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 SECOND SEMESTER CONTENTS

3.5 The circulatory Unit 5

system Classification
 Heart 4.1Principlesof classification
 Blood Vessels 4.2 The five kingdom
 Blood Unit 6
Unit 4 Environment
Micro-organism and 6.1 Ecosystems
disease 6.1 Food relationship
4.1Micro-organism 6.2 Recycling in nature
4.2 Diseases 6.3 Adaptations

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 CIRICULATORY SYSTEM
 Circulatory system is a system in which oxygen, digested
food and other nutrients transport to all part of body.
 All organism do not have specialized circulatory system.
Small, single celled organism relies on simple diffusion to
exchange material between the environment and their
cells.
 Large animals have smaller surface area to volume
ratio so that simple diffusion is less effective to transport
substance.
 Large animals like humans need very complicated
transport systems called blood circulatory system.
 CIRCULATION is the movement of blood and other
fluid through blood vessels to all parts of the body.
 The human transport system is the blood circulatory
system

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 Double circulation
Pulmonary circulation
 Important to exchange oxygen
and carbon dioxide
 The pathway of blood between
heart to lung
1. Right ventricle
2. Pulmonary artery
3. lung
4. pulmonary vein
5. left auricle
Systematic circulation
 Is the pathway of blood form
heart to all part of the body
 Supply oxygen rich blood to all
part of the body

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 Systematic circulation can be
divided into
1. Hepatic circulation the pathway of blood between
heart to liver
2. Renal circulation the pathway of blood between
heart to kidney
3. Coronary circulation the pathway of blood
between heart to heart muscle
4. Hepatic portal circulation carries digestive
nutrient from the digestive system to the heart
through the liver

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 Components of human circulatory system
1. Hepatic circulation the
pathway of blood
between heart to liver
2. Renal circulation the
pathway of blood
between heart to kidney
3. Coronary circulation
the pathway of blood
between heart to heart
muscle
4. Hepatic portal
circulation carries
digestive nutrient from
the digestive system to
the heart through the
liver

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 Human heart.
 It has three elements
 Heart ( pump)
 Blood vessels ( pipe)
 Blood ( medium)
HUMAN HEART
 Made up of cardiac tissue
 It is a muscular blood
pumping organ
 Human heart Surrounded by
a double membrane called
pericardium
 It has four chamber
 Two atria ( auricles)
upper chamber
 Two ventricles lower
chamber

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 Chamber of the heart
 The right auricle receive
deoxygenated blood from all part
of the body through vena cava
 The left auricle receive oxygenated
blood from lung through pulmonary
vein
 The right ventricle pump
deoxygenated blood to lung
whereas left ventricle pump
oxygenated blood to all part of the
body
 Left ventricle is the thickest
chamber of the heart because it
pumps blood longer distance
 The left side of the heart separate
from the right side by septum
 The muscle of the heart supplied
oxygenated blood by coronary
artery

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 Systolic blood pressure
 The contraction of the heart chamber is stimulated specialized
tissue called pacemaker
 An instrument used to listen the heart beat is stethoscope
 An average heart rate of human being is 72 times per minute.
 Systolic blood pressure
 Pressure formed by the contraction heart chamber
 Forced blood out of the heart into arteries
 Blood pressure at highest reading
 Diastolic blood pressure
 Pressure exerted by the relaxation of the heart chamber
 Blood pressure at lowest reading
 Fills the chamber of the heart with blood
 The normal blood pressure of human being is 120mmHg/80
mmHg
 The nominator is systolic and denominator is diastolic Pressure
 Highest reading (120) systolic and Lowest reading (80) diastolic

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 Valves of the heart

 Valves the structure of the heart prevent the back flow of

blood
 Tricuspid valve
 the valve between right atrium and right ventricle
 prevent the back flow of blood from right ventricle to
right atrium
 Bicuspid (mitral) valves
 The valve between left atrium and left ventricle
 Prevent the back flow of blood from left ventricle and
left auricle
 Simi-lunar valve
 Found at the opening of pulmonary artery and aorta
 Prevent the back flow of blood into ventricle

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 Blood vessel
 Blood vessel are the
pathways through which
transportation of material
takes place
 There are three main
type of blood vessels
 Arteries: carry blood
away from the heart
 Veins: carry blood
back to the heart
 Capillaries: site of
exchange of substance
within the body

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 ARTRIES
 Carry blood away from  Mostly deep seated
the heart  Carry oxygenated blood
 Thick and elastic wall except
 Thick muscle layer  Pulmonary artery
 Have elastic fiber carry deoxygenated
blood to lung
 Small /narrow/ lumen
 Umbilical artery
 Blood flow rapid
carry deoxygenated
 High pressure and from fetus to placenta
pulsate
 Largest artery aorta
 No valves smallest arterioles

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 VAINS
 Carry blood back to  Mostly superficial
the heart  Carry deoxygenated
 Thin wall blood except
 Thin muscle layer  Pulmonary vein
 No elastic fiber return oxygenated
back from lung to
 Big /wider/ lumen heart
 Blood flow slowly  Umbilical vein
 Low pressure and carries oxygenated
pulsate blood placenta to
 Have valves fetus
 Largest vein vena cava
smallest venules

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 CAPILLARIES
 Narrow thin walled
blood vessels
 Connects arteries and
with veins
 Take blood to the tissue
and cell
 Site of exchange of
substance within the
body
 Wall one cell thick
 Blood flow slowly
 Mix oxygenated and
deoxygenated blood
 No valve

