present time or in the future. The knowledge produced through pure
research is sought in order to add to the existing body of research methods. Pure research is
theoretical but has a universal nature. It is more focused on creating scientific knowledge and
predictions for further studies.
2. Applied / Decisional Research: Applied research is done on the basis of pure or fundamental
research to solve specific, practical questions; for policy formulation, administration and
understanding of a phenomenon. It can be exploratory, but is usually descriptive. The purpose
of doing such research is to find solutions to an immediate issue, solving a particular problem,
developing new technology and look into future advancements etc. This involves forecasting
and assumes that the variables shall not change.
Applied research aims to solve specific practical problems or address practical challenges. It
takes the knowledge gained from basic research and applies it to real-world contexts. Applied
research is often problem-oriented and focuses on finding practical solutions or developing
innovative products, technologies, or methodologies. It has direct relevance and utility in fields
such as engineering, medicine, agriculture, and social sciences.
3. Action Research: Action research is conducted in collaboration with stakeholders to address
practical problems and bring about positive change. It is often carried out within specific
organizational or community settings. Action research involves a cyclical process of problem
identification, intervention implementation, data collection, and reflection. Its primary
objective is to improve practices, processes, or outcomes in real-world settings.
4. Developmental Research: Developmental research focuses on the development and
improvement of products, processes, or technologies. It aims to enhance existing systems,
methods, or designs to make them more efficient, effective, or user-friendly. Developmental
research often involves iterative design, prototyping, testing, and refinement to achieve
practical outcomes.
5. Evaluative Research: Evaluative research assesses the effectiveness, efficiency, or impact of
interventions, programs, policies, or initiatives. It aims to determine the extent to which these
interventions or initiatives achieve their intended outcomes and meet predefined criteria or
standards. Evaluative research involves the collection and analysis of data to provide evidence-
based assessments and recommendations for improvement.
6. Market Research: Market research is conducted to gather information about consumers,
markets, or industry trends. It aims to understand consumer behaviors, preferences, and needs,
as well as market dynamics and competition. Market research helps organizations make
informed decisions regarding product development, marketing strategies, pricing, and
positioning.
7. Policy Research: Policy research focuses on analyzing and evaluating public policies or
government initiatives. It aims to inform policy formulation, implementation, or revision.
Policy research involves the collection and analysis of data, examination of policy alternatives,
and assessment of the social, economic, and environmental impacts of policies.

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B. Classification based on Objectives:
Here are some common classifications of research based on objectives:
1. Descriptive Research: This attempts to explain a situation, problem, phenomenon, service or
programme, or provides information viz. living condition of a community, or describes
attitudes towards an issue but this is done systematically. It is used to answer questions of who,
what, when, where, and how associated with a particular research question or problem. This
type of research makes an attempt to collect any information that can be expressed in
quantifiable terms that can be used to statistically analyze a target audience or a particular
subject. Descriptive research is used to observe and describe a research subject or problem
without influencing or manipulating the variables in any way. Thus, such studies are usually
correlation or observational. This type of research is conclusive in nature, rather than inquisitive.
E.g. explaining details of budget allocation changes to departmental heads in a meeting to
assure clarity and understanding for reasons to bring in a change.
Descriptive research aims to accurately describe and document the characteristics, behaviors,
or phenomena of a particular subject or population. The objective is to provide a detailed and
comprehensive picture of the current state of affairs. Descriptive research often involves
surveys, observations, and case studies to collect data for description and analysis.
2. Explanatory: is the research whose primary purpose is to explain why events occur, to build,
elaborate, extend or test a theory. It is more concerned with showcasing, explaining and
presenting what we already have. It is the process of turning over 100 rocks to find perhaps 1
or 2 precious gemstones. Explanatory survey research may look into the factors that contribute
to customer satisfaction and determine the relative weight of each factor, or seek to model the
variables that lead to people shifting to departmental stores from small shops from where they
have been making purchases till now. An exploratory survey posted to a social networking site
may uncover the fact that an organization‘s customers are unhappy thus helping the
organization take up necessary corrective measures.
Explanatory research aims to explain the relationships between variables or phenomena. The
objective is to identify causal relationships, understand the underlying mechanisms, or
determine why certain phenomena occur. Explanatory research often involves hypothesis
testing, statistical analyses, and experimental designs to establish cause-and-effect
relationships.
3. Exploratory Research: Exploration has been the human kind‘s passion since the time
immemorial. Looking out for new things, new destinations, new food, and new cultures has
been the basis of most tourist and travel journeys. In the subjective terms exploratory research
is conducted to find a solution for a problem that has not been studied more clearly, intended
to establish priorities, develop operational definitions and improve the final research design.
