LECTURE 4: NETWORK SYSTEMS DESIGN

Lecture four of Network Systems Design and Management looks at network design. The network
design problem is presented and what it entails. The network design goals namely functionality,
adaptability, manageability and scalability are presented and discussed in this lecture. The
various network design models (normally referred to as network topologies) are discussed here
as a review of what was covered in computer networks unit.

The network designer is responsible for solving the needs of the business with the technology of
the day. This requires knowledge of protocols, operating systems, departmental divisions in the
enterprise, and a host of other areas. The majority of network design projects require strong
communication skills, leadership, and research and organizational talents. Project management
experience can also greatly benefit the process, as most network design efforts will require
scheduling and budgeting with internal and external resources, including vendors, corporate
departments, service providers, and the other support and deployment organizations within the
enterprise.

4.2 Specific Objectives

At the end of the lesson you should be able to;
 Explain the network systems design goals.
 Explain LAN Design considerations
 Identify and explain the benefits of network system designs.
 Describe the different network design models/topologies.
 Explain the benefits of the three-tier network design architecture.

4.3 Lecture Outline

4.3.1 Overview of Network Systems Design

4.3.2 Network Design Goals
4.3.2.1 Scalability
4.3.2.2 Adaptability
4.3.2.3 Functionality
4.3.2.4 Manageability
4.3.3 LAN Design Considerations
4.3.4 Network Design Models
4.4 Lecture Activities
4.5 Self-test Questions
4.6 Summary
4.3.1 Overview of Network Systems Design
It has been stated that network design is 50 percent technology, 50 percent diplomacy, and 50
percent magic. In practice, network design is simply the implementation of a technical solution
to solve a nontechnical problem. Contrary to expectations, network design is not as basic as
configuring a router, although we will address this critical component. Rather network design is
a multifaceted effort to balance various constraints with objectives.

Network design encompasses three separate areas: conception, implementation, and review. It is
important to remember that each phase is unique and requires separate attention. The final phase
of network design – review – is perhaps more important than any other phase, as it provides
valuable information for future network designs and lessons for other projects. Designers who
meet the original metrics for the project usually find that the network is successful in meeting the
customer’s needs.

Each design, whether the simple addition of a subnet or the complete implementation of a new
international enterprise network, must address the same goals: scalability, adaptability, cost
control, manageability, predictability, simplicity of troubleshooting, and ease of implementation.
A good design will both address current needs while effectively accommodating future needs.
However, two constraints limit most designs’ ability to address these goals: time and money.
Typical network technology lasts only 24 to 60 months, while cabling and other equipment may
be expected to remain for over 15 years. The most significant constraint, though, will almost
always be financial.

The task to design a network can be a challenge as it involves more than just a connection of two
computers. A network requires many features in order to be reliable, manageable, and scalable.
To design reliable, manageable, and scalable networks, network designers must realize that each
of the major components of a network has distinct design requirements.

Network design has become more difficult despite improvements in equipment performance and
media capabilities. The use of multiple media types and LANs that interconnect with other
networks add to the complexity of the network environment. Good network designs improve
performance and also reduce the difficulties associated with network growth and evolution.

4.3.2 Network Design Goals

Network designers should strive to address a number of objectives in their designs. As you go
through these goals, you should focus on these goals and consider how they might relate to the
typical corporate environment. In addition, designers should pay specific attention to the
relationships between the design goals, noting that addressing one goal will frequently require
compromising another.
Critical to design is insuring a fast and stable network that will scale well as the organization
grows. Design steps are:
 Gather & establish design goals based on user requirements
 Determine data traffic patterns now & in the future
 Define Layer 1, 2, & 3 devices & the LAN/WAN topologies
 Document physical & logical network implementation

The network systems design goals are, generally, scalability, functionality, adaptability and
manageability.

4.3.2.1 Scalability
Scalability refers to an implementation’s ability to address the needs of an increasing number of
users. For example, a device with only two interfaces will likely not provide as much service
and, therefore, not be as scalable as a device with 20. Twenty interfaces will likely cost a great
deal more and will undoubtedly require greater amounts of rack space, and so scalability is often
governed by another goal—controlling costs. Architects are often challenged to maintain future-
proof designs while maintaining the budget.

Factors that augment scalability include high-capacity backbones, switching technology, and
modular designs. Additional considerations regarding scalability include the number of devices
in the network, CPU utilization, and memory availability. For example, a network with one
router is likely to be less scalable than a network with three, even if the three routers are
substantially smaller than the one.