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 BLOOD
 BLOOD is a fluid tissue that PLASMA
carries nutrient, respiratory
gases, metabolic wastes and  A pale yellow liquid
other substance part of the blood
 Blood contains
 90% of the plasma is
1. Plasma : transport water
nutrients , carbon dioxide,
hormones, enzymes and  10% consists dissolved
nitrogenous waste and suspended substance
2. Blood cells  Transport nutrients, CO2,
 Red blood cells: used hormones, enzymes and
to transport oxygen nitrogenous waste
 White blood cells:  Contain plasma protein
used to defense the such as fibrinogen,
body against disease
prothrombin and
 Platelets: important in Thrombin
blood to clot at the site
of a wound

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 RED BLOOD CELLS (ERYTHROCYTES)

 Biconcave /disk/ shaped non nucleated cell

 Live 100-120 days in your body
 Worn out red blood cell destroyed and removed by liver and
spleen
 Thin surface membrane for ease of diffusion
 Used to transport oxygen and carbon dioxide back into the lung
 RBC formed in the bone marrow
 Contain a red pigment called hemoglobin
 Hemoglobin contain iron, the lack of iron in diet cause anemia
 Hemoglobin is a complex protein which carries oxygen

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 Adaptation of RBC to carry oxygen

1) Contain hemoglobin
2) Does not have nucleus to carry more room for
hemoglobin.
3) Have biconcave disk shape increase surface
area for diffusion of oxygen
4) Thin surface membrane for ease of diffusion

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 WHITE BLOOD CELL
(LEUCOCYTES)

 Collarless, irregular shaped and nucleated

 Produced in bone marrow, lymph nodes and
spleen
 Fewer white blood cell then red blood cell
 Much bigger then red blood cell
 Used to defense the body against disease
 White blood cell can be classified
 Phagocytes a group of white blood cell that
engulf and ingest infection microbes
 Lymphocytes group which help to produce
antibodies

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 PLATLATES (THROMBOCYTES)

 Collarless and non-nucleated

 Important in blood to clot at the site of a wound.
This is very important
1. Prevents the body from bleeding to death from a
simple cut
2. Also protect the body from the entry of pathogen
through open wound
3. Protect the new skin as it grows

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 Human blood group
 ABO blood group system 1) “A” blood contain “A” antigen
 Four major blood group in 2) “B” blood contain “B “ Antigen
humans’ 3) “AB” blood contain “A’ and
 Blood group A “B” antigen
 Blood group AB 4) “O” blood do not contain
antigen
 Blood group B
 Antibody are protein which are
 Blood group O produces the body to fight foreign
antigen and found in the plasma of
 Antigens are special protein the blood
which are found on the red
blood cell  Two type of antibodies against
antigen. These are anti-A and anti
 Antigen allow cells to B
recognize each other  Agglutination is incompatibility of
 Blood group determine by antigen and antibody in blood group
the type of antigen on the  Blood groups that mix without
red blood cell agglutination are called
compatibility

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 Transfusion of blood group
Blood Can be Can
group Antigen Antibod transferre received
y d (donate) blood
into from
A A Anti-B A and AB A and O
B B Anti-A B and AB B and O
AB A and B NONE AB only A,
B,AB,O
O NONE Anti A A,B,AB,O O only
and B

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 Rh factors
 There is another antigen found on the surface of
RBC called Rh antigen
 A person who do have this antigen is called Rh+
(Rh positive)
 A person who do not have this antigenic called Rh-
( Rh negative)
 Rh system in relation to marriage
Mother Father
 Rh+ Rh+ no problem
 Rh- Rh- no problem
 Rh- Rh+ may be a risk Why?
 Rh+ Rh- no problem

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 COMMON PROBLEM OF CIRCULATORY
SYSTEM
ANEMIA HYPERTENSION
 It is caused by have too few  High blood pressure
red blood cells in the body, above140/90 mmHg
or the levels of the oxygen-
carrying red pigment  Caused by various reason
hemoglobin in blood are such as
too lows.  Age. Over weightiness
 Most commonly caused by  High consumption of salt
the lack of iron in the diets
 Drug addiction
 Treated by eating iron rich
diets such as liver, meat, egg,  Diabetics etc.
green leaf vegetable  Can be reduce and
 Girls are more likely to be controlled by;
anemic then boys because  Eating less fat and salt
they lost iron in their
menstrual bleeding  Regular exercise
 Avoid use of drug etc

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 Unit 4
MICRO-ORGANISM AND DISEASE
4.1. MICRO-ORGANISM
 Are organisms too small to be seen with the naked eye
 Micro- organisms can be seen with the aid of microscope
 Micro-organism have useful and harmful aspects
Useful aspect of micro-organism
 Decay and recycling of nutrients
 Used in the making of food, Such as injera, ergo and eyib
 Produce alcoholic drinks such as beer, wine and tej
 Important in genetic engineering
Harmful aspect of micro-organism
 Cause disease in plant ,animals and humans
 Food poisoning bacteria cause spoilage of food
 Micro-organism includes bacteria’s, viruses. Molds. Yeast

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 BACTERIA
 Bacteria are a single called organisms
 Smaller then the smallest animal and plant cells
 Are unicellular and prokaryotic organisms
 Bacterial cell have many similarities to animal and plant
cell. They are made up of
 cell wall, cell membrane, cytoplasm and genetic material
 Some bacteria have flagella(for movement)and capsule
(for protection)
 Bacteria are classified based on shape into rod
shaped(bacilli), round(cocci), comma(vibro) and spiral
 Bacteria can also be classified into gram positive and
gram negative based on gram stain
 Gram stain is a differential stain used to classify bacteria
into two
 Different bacteria have different cell walls which take up
the stain differently

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26 Genene.T
 Stages of Gram Stain
1. Smear
2. Cristal violet/purple color/; primary stain
3. Iodine solution; as a mordant /to form iodine-- violet
complex/
4. Decolorized by ethanol
5. Safranin /red color/; counter stain or secondary stain
Gram positive
 Keep the color of primary stain /crystal violet/ not
decolorized
 Stain purple
Gram negative
 Primary stain decolorized by ethanol
 Take the color of secondary stain safranin
 Stain red/ pink/