Exploratory research helps determine the best research design, data-collection method and
selection of subjects. For such a research, a researcher starts with a general idea and uses this
research as a medium to identify issues that can be the hub for future research. An important
aspect here is that the researcher should be willing to change his/her direction subject to the
revelation of new data or insight. Such a research is usually carried out when the problem is at
a beginning stage. It is often referred to as grounded theory approach or interpretive research
as it used to answer questions like what, why and how. For example: a fast food outlet owner
feels that increasing the variety of snacks will enable increase in sales, however he is not sure
and needs more information. Thus the owner starts studying local competition, talks to the
existing customers, friends etc to find out what are their views about the current menu and what
else do they wish to be included in the menu and also assess whether he would be able to
generate higher revenues.

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 Exploratory research aims to explore a topic or phenomenon that is relatively uncharted or not
well understood. The primary objective is to gain insights, generate new ideas, or identify
research questions for further investigation. Exploratory research is often conducted at the early
stages of a study or in areas where limited previous research exists.
4. Experimental Research: Experimental research aims to investigate cause-and-effect
relationships by manipulating variables under controlled conditions. The objective is to
establish causal connections and test hypotheses. Experimental research often involves the use
of control groups, randomization, and manipulation of independent variables to study their
effects on dependent variables.
5. Co relational Research: This is a type of non-experimental research method, in which a
researcher measures two variables, understands and assesses the statistical relationship between
them with no influence from any extraneous variable. This is undertaken to discover or
establish the existence of a relationship/ interdependence between two or more aspects of a
situation. For example, the mind can memorize the bell of an ice cream seller or sugar candy
vendor. Louder the bell sound, closer is the vendor to us. We draw this inference based on our
memory and the taste of these delicious food items. This is specifically what co relational
research is, establishing a relationship between two variables, ―bell sound‖ and ―distance of
the vendor‖ in this particular example. Co relational research is looking for variables that seem
to interact with each other so that when you see one variable changing, you have a fair idea
how the other variable will change.
6. Predictive Research: Predictive research aims to forecast or predict future events or trends
based on existing data and patterns. The objective is to develop models, algorithms, or
techniques that can anticipate future outcomes or behaviors. Predictive research often utilizes
statistical modeling, data mining, or machine learning algorithms to make predictions based on
historical or current data.
7. Comparative Research: Comparative research aims to compare and contrast two or more
variables, groups, populations, or phenomena. The objective is to identify similarities,
differences, or patterns between the compared elements. Comparative research can be
conducted across different time periods, geographical locations, cultures, or organizational
settings.
8. Action-oriented Research: Action-oriented research aims to bring about practical change or
solutions to real-world problems. The objective is to generate knowledge that can be applied
to solve specific issues or improve existing practices. Action-oriented research often involves
collaboration with stakeholders and the implementation of interventions or initiatives based on
research findings.
9. Longitudinal Research: Longitudinal research aims to study variables or phenomena over an
extended period. The objective is to observe and analyze changes, trends, or developments over
time. Longitudinal research often involves repeated measurements or observations of the same
subjects or variables at different points in time.
C. Classification based on Inquiry Mode:
1. Structured approach (Quantitative research): The structured approach to inquiry is usually
classified as quantitative research. Here everything that forms the research process- objectives,
design, sample, and the questions that you plan to ask of respondents- is predetermined. It is
more appropriate to determine the extent of a problem, issue or phenomenon by quantifying
the variation e.g. how many people have a particular problem? How many people hold a
particular attitude? E.g. asking a guest to give feedback about the dishes served in a restaurant.
Quantitative research involves the collection and analysis of numerical data to understand and
explain phenomena. It focuses on objective measurements, statistical analysis, and quantifiable
results. Quantitative research typically uses structured data collection methods, such as surveys
or experiments, and employs statistical techniques for data analysis.

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 2. Unstructured approach (Qualitative research): The unstructured approach to inquiry is
usually classified as qualitative research. This approach allows flexibility in all aspects of the
research process. It is more appropriate to explore the nature of a problem, issue or phenomenon
without quantifying it. Main objective is to describe the variation in a phenomenon, situation
or attitude e.g., description of an observed situation, the historical enumeration of events, an
account of different opinions different people have about an issue, description of working
condition in a particular industry. E.g. when a guest is complaining about the room not being
comfortable and is demanding a discount the staff has to verify the claims empathically. In
many studies you have to combine both qualitative and quantitative approaches. For example,
suppose you have to find the types of cuisine / accommodation available in a city and the extent
of their popularity. Types of cuisine are the qualitative aspect of the study as finding out about
them entails description of the culture and cuisine. The extent of their popularity is the
quantitative aspect as it involves estimating the number of people who visit restaurant serving
such cuisine and calculating the other indicators that reflect the extent of popularity.