In summary, Scalability is the ability of the network to grow. The initial design should grow
without any major changes to the overall design.

4.3.2.2 Adaptability
While similar to scalability, adaptability need not address an increase in the number of users. An
adaptable network is one that can accommodate new services without significant changes to the
existing structure, for example, adding voice services into the data network. Designers should
consider Asynchronous Transfer Mode (ATM) where the potential for this adaptive step exists.

For example, the possibility of adding voice service later would negate the use of Fiber
Distributed Data Interface (FDDI) in the initial network design. Making this determination
requires a certain amount of strategic planning, rather than a purely short-term tactical approach,
and could therefore make a network more efficient and cost-effective. However, this section is
not intended to advocate the use of any specific technology, but rather to show the benefits of an
adaptable network.
Adaptability - The network must be designed with a vision toward future technologies. The
network should not include elements that would limit implementation of new technologies as
they become available.

4.3.2.3 Functionality
Functionality - The network must work. The network must allow users to meet their job
requirements. The network must provide user-to-user and user-to-application connectivity with
reasonable speed and reliability.

A network designer must have the user needs at the back of his/her mind since a network exists
for users. They should be able to effectively and efficiently carry out their assignments with the
help of a well functioning network. The deployment of the right devices at the right places and
locations of the network, which media to use are some of the factors that would affect
functionality.

4.3.2.4 Manageability
Manageability as a design goal demands that the network should be designed to facilitate
network monitoring and management to ensure continuous stability of operation.

As the network grows and new users and devices are introduced, the network may need to be
monitored closely to ensure that it continues to offer the same quality of service.

4.3.3 LAN Design Considerations

Many organizations have upgraded their current LANs or plan to implement new LANs. This
expansion in LAN design is due to the development of high-speed technologies such as
Asynchronous Transfer Mode (ATM). This expansion is also due to complex LAN architectures
that use LAN switching and virtual LANs (VLANs).

To maximize available LAN bandwidth and performance, the following LAN design
considerations must be addressed:
 The function and placement of servers
 Collision domain issues
 Segmentation issues
 Broadcast domain issues
Servers allow network users to communicate, and share files, printers and application services.
Servers typically do not function as workstations. Servers run specialized operating systems,
such as NetWare, Windows NT, UNIX, and Linux. Each server is usually dedicated to one
function, such as e-mail or file sharing.

Servers can be categorized as either enterprise servers or workgroup servers. An enterprise server
supports all the users on the network as it offers services, such as e-mail or Domain Name
System (DNS). E-mail or DNS is a service that everyone in an organization needs because it is a
centralized function. A workgroup server supports a specific set of users and offers services such
as word processing and file sharing.

As seen in the figure below, enterprise servers should be placed in the main distribution facility
(MDF). Whenever possible, the traffic to enterprise servers should travel only to the MDF and
not be transmitted across other networks. However, some networks use a routed core or may
even have a server farm for the enterprise servers. In these cases, network traffic travels across
other networks and usually cannot be avoided. Ideally, workgroup servers should be placed in the
intermediate distribution facilities (IDFs) closest to the users who access the applications on
these servers. This allows traffic to travel the network infrastructure to an IDF, and does not
affect other users on that network segment. Layer 2 LAN switches located in the MDF and IDFs
should have 100 Mbps or more allocated to these servers.

Server Placement

Ethernet nodes use CSMA/CD. Each node must contend with all other nodes to access the shared
medium, or collision domain. If two nodes transmit at the same time, a collision occurs. When
collisions occur, the transmitted frame is destroyed, and a jam signal is sent to all nodes on the
segment. The nodes wait a random period of time, and then resend the data. Excessive collisions
can reduce the available bandwidth of a network segment to thirty-five or forty percent of the
available bandwidth.

Collision Domains
Segmentation is when a single collision domain is split into smaller collision domains. Smaller
collision domains reduce the number of collisions on a LAN segment, and allows for greater
utilization of bandwidth. Layer 2 devices such as bridges and switches can be used to segment a
LAN. Routers can achieve this at Layer 3.