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28 Genene.T
 con’t

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 Viruses
 Smaller then bacteria
 Neither prokaryotic nor eukaryotic cell.
 Viruses are a particle, made up of
 Protein coat( capsoid)
 Genetic material: the genetic material is either
DNA or RNA
 They are obligate parasite
 Viruses are considered to be living and non living
things. How?
 Do not carry out any of the function of normal
living organism except reproduction
 Viruses only reproduce inside living cell
 Viruses cause some common human disease such
as AIDS, Influenza, rabbis

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 Fungi
Yeast;
Is a single called fungi
At anaerobic condition yeast carry out
alcoholic fermentation
Yeast have heterotrophic mode of
nutrition
Yeast reproduce asexually by budding
Moulds
Made up of filament called hyphae
A mass of hyphae together forms
mycelium
Reproduce asexually by spore formation

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 Germ theory of disease

 Germ theory diseases states that germ are the cause of

disease
 The theory of spontaneous generation states that
living things arise from non living things
 Louis Pasteur disproves the theory of spontaneous
generation. How?
 Louis Pasteur indicates that, infectious disease caused
by pathogenic micro-organism. He also introduces
pasteurization technique.
 Robert Koch discovered the first disease causing
micro-organism called bacillus anthracites which
cause anthrax

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 Controlling micro-organism
 The major methods of controlling microorganisms
include;
 Sterilization
 Disinfectants
 Pasteurization
1. Sterilization;
 The process of complete removal of micro-organism
 Some of the methods that are used as sterilization;
A. autoclave sterilization
 Used to sterilize;
 Equipment which are not damage by heat
 Bacterial spores which do not die at low temperature
 Killing micro-organisms by boiling them in water at
1200C under high pressure for 15-45 minutes.

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 con’t

B. Ultra high temperature (UHT)

 It is a way of treating food to kill all the micro-
organism found in it.
 It is a techniques of heating the food at a
temperature of 1350c to1500cfor 2-6 second
 Used in food processing industries to prevent
contamination of food
C. Dry heat sterilization
 Used to sterilize scientific equipment
 Requires higher temperature high temperature
and longer period of time
 Use the temperature of 1700C for one hour
and1600C for two hour

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 Contd.
2. Pasteurization
 Involves boiling or heating of milk, bear, other food staff
 It include heating followed by rapid cooling
 The temperature used
 62.90C for 30 seconds
 71.60C for at least 15 seconds
3. Disinfectants
 Chemicals that are used to kill micro-organisms on inanimate
object
 Disinfectants have the following characteristics
 Fast acting
 Effective against all type of micro-organism
 Disinfect material without damaging or discoloring it
 Dilute bleach and calcium hypochlorite used as disinfectant on
drinking water
 Antiseptics Chemicals (Disinfectants) that can be applied to a
living tissue such as skin
 Help to protect the entrance of germs if the skin is cut or
damage

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 Culturing (Growing) Microbes

 Importance of growing micro-organism

 To know how to kill them
 To develop vaccine
 To identify useful and harmful aspect
 Precondition for growing micro-organism;
 Isolating the type of micro-organism to be studied
 Developing suitable nutrients medium
 Suitable environmental condition

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 Contd.
 Nutrient medium; nutrients required for the growth of micro-
organisms
 It can be solid or liquid
 Agar
I. As solid nutrient medium which is extracted from red
algae
II. Micro-organism are cultured in a petridish
 Broth
I. A liquid nutrient medium
II. Micro-organism are cultured in test tube
 Culture media; is a collection of nutrients and microbial cells
grow on medium
 Inoculation; a technique of transferring microbes into a nutrient
medium
 Inoculating loop / needle/; an instrument that is used to transfer
micro-organism
 Culture microbes should transfer in a zigzag streaks because to
avoid competition

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 Antibody
Immune system produced after
recovery from
sickness

Antibody
produced as a
Antibody result of
vaccination
produce by
own body Antibody
obtained from
mothers to body
through breast
milk or placenta

Antibody
obtained
Antibody through
produce by injection of
others serum

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 Immune system
 Immune system the system in the body which protects
against disease causing micro-organisms and foreign
proteins ( antigen)
 Immunity the ability of the body to resist disease
 Type of immunity
 Innate immunity
 Natural ability of the body to fight disease producing micro-
organism
 Immunity present at the time of birth against certain diseases
 Non specific antibodies against disease germs
 Inborn and is due to the presence of naturally occurring
antibodies since birth
 It obtain without the stimulation any foreign bodies
 Acquired immunity
 Immunity developing during the life time of individual
after birth
 Acquired immunity either active or passive

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 Active immunity
 Natural active immunity
 Immunity resulting from having had a disease
previously
 The infection stimulates the body to form its own
specific antibodies against germs
 Artificial active immunity
 Immunity acquire artificially by receiving vaccine
 Vaccination /Immunization /the use of dead or
weakened pathogens to produce immunity to
dangerous disease
 Vaccine stimulated the body to form its own
antibodies without having a disease
 A child receive vaccines for polio, tetanus,
tuberculosis, hepatitis, measles, mumps,
diphetria

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 Passive immunity

 Natural passive immunity

 Immunity passed from mother to child
 Antibodies from the mother pass into fetus across
placenta
 Many antibodies are passed to the baby through
breast milk
 Artificial passive immunity
 Introducing artificially antibodies into the body
give immediate immunity
 Antibodies are drugs/ chemicals/which kill bacteria
inside our body but do not harm human cell.
 Antibiotics have no effect on disease caused by
viruses
 Penicillin is the first antibiotic produce by
Alexandor Flemming