Qualitative research aims to understand the subjective experiences, meanings, and social
contexts associated with phenomena. It involves exploring and interpreting non-numerical data,
such as interviews, observations, or textual analysis. Qualitative research emphasizes in-depth
understanding, rich descriptions, and the generation of theories or hypotheses based on
qualitative data.
3. Mixed Methods Research: Mixed methods research combines both quantitative and qualitative
approaches within a single study. It involves collecting and analyzing both numerical and non-
numerical data to gain a comprehensive understanding of the research question. Mixed methods
research allows researchers to triangulate findings, complement quantitative data with
qualitative insights, or explore different dimensions of the research problem.
4. Action Research: Action research is an inquiry mode that involves collaboration between
researchers and practitioners to address practical problems or challenges. It focuses on bringing
about positive change and improvement in real-world settings. Action research typically
follows a cyclical process of problem identification, intervention implementation, data
collection, and reflection to inform action and promote continuous learning.
5. Participatory Research: Participatory research emphasizes active involvement and
collaboration with the participants or stakeholders throughout the research process. It aims to
empower individuals or communities and give them a voice in shaping the research agenda,
methods, and outcomes. Participatory research recognizes the importance of local knowledge,
perspectives, and expertise in generating meaningful insights.
1.5 Main Components of any Research
Major components of research paper are selection of title, abstract, introduction, literature review, research
methodology, results, discussion, managerial implications, conclusion, limitations and future scope.
 Title selection: is first step for writing a quality research paper. Usually title should
specifically predict about content of the manuscript.
Title or topic selection refers to the process of choosing a specific title or topic for a
research study, essay, article, or any other written work. It involves identifying a subject
area, narrowing down the focus, and formulating a concise and descriptive title or topic
that accurately represents the content and purpose of the work.
 Abstract: should be crisp. Usually size of abstract should be around 200 words. It should be
able to provide maximum information in limited words. Abstract should briefly describe
objectives of study, research methods used in the study, major findings and implications. At
the end of abstract, authors should give four to five keywords. Key words facilitate searching
of articles by other researchers.

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 Introduction: should set the initial tone for research paper. Introduction should provide
background information about the topic of research, reasons why present study is being
carried out based on significant research gaps, research objectives and research questions,
scope of research, uniqueness and novelty of study and last paragraph of introduction should
be on organization of complete paper. Length of introduction should not exceed one fifth of
total size of the research paper.
 Literature review: Purpose of literature review is to synthesize prior research related to topic of the
paper. Based on previous studies, authors should try to identify research gaps to prove uniqueness of
the study. Most of the researchers make mistake in this part, as problem of study is not identified based
on research gaps and papers get desk rejected by editors. Authors should prefer to refer latest research
papers at least for ten years. If authors are targeting to a particular journal, it should be ensured that no
paper from that journal in identified research area is left for review.
The literature review involves a comprehensive review and analysis of existing research,
theories, and scholarly works relevant to the research topic. It provides a conceptual
framework and establishes the theoretical foundation for the study. The literature review
helps situate the research within the existing knowledge and identifies gaps or areas for
further exploration.
 Methodology: It should be well-written, clear, and logically organized. It should be tied up with
research objectives of the paper. There may be different kind of research methods such as case study
based, empirical studies or modelling based. Authors should clearly justify use of specific
methodology. It is also desirable that different steps of research methodology are given in form of a
flow chart.
 Result: Results section should clearly describe all findings outcomes of the data analysis in
sequential manner. It includes a clear and concise presentation of the key findings and their
interpretation in relation to the research question. Results may be presented through tables, graphs,
or narrative descriptions, depending on the nature of the data and the research design. Authors
should describe the results honestly without distortion of the data.
 Discussion: The discussion section interprets the findings in the context of the existing
literature and research objectives (research questions). It provides an in-depth analysis,
interpretation, and evaluation of the results. The discussion may highlight the implications,
limitations, and significance of the findings.
 Conclusion and Recommendation: Lastly authors should give conclusion of study. In this
section, authors should briefly restate about objectives, major findings, unique contribution,
limitations and future scope of the study. The conclusion summarizes the main findings,
their implications, and suggests areas for future research.
 References: The references section lists all the sources cited in the research report or paper.
It provides proper credit to the authors or researchers whose work has been used in the
study and allows readers to locate and access the cited sources for further reading and
verification.
 Flow of contents: At the end, it is recommended that authors should try to maintain flow of
contents in the whole paper for better readability.