A broadcast occurs when the destination media access control (MAC) address is set to FF-FF-
FF-FF-FF-FF. A broadcast domain refers to the set of devices that receive a broadcast data frame
that originates from any device within that set. All hosts that receive a broadcast data frame must
process it. This process consumes the resources and available bandwidth of the host. Layer 2
devices such as bridges and switches reduce the size of a collision domain. These devices do not
reduce the size of the broadcast domain. Routers reduce the size of the collision domain and the
size of the broadcast domain at Layer 3

Broadcast Domain

4.3.4 Network Design Models

The network design models provide an overview of the function and abilities of each theoretical
network design. The most common large network design, the three-tier approach, further defines
functions for each tier. To move from one tier to another, packets should traverse the intermediate
tier. Note that in this model the definitions are nowhere near as precise as they are in the OSI
model, but the model should be adhered to as closely as possible.
This section will first present some of the alternatives to the OSI model and end with a detailed
examination of the three-tier model. The caveats and guidelines for the three-tier approach will
be examined in more detail than the other approaches, but readers and designers should consider
the positive and negative impacts of each design.

4.3.4.1 The Flat Network Model

The flat network may assume many forms, and it is likely that most readers are very comfortable
with this design. In fact, most networks develop from this model.
A flat network contains no routers or Layer 3 awareness (Layer 3 of the OSI model). The
network is one large broadcast domain. This does not preclude the incorporation of switches or
bridges to isolate the collision domain boundaries and, depending upon the protocols in use, it
could support up to a few hundred stations. Unfortunately though, this design rarely scales to
support the demands of most networks in terms of users, flexibility, and security.
Performance may be only one concern. Typically, the need for access lists (ACLs) and other
benefits at Layer 3 in the OSI model will require the incorporation of routers. The flat network
model fails to address many of the important factors in network design—the most significant of
which is scalability. Consider the impact of a single network interface card (NIC) sending a
broadcast onto the network. At Layer 2, this broadcast would reach all stations. Should the NIC
experience a fault where it continued to send broadcasts as fast as possible, the entire network
would fail.

4.3.4.2 The Star Network Model

The traditional star topology typically meets the needs of a small company as it first expands to
new locations. A single router, located at the company’s headquarters, interconnects all the sites.
The figure below illustrates this design.

The star topology

The following list encompasses both the positive and negative aspects of such a topology, but the
negative aspects should be somewhat obvious:
 Low scalability
 Single point of failure
 Low cost
 Easy setup and administration
Star topologies are experiencing resurgence with the deployment of private remote networks,
including Digital Subscriber Line (DSL) and Frame Relay solutions. While the entire network
will likely mesh into another model, the remote portion of the network will use the star topology.
Note that the star topology is also called the hub-and-spoke model.

4.3.4.3 The Ring Network Model

The ring topology builds upon the star topology with a few significant modifications. This design
is typically used when a small company expands nationally and two sites are located close
together. The design improves upon the star topology, as shown in figure below.
 The ring topology
As you can see, the ring design eliminates one of the main negative aspects of the star topology.
In the ring model, a single circuit failure will not disconnect any location from the enterprise
network. However, the ring topology fails to address these other considerations:
 Low scalability
 No single point of failure
 Higher cost
 Complex setup and configuration
 Difficulty incorporating new locations
Consider the last bullet item in the list and how the network designer would add a fifth location
to the diagram. This is perhaps one of the most significant negative aspects of the design—a
circuit will need to be removed and two new circuits added for each new location. The figure
below illustrates this modification. Note that the thin line in Figure 1.3 denotes the ring
configuration before Location E was added.

Adding a site in the ring topology

While the ring topology addresses the redundancy portion of the network design criteria, it fails
to do so in an efficient manner. Therefore, its use is not recommended.
4.3.4.4 The Mesh Network Model
Mesh networks typically appear in one of two forms—full or partial. As their names imply, a full
mesh interconnects all resources, whereas a partial mesh interconnects only some resources. In
subsequent chapters, we will address some of the issues that impact partial-mesh
implementations, including split-horizon and multiple-router hops.
Examine the figures below (the full-mesh topology and the partial mesh topology) that illustrate
a full- and partial-mesh network topology, respectively.

The full-mesh topology

Clearly, the full-mesh topology offers the network designer many benefits. These include
redundancy and some scalability. However, the full-mesh network will also require a great deal
of financial support. The costs in a full mesh increase as the number of PVCs (permanent virtual
circuits) increases, which can eventually cause scalability problems.