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 4.2 DISEASES
 Disease is a disorder state of an organ or organism
 Some of the most common human disease in
Ethiopia
1. Tape worm
 Tape worm live in the intestine of host
 Have head or scolex which help to attach to the
wall of intestine
 Scolex have suckers and hooks used to attach the
intestinal wall
 They have segmented body called proglottids
 The two most common tape worms that infect
human are; beef tape worm (Taenia saginata )and
pork tape worm (Taenia solume )
 Beef tape worm cattle intermediate host and pork
tape worm pig intermediate host

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 Tape worm
 Transmissions
 Eating raw or undercooked meat
 Symptoms
 Vitamin B12 deficiency
 Weight loss
 Control and prevention
 Use proper latrine
 Meat inspection
 Meat should be cooked well
 Special adaptation of tape worm to service in human
gut
 Scolex has hooks and suckers helps the parasite attached
to small intestine
 Flattened body absorbed digested nutrient over a large
surface area
 Thick cuticle to prevent from intestinal enzymes

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 2.Tuberculosis(TB)
 Cause
 The bacteria called mycobacterium
tuberculosis
 TB usually affect lung (pulmonary TB) affect
kidneys, nodes, joints and lymph but it can also
bones
 Symptoms
 Loss of weight
 Persistent cough
 Night sweat
 Loss of appetite
 Fever and chest pain
 Blood in sputum

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 Tuberculosis(TB

Transmission
 Through air droplet cough , sneeze
 Infected milk
 Prevention
 Pasteurize milk
 Vaccination
 Avoid droplet infection
 antibiotics

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 3.Malaria
 Vector born disease ( vector an organism that transmit disease
causing microorganisms from one host to another )
 Affect the liver and red blood cells. How?

 Cause; parasite called plasmodium

 Symptoms
 High fever, chills and sweats
 Transmission
 by the bite of female anopheles mosquito
 Preventions
 Avoid contact with mosquito using mosquito repellents, fixing
screen on windows, using net over beds
 Remove mosquito breeding place
 Biological control ( introducing an organism such as fish into
the water that feeds on larva)
 Chemical control sprayed on to the water in order to kill
mosquito larva and egg

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 4. Gastroenteritis/acute watery
diarrhea AWD/
 If someone suffering from AWD , the lining of the
stomach, small intestine, become inflamed and
painful
 Water cannot be reabsorbed by the inflamed lining
the large intestine, resulting in liquid diarrhea
 Caused
 Viruses rotaviruses
 Bacteria salmonella and Escherichia coli
 Protozoa giardia and amoeba
 Transmission
 Eating contaminated food and watery

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 Contd.
 Symptoms
 Violet abdominal cramps and pain
 Feeling nauseous, vomiting often both
 Watery diarrhea which does not usually have
blood in it
 Slight fever
 General muscle ache and head ache
 Control and prevention
 Wash hands after using toilet, and before
preparing and eating food
 Make sure that the water you drink and use to
wash salad food and fruit is clean and safe
 Avoid raw and undercooked meat, egg, fish etc
 Avoid contact with someone has AWD

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 5.Cholera
 Caused
 Bacterial infection called vibrio cholera
 Transmission
 Contaminated food and water with faces
 Symptoms
 Mild to severe diarrhea
 Vomiting and dehydration
 A pale an water y diarrhea
 Loss of salt and dehydration
 Sever muscular cramp
 Control and prevention
 Replace the fluids and salt to prevent dehydration
 Antibiotics are used to treat disease
 Everyone has supply of clean, uncontaminated water
 The sewage is disposed effectively
 Avoid consuming uncooked food and water

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 6.Typhoid
 Cause
 bacterial infection salmonella typhi
 Transmission
 Contaminated food and water by faces
 Symptoms
 A very high fever 39-400C
 A painful abdomen
 Sore throat and headache
 Constipation or diarrhea
 An enlarged spleen and liver
 Untreated thyroid, becomes delirious, weak, exhausted and may
die
 Control and prevention
 Used antibiotics
 Need plenty of fluids to replace the one lost
 High calorie meals to help mineral and energy they have lost
 Carful hand washing after toilet

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 7. Sexually transmitted disease (STD’s)

 STD’S are transmitted through sexual contact

 They are also known as venereal disease
 The commonly known STD’S are gonorrhea,
cancroids, syphilis, HIV/AIDS
7.1Gonorrhea
 Caused
 Bacteria called Neisseria gonorrhea
 Transmission
 Spread through unprotected sex
 Mother to child during birth
 C; use condom
 Visit clinics or hospitals

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 Contd.
 Symptoms
 In men the symptoms of gonorrhea are
 Burning sensation during urination
 Yellowish or white discharge from penis
 In women mostly asymptomatic, but sometimes
it may show
 Discharge from vagina
 Burning sensation while urination
 Untreated gonorrhea in pregnant women ,may result in
blindness of her baby
 Control and prevention
 Respect ABC rule
 A; abstain B; be faithful C; use condom
 Visit clinics or hospitals

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 7.2 Syphilis
 Cause
 A bacterial infection called Treponema
palladium
 Transmission
 unprotected sexual intercourse
 congenital syphilis transmitted from
mother to child
 Symptoms three major stage of symptoms
 Primary stage (the first six weak)
 Painless sore at the site of infection
 Swollen gland

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 Syphilis….
 Secondary stage ( occur sex wreaks after primary
infection)
 Tiredness Hoarseness
 Fever Loss of appetite
 Sore throat Patch hair loss
 Headaches Swollen gland
 Third stage (late syphilis)
 It appears after years may cause severe irreversible
problems
 Involves illness of the skin , bones, central nerve systems
 Transmitted from pregnant women to her baby and may
cause death and deformity
 Control and prevention
 Respect ABC rules
 Visit clinic and hospitals
 Blood test for pregnant women
 If you are infected, avoid sexual contact