The partial-mesh topology

Assume that a designer is architecting a seven-site solution. Under the hub-and-spoke model, a
total of six PVCs are needed (N-1). Under a full-mesh design, the number of PVCs equals 21
[N(N-1)/2]. For a small network without a well-defined central data repository, the costs may be
worth the effort. In larger networks, the full-mesh design is a good tool to consider, but the
associated costs and scalability issues frequently demand the use of other strategies.
The partial-mesh model does not constrain the designer with a predefined number of circuits per
nodes in the network, which permits some latitude in locating and provisioning circuits.
However, this flexibility can cause reliability and performance problems. The benefit is cost—
fewer circuits can support the entire enterprise while providing specific data paths for higher
priority connections.

4.3.4.5 The Two-Tier Network Model

The two-tier model shares many attributes with the partial-mesh model, but the design has some
additional benefits. This design typically evolves from the merger of two companies—each of
small size and using historical star topologies. However, the design may also merit use in the
initial deployment of a medium-sized network. Figure 1.6 illustrates the two-tier model. This
model is sometimes used in metropolitan settings where a number of buildings require
connectivity but only two buildings have WAN connections—this design reduces total costs yet
provides some redundancy. The two core installations in Figure 1.6 would incorporate the WAN
links.
Notice that the two-tier model introduces a single, significant point of failure: the link between
the primary locations. However, if designed for each side (east/west) to be independent of the
other, the model can work effectively.
This solution works best when both locations have strong support organizations and the expenses
associated with complete integration are high. Because of the limited connectivity between the
two primary sites and the lack of any other connections, this solution typically provides the
lowest cost and is the simplest approach. When a single core location is selected, the alternate
primary location can move to the distribution layer (explained in the next section) or can provide
a distributed core for redundancy.

The two-tier model

4.3.4.6 The Three-Tier (Hierarchical) Network Model
Most modern networks are designed around a form of the three-tier model. As shown in the
figure below, this network model defines three levels (functions) of the network: core,
distribution, and access. The highest level is the network core, which interconnects the
distribution layer resources. Access routers connect to the distribution layer moving up the model
and to workstations and other resources moving down the model.
This design affords a number of advantages, although the costs are greater than those for the
previous models. The biggest advantage to this design is scalability.

The three-tier model

Virtually all scalable networks follow the three-tier model for network design. This model is
particularly valuable when using hierarchical routing protocols and summarization, specifically
OSPF, but it is also helpful in reducing the impact of failures and changes in the network. The
design also simplifies implementation and troubleshooting, in addition to contributing to
predictability and manageability.
These benefits greatly augment the functionality of the network and the appropriateness of the
model to address network design goals. These benefits, which are typically incorporated in
hierarchical designs, are either not found inherently in the other models or not as easily included
in them. Following is a closer look at the benefits just mentioned:
 Scalability As shown in the previous models, scalability is frequently limited in network
designs that do not use the three-tier model. While there may still be limitations in the
hierarchical model, the separation of functions within the network provides natural
expansion points without significantly impacting other portions of the network.
 Easier implementation Because the hierarchical model divides the network into logical
and physical sections, designers find that the model lends itself to implementation. A
 setback in one section of the network build-out should not significantly impact the
remainder of the deployment. For example, while a delay in connecting a distribution
layer to the core would affect all of the downstream access layer nodes, the setback
would not preclude continued progress between the access layer and the distribution
layer. In addition, other distribution and access layers could be installed independently.
Project managers typically build out the core and distribution layers first in a new
deployment and then proceed with the access layer; however, if immediate service is
needed at the access layer, the designer may adopt a plan that focuses on that tier and then
interconnects with the infrastructure at a later time. This means that the designer may be
required to provide a connection between two locations that are remote—locations that
would typically be located in the access layer. When the core and distribution layers are
completed, the designer can move the circuits used for the temporary connection,
bringing the smaller network into the larger one. Better still, many architects try to place
the distribution in one of the two temporary link locations—reducing the expense and
providing a termination point for other access layer locations.
 Easier troubleshooting Given the logical layout of the model, hierarchical networks are
typically easier to troubleshoot than other networks of equal size and scope. Reducing the
possibility of routing loops further aids troubleshooting, and hierarchical designs
typically work to reduce the potential number of loops.
 Predictability Capacity planning is generally easier in the hierarchical model, since the
need for capacity usually increases as data moves toward the core. Akin to a tree, where
the trunk must carry more nutrients to feed the branches and leaves, the core links all the
other sections of the network and thus must have sufficient capacity to move data. In
addition, the core typically connects to the corporate data center via high-speed
connections to supply data to the various branches and remote locations.
 Manageability Hierarchically designed networks are usually easier to manage because of
these other benefits. Predictable data flows, scalability, independent implementations, and
simpler troubleshooting all simplify the management of the network.

The table below provides a summary of the functions defined by the hierarchical model.
TABLE: The Three Tiers of the Hierarchical Model

Tier Function
Core Typically inclusive of WAN links between geographically diverse locations, the
core layer is responsible for the high-speed transfer of data.
Distribution Usually implemented as a building or campus backbone or a limited private MAN
(metropolitan-area network), the distribution layer is responsible for providing
services to workgroups and departments. Policy is typically implemented at this
layer, including route filters and summarization and access lists. However, the
Cisco CID textbook answer for access lists is to place them in the access layer.
Access The access layer provides a control point for broadcasts and additional
administrative filters. The access layer is responsible for connecting users to the
network and is regarded as the proper location for access lists and other services.
 However, network designers will need to compare their needs with the constraints
of the model—it may make more sense to place an access list closer to the core,
for example. The rules regarding each model are intended to provide the best
performance and flexibility in a theoretical context.
It is very important that designers understand the significance of the model’s three tiers.
Therefore, let’s elaborate on the cursory definitions provided in the table above. For reference,
the figure below provides a logical view of the three-tier hierarchy.

Logical view of the hierarchical model

4.3.4.6.1 The Core Layer

In generic terms, a core refers to the center of an object. In network design, this concept is
expanded to mean the center of the network. Typically focused on the WAN implementation, the
network core layer is responsible for the rapid transfer of data and the interconnection of various
distribution and access layers. Therefore, the core routers typically do not have access lists or
other services that would reduce the efficiency of the network. The core layer should be designed
to have redundant paths and other fault-tolerance criteria. Without the core, all other areas would
be isolated. Convergence and load balancing should also be incorporated into the core design.
Note that servers, workstations, and other devices are typically not placed in the core.
The figure below illustrates the use of the core to interconnect three sites in the enterprise. This
core is composed of a WAN medium—possibly Frame Relay, ATM, or point-to-point links.
 The core layer

4.3.4.6.2 The Distribution Layer

In a pure three-tier model, the distribution layer serves as the campus backbone. The distribution
layer thus becomes a point in the network where policy and segregation may be implemented.
Typically, the distribution layer assumes the form of a campus backbone or MAN. Access lists
and other security functions are ideally placed in the distribution layer, and network
advertisements and other workgroup functions are ideally contained in this layer as well.
The final advantage of using this distribution layer design in the three-tier model is that it will
greatly simplify OSPF configurations. The network core becomes a natural area 0, while each
distribution router becomes an area border router between area 0 and other areas.

The hierarchical model with addressing

Designers should use the distribution layer with an eye toward failure scenarios as well. Ideally,
each distribution layer and its attached access layers should include its own DHCP (Dynamic
Host Configuration Protocol) and WINS (Windows Internet Naming Service) servers, for
example. Other critical network devices, such as e-mail and file servers, are also best included in
the distribution layer. This design promotes two significant benefits. First, the distribution layer
can continue to function in the event of core failure or other concerns. While the core should be
designed to be fault-tolerant, in reality, network changes, service failures, and other issues
demand that the designer develop a contingency plan in the event of its unavailability. Second,
most administrators prefer to have a number of servers for WINS and DHCP, for example. By
placing these services at the distribution layer, the number of devices is kept at a fairly low
number while logical divisions are established, all of which simplify administration.
4.3.4.6.3 The Access Layer
The network’s ultimate purpose is to interconnect users, which is how the access layer completes
the three-tier model. The access layer is responsible for connecting workgroups to backbones,
blocking broadcasts, and grouping users based on common functions and services. Logical
divisions are also maintained at the access layer. For example, dial-in services would be
connected to an access layer point, thus making the users all part of a logical group. Depending
on the network's overall size, it would likely be appropriate to place an authentication server for
remote users at this point, although a single centrally located server may also be appropriate if
fault tolerance is not required. It is helpful to think of the access layer as a leaf on a tree. Being
furthest from the trunk and attached only via a branch, the path between any two access layers
(leaves) is almost always the longest. The access layer is also the primary location for access lists
and other security implementations. However, as noted previously, this is a textbook answer.
Many designers use the distribution