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 7.3 Chancroids
 Cause
 A bacteria called Hemophilus ducrey
 Transmission
 Unprotected sexual intercourse
 Symptoms
 First stage
 Ulceration on genitals, particularly on penis
 Bleeding of ulcer and bursting of pus
 Second stage
 Swollen glands which are filled with pus
 Permanent loss of penis
 Control and prevention
 Taking effective dose of antibiotics
 Respect ABC rule
 good genital hygiene , male circumcision

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 7.4 HIV/AIDS
 Acquired Immune Deficiency Syndrome (AIDS) is the
medical term for a combination of illnesses that result
when the immune system is weakened or destroyed
 Caused by Human Immunodeficiency Virus
 Transmission
 Sexual intercourse with infected person.
 From infected mother to her baby in the womb,
during birth breastfeeds.
 Through Infected blood transfusion
 Fight against HIV/AIDS
 Education on HIV/AIDS (transmission and
prevention)
 Avoid stigma and discrimination
 Encourage people to take voluntary HIV-test

56 Genene.T
 The lymph system and Immune
system
 Immune system is based in lymph system which spreads
throughout the body.
 The lymph vessels carrying a fluid called lymph
 Lymph defend the body against disease by producing
lymphocytes
 Lymphocytes produce antibodies against invading
pathogens.
 The lymph glands filter out bacteria and other microbes
from the lymph to be ingested by the phagocytes.
 Enlarged lymph glands are a sign that the body is fighting
off an invading pathogen.
 the main sites of the enlarged lymph glands
 Axillary lymph nodes (in armpit)
 Cervical lymph nodes (neck)
 Mesenteric lymph nodes (gut)
 Inguinal lymph nodes (in groin)

57 Genene.T
 How does HIV attack the immune
system?
 There are two main types of white blood cells
in the immune system.
 T-lymphocytes (T-cells) bind to foreign antigen
and destroy it.
 B-lymphocytes (B-cells) make antibodies
which bind to the antigen and destroy it.
 Make memory cells which ‘remember’ how
to make the right antibodies if the same
foreign antigen turns up again
 HIV attacks the T-cells of the immune system.

58 Genene.T
 Summery
No Disease Caused by Root of transmission
1 Tape worm Parasitic flat worm Eating raw or under cooked
meat
2 Tuberculosis Bacteria, Mycobacterium Air droplet /aerosol/
tuberculosis
3 Malaria Protozoa, plasmodium Bite of anopheles mosquito
4 Cholera Bacteria, Vibro cholera Contaminated food and water
5 Typhoid Bacteria, Salmonella typhi Contaminated food and water
6 AWD Bacteria, Virus, Protozoa Contaminated food and water
7 Gonorrhea Bacteria, Neissaria Unprotected sexual
gonorrhea intercourse
8 Syphilis Bacteria, Treponema Unprotected sexual
palladium intercourse
9 Chancroid Bacteria, Hemophilus Unprotected sexual
ducrey intercourse
10 AIDS Virus, Human Immune Unprotected sexual
Virus intercourse

59 Genene.T
 UNIT 5
CLASSIFICATION
5.1 PRINCIPLES OF CLASSIFICATION
 The importance of classifying organism
 To simplify the study
 Try to understand how life originated
 To bring order out of chaos or confusion
 The classification system
 Species a group of organism that can breed successfully
with one another to produce fertile offspring
 Classification is the system of groping organism based
on similarity and difference
 Taxonomy a branch of biology which is concerned with
classification of organism
 Dichotomous key/ identification key/ the a type of key
used to classify living organism based on making a choice
between two alternatives
 Groups of living things into categories is called taxa

60 Genene.T
 Naming of living things

 Linnaeus was the first biologist who introduce

binomial system of classification
 Binomial system of naming organism has two names
 The first name genus while the second name species
both name derived from Latin
 The genus name starts in capital latter and the species
name in small latter
 The scientific name should be underlined or printed in
italics
 Examples
 human beings ; Homo sapiens Homo, genus name
sapiens, species name
 Dog; Canis familiaris Canis, genus name and
familiaris species name
 House flies; Musca domestica
 Domestic cat; Felies domestica

61 Genene.T
 THE FIVE KINGDOM
 In modern classification, there are five kingdoms
namely;
Kingdoms General characteristics

1 Monera Unicellular prokaryotic organism E.g.

Bacteria
2 Protista Unicellular eukaryotic organism E.g., algae
and protozoa
3 Fungi Unicellular or multicellular organisms E.g.
yeast and mucor
4 Animalia Eukaryotic without chlorophyll E.g. man

5 Plantae Eukaryotic chlorophyll containing organism.

E.g. angiosperm
62 Genene.T
 The 7main taxonomic category

63 Genene.T
 Kingdom monera
 Are unicellular prokaryotic, that do not have membrane
bonded nucleus
 Include all bacteria and blue green algae
 Bacteria act as pathogens
 Mycobacterium tuberculosis which cause tuberculosis
 Haemophilus ducrey that cause chancroid
 Kingdom protista /protoctista/
 Unicellular and eukaryotic ,that do have a nucleus
 They live as a parasite and free living
 Some Protista cause a serious disease
 Plasmodium falciparum which cause malaria
 Entamoeba histolyca, which cause amoebic dysentery
 Trypanosoma, a blood parasite that cause sleeping
sickness
 Dianoflagelates , which cause bioluminescence

64 Genene.T
 Kingdom fungi
 Eukaryotic, unicellular and heterotrophic organism
 Have cell wall made up of chitin but lack chlorophyll
 Mood of nutrition
 Saprophytic fungi feed on dead materials. They act
as decomposer which have a role in recycling of
nutrients .E.g. Rhizophus, Mucor, penicillium
 Mutualism fungi; live in close association with
other organism and both benefit. E.g Lichens an
are the eg of
association of fungi and green algae
mutualism---- Mycorrhizal an association of a fungus a root of
fungus plant
 Parasitic fungi; Feeding on living organism.
Candida albicans cause trash, Tinea pedis cause
athlete’s foot

65 Genene.T
 Kingdom plantae
 The main characteristics of plant
 Have eukaryotic cell
 Multicellular organism
 Contain chlorophyll and carry out
photosynthesis
 Predominantly land dwelling
 Have cuticle to prevent water loss
 Four important division ;
 Bryophytes,
 pteridophyta,
 Gymnosperm,
 Angiosperm

66 Genene.T
 Division bryophytes (mosses and
liverworts)
 They are the simplest land plant
 They have no true root, stem and leaf, they have thallus
body.
 They are non vascular ( no xylem and phloem)
 Have a simple leaves
 Have a simple root like structure called rhizoid which is
used for absorption of nutrient
 Commonly found in rainforest and high altitude

67 Genene.T
 Bryophytes

68 Genene.T
 Division pteridophyta (Ferns)

 Have well develop root, stem and leaf

 Have horizontally growing stem called
rhizomes
 The fern leaf is called fronds
 Reproduce by spores found in sori, at the
back of leaf
 Have vascular tissue (xylem and phloem)

69 Genene.T
 Ferns

70 Genene.T
 Spermatophyte (Seed bearing plant)

 Have well develop root stem and leaf

 Have well develop vascular tissues
 Male gametes contained in a pollen
grains and the female gamete found in
the embryo sac
 The product of fertilization in sexual
reproduction is seed
 Spermatophyte divided into two division
 Division gymnosperm
 Division angiosperm

71 Genene.T
 Division Gymnospermae (conifer,
Non flowering plant)
 Seed are not enclosed in a fruit
 Have small needle shaped leaves with a weak waxy
cuticle in order to
 To reduce water loss, minimizes damage by excess heat
or cold
 They are evergreen
 Reproductive organ male and female cones
 Do not have flower and fruits
 E.g. pinus , yabesha tid,

72 Genene.T
 Division Angiosperm (flowering
plant)

 Reproductive organ flower

 Seed enclosed in fruit
 Well develop xylem and phloem tissue
 Angiosperm divided into two sub class based on the
number of cotyledon in their seed
 Monocotyledon (monocot)
 Cotyledons ( dicots)

73 Genene.T
 Monocots Dicots
The embryo has single seed The embryo has two seed
leaf leaf
Parallel venation of leaves Net (reticulate) venation
of leaves
Leaves are generally long Leaves are often relatively
and thin broad
Scattered Vascular bundle Ring of vascular bundle

Generally do not reach great Same dicot reach great

size ( absence of cambium) size( have vascular
cambium)
Often wind pollinated Often insect pollinated
E.g. maize, grass, Orichids E.g. pea rose, bean, mango,
jacaranda

74 Genene.T
 Monocot and dicot difference

75 Genene.T
 Kingdom animalia

 Multicellular ,eukaryotic, ,heterotrophic

organism
 Feed on other organism
 Exhibit locomotion, move their body from
one place to another
 The cell do not have cell wall
 The major phylum in animal kingdom

76 Genene.T
 Animal phylum Representative examples
Porifera (sponges) Sponges
Coelenterate (cnidaria) Sea anemones, hydra, jellyfish, Coral

Platyhelminthes (flat Planaria ,tape worm, liver flukes,

worm)
Nematodes (round worm) Ascaris,
Annelids (segmented Earthworm, leech
worm)
Mollusca (Soft bodied Octopus, squid, Slugs, Snail
animal)
Echinodermata (spiny Starfish (Asteris),sea cucumber, sea urchin
skinned animal)
Arthropod (joint footed Insects, arachnidan, crustacean, diplopods ,
animal) Chilopods
Chordate Pisces, amphibians, reptiles, aves,
mammals

77 Genene.T
 Phylum Porifera
(sponges)
 No tissue organization
 Single body cavity
 Numerous pores in
body wall
 They are hallow filter
fidder
 Adult are sessile;
permanently attached
to the surface of sea
 Co-ordination
supported by
calcareous spicules

78 Genene.T
 Phylum Coelenterates
(Cnidarians)
Have two body layer
Have only one
opening mouth
Radial symmetry
Mouth supported by Jelly fish
tentacle,
for capturing prey
Have stinging cell
their tentacles for
poisoning or
immobilizing prey Hydr
79 Genene.T a
 Phylum Plathelments - flat worm

 Have no body cavity

 Have flat body shape
 Are bilateral shape
 Bilateral symmetry
 They are hermaphrodites
 Have mouth but no anus
planeria

80 Genene.T
  Phylum Nematodes - Round worm
 Have narrow, thread like body
 Bilateral symmetry
 Body not segmented
 No circulatory system
 Complete digestive system with mouth and anus
 Phylum Annelid- Segmented worm
 Have closed blood circulatory system
 They are hermaphrodite
 Bristle like structure called chaetae, help them
to move
 Most are free living

81 Genene.T
  Phylum mollusca -Soft bodied animal
 Have soft body
 Body not segmented
 Most have shell
 Body divided into head, foot and Visceral mass,
Breath through gills
 Phylum Echinodermata- spiny skinned
animal
 Have exoskeleton
 Have many tubular feet
 Body covered with spin
 Are radial symmetry

82 Genene.T
 Echinodermata examples

Star
fish
83 Genene.T
 Phylum arthropods – joint footed
animal
 Have jointed appendage
 Have an exoskeleton made of chitin, which is used;
 Prevent water loss
 Limits their growth
 Have segmented body
 Have well develop nerve system
 Complete gut from mouth to anus
 The most varied animal on the earth
 Divided into a number of five class;
 Class insect
 Class crustacean
 Class chilopodes - centipedes
 Class Diplopod- millipedes
 Class Arachnidan

84 Genene.T
 Class Class Class Class Class
Insectsa Crustaceans Chilopoda Diplopods /Arachnidan/
/Centipedes/ /Millipedes.
 Tree body  body two  flat body  cylindrical  two body
parts parts  bright body parts
 Head,  Cephalothorax colored  dull colored Cephalothoraxes
thorax, es (fused body body Abdomen
abdomen head &  few  have more  with no
 3 pair of thorax), segment segment antenna
jointed Abdomen  1 pair of  2 pair of limb  4 pair of legs
Legs  body covered limb per per  have simple
 1 or2 pair of by Carapace segment segment eyes
wing  four pair  Carnivores  Herbivores  E.g. Spider,
 have a pair jointed leg  poisoning  have claws tikes,
of antenna  two pair of claws for biting and scorpions,
 one pair of antenna and  For chewing prey mites
Compound eye simple eye paralyzing
 E.g flies,  E.g. lobsters, prey
beetles wood lice,
water flies

85 Genene.T
 Phylum chordate
 Have notochords
 Have hallow nerve cord
 Have gill slits later replaced by lungs and gills
 Vertebrates
 Invertebrates make up 99.9% of animals
 Have endoskeleton made of bone and cartilage
 Have closed blood circulatory system
 Have well developed nerve system
 Two pair of limb and kidney as execratory
organ

86 Genene.T
 Class Pisces-the fish
 Are aquatic
 Ectothermic
 variable body temperature
 need environment to regulate their body
temperature
 Have gill
 Have fins
 Lay unfertilized egg
 Divided into two sub class
 Teleosts - bony fish
 Elasmobranches- cartilaginous fish

87 Genene.T
 The fish
Bony fish Cartilaginous fish
 Have bony skeleton  Have cartilaginous skeleton
 Have round shaped scales  Have scale but not round
 Opercula covering the gills  No opercula but have gill
slits
 Have homocerical  Have heterocerical
 Tail( even size fin)  Tail (different size)
 Usually smaller size  Usually larger size
 E.g. Tilapia, Nile perch,  E.g. Sharks, skates, rays
catfish, cod,

88 Genene.T
89 Genene.T
 Class amphibian
 Live on land and water
 Have moist skin (respiratory surface)
 Lay unfertilized egg in water
 Larva (tadpole) live in water
 The adult live both on land and water
 Are Ectothermic
 E.g. frogs, toads, newts, salamander

90 Genene.T
 Frogs and toads
FROG TOADS
 Has smooth skin  Has rough skin
 Has a moist skin  Has a dry skin
 Has more webbed feet  Has less webbed feet

 Has bright colored  Has a dull colored body

body
 More streamlined  Less streamlined body
body
 Has extra-long hind  Has hind legs that are not
legs extra long

91 Genene.T
92 Genene.T
 Class reptiles
 Have dry skin with scales
 Gas exchange take place in the lung
 Developed internal fertilization
 Lay egg in land in a leather shell
 Gill slits only seen in embryonic stage
 Have no external ears
 Are ectothermic E.g. snake, Crocodiles,
Lizard

93 Genene.T
 Class aves- birds

 Have feathers
 Fore limbs are adapted as wing
 Lay fertilized egg covered with shell
 Have beaks
 Have light skeleton , which make easier to fly
 Are endothermic-constant body temperature
and
 Have hallow nerve cord

94 Genene.T
 Class mammals
 Feed their young with milk
 Have diaphragm
 Have 4 chamber heart
 Body covered with hair
 Have sweat gland
 Have well developed brain
 Are endothermic
 E.g. rats, monkeys, dogs, human

95 Genene.T
 Sub division of class mammals
Egg laying Marsupials Placental
mammals mammals
 Lay egg  Produce immature  Higher
 E.g. duck young mammals
billed  which are  Produce fully
mammals nourished milk in developed
poach young
 kangaroo,  Nourished milk
koalbeer , opssum from mammary
gland
 Cats, caw, man

96 Genene.T
 UNIT 6
ENVIRONMENT

 Environment; an organism’s home and its

surrounding
 Ecology ; deal with the study of environment
 It concerned with the interrelation ship of organism
with each other and with its environment
 It deal biological organization (organism
population community ecosystem biomes
biosphere) above organism
 Ecology do not deal with individual organism

97 Genene.T
 6.1 ECOSYSTEMS
 A life supporting environment
 All animals and plants that live in an area along with
that thing that affect them
 Composed of biotic (living) and abiotic (non-living)
components
 Abiotic components
 Non living component of the environment
 Includes
 Sun light,
 Rainfall,
 Temperature,
 type of soil and rocks,
 Level of oxygen, water. Wind

98 Genene.T
 Biotic component
 The living organisms within an ecosystem
which affect the ability of an organism to
survive there
 Includes
 Disease causing microorganisms and
 Parasites
 predator numbers,
 Food availability,
 Competition
 Competition; animal compete for food, water, ,
territory, mate
 Plant compete with each other for light, water
and nutrient

99 Genene.T
 6.2 FOOD RELATIONSHIP
 Based on the mode of nutrition organism divided into
two
1. Autotrophs
2. Heterotrophs
 Autotrophs organisms that can make their own food
 Autotrophs can be divided into;
 Photo autotrophs (light feeders); a group of
organisms that use sun light as primary source of
energy to synthesis their own food E.g. Green
plants because of making carbohydrate they are
known as producers
 Chemo autotrophs; a group of organisms that
release energy from simple chemical reaction. E.g.
nitrifying bacteria, green sulfur bacteria

100 Genene.T
 Heterotrophs
 Organism that cannot synthesis their own food.
they are called consumer
 Feed on other organism
 Can be divided as herbivores, carnivores,
omnivores and decomposer
 Herbivores; animal that feed on vegetation.
E.g. caw, giraffe
 Carnivores; animal that feed on animal flesh.
E.g. Lion , cat
 Omnivores; animal that feed on b plant and
animal flesh. E.g. human ,rat
 Decomposers; organism that break down dead
bodies. E.g. bacteria, fungi

101 Genene.T
 Food chains
 Is a simple and direct feeding relation ship
 Involves the transfer of energy and nutrient from
one organism to another
 Energy flow from producer to consumer.
Producers Consumers
 Producers; first trophic level. Green plant
 Consumers can be
1. Primary consumer; second trophic level.
Herbivores and omnivores
2. Secondary consumer; third trophic level.
Herbivores and omnivores
3. Tertiary consumer; forth trophic level.
Carnivores
 Omnivores can occupy primary and secondary
consumer

102 Genene.T
 Food chains…..

 Decomposers are found at the end of food chain

 Grass Caw human
 Grass; first trophic level and producer
 Caw; second trophic level and primary
consumer
 Human; third trophic level and secondary
consumer

 Aquatic food chain start microscopic

photosynthetic organism known as
 Phytoplankton phytoplankton
zooplankton Fish Human

103 Genene.T
 Food web
 Is a complex feeding interrelation between organism
that consists many food chain
 The actual feeding relationships in a community

104 Genene.T
 Ecological pyramid
 Is a geographical representation designed to show the bio-
productivity At each trophic level in a given ecosystem
 Three type of ecological pyramid
1. Pyramid of number
2. Pyramid of biomass
3. Pyramid of energy
 Pyramid of number
 Pyramid made based on the number of organism in each
trophic level.
 In most ecosystem the number organism decrease from
producer to consumer

105 Genene.T
 Pyramid of number …
 Sometimes pyramid of number does not accurately reflect
ecological pyramid

106 Genene.T
 Pyramid of biomass
 Biomass; the total amount of organic matter
 Pyramid based on the dry mass of tissue of organism at
each trophic level
 The total amount of biomass decrease as we go from
producer to consumer
 At each trophic level biomass is lost by;
 Heat from respiration
 Urine, faces and to provide energy
 Limitation
 Gives equal value to tissue which differ in
 Chemical Composition and energy value

107 Genene.T
 Pyramid of energy
 Pyramid drown based on the amount energy
produce at each trophic level
 It gives the most accurate representation
ecological pyramid

108 Genene.T
 6.3 RECYCLING IN NATURE

 Nutrient ( carbon, nitrogen,

sulfur, and water) recycled

in an ecosystem between
organism and environment

 Decomposers ( bacteria

and fungi) play a huge role

in recycling

 Energy never recycling in

an ecosystem

109 Genene.T
 The nitrogen cycle
N2 Is the part of protein, amino acid, DNA ATP
1) Plant absorb nitrate from the soil and make amino acid
and protein
2) Animal obtains nitrogen by feeding of plant
3) Putrefying /amonifying/ bacteria; convert protein in dead
bodies and their execratory product into ammonia
4) Nitrifying bacteria ; ammonium ion is oxidize into
nitrates in two process 4a. Nitrosomonas 4b. Nitrobacter
5) Denitrifying bacteria; convert nitrates in soil into
elemental nitrogen, reduce the amount of nitrogen in the
soil
6) Nitrogen fixing bacteria; convert elemental nitrogen into
ammonium ion
 Legumes (Pea, bean); in the root nodules of many
legumes plant have symbiotically nitrogen fixing
bacteria called rhizobium, which have the ability to fix
nitrogen in the soil.

110 Genene.T
 Nitrogen cycle

111 Genene.T
 Carbon cycle
 Important process in carbon cycle
 photosynthesis; remove the amount carbon dioxide from the cycle
 respiration;
 combustions; increase the amount of carbon dioxide in the
atmosphere
 decomposition;
 Ozone; layer of the atmospheres that protect the earth from harmful
ultraviolet light from the sun
 Global warming; is the rising of temperature on earth’s surface as a
result of accumulation of green house gas like carbon dioxide and
methane
 Carbon dioxide CO2 ; Increase as a result of human activity
such as
 Combustion Burning of fissile fuel,
 Deforestation,
 Respiration
 Methane; It is increased in the atmosphere as a result of
 Growth of rice in swampy condition
 Digestive activity of cattle produce methane

112 Genene.T
 ADAPTATIONS
 Adaptations; features of organism develop which
make it possible for them to survive in a particular
habitat
 Animal in cold climate
 Reduce surface area to volume ratio, larger
size like seal, whales and polar beer in order to
prevent heat lost.
 Small extremities like ear to reduce heat loss.
E.g. polar beer
 Thick layer of fat under skin (blubber) to store
more internal heat
 Have thick fur coat on the outside will insulate
an animal

113 Genene.T
 Animal in dry climate
 The biggest challenge of animal live in desert
 Coping with the lack of water
 The rise of core body temperature
 Large surface area to volume ratio (small size) to loss
more heat
 Obtains water from the food they eat
 Lot of sweat produced in order to coal the body
 Active in early evening and late evening
 Big ear like fennec fox to loss heat faster
 Thin fur coat in order to loss heat

114 Genene.T
 Plant adaptation in desert

 Deep growing root system to absorb water

 Thick and fleshy stem, root to store more water
 Sunken and few stomata to reduce the amount of
water loss
 Thick waxy cuticle to reduce the amount of water loss
 Leaves are reduce to reduce transpiration
 Have curled leaves; these reduce the surface area of
the leaf and trap moist air around the leaf.

115 Genene.T
  Camouflage; is the ability of an animal to blend its
color into the surrounding environment to avoid
detection.
 Important both to predator (the prey does not see them
coming) and to prey ( they cannot be seen)
 Arctic fox change the grey and browns of their
summer coat into pure white in winter

116 Genene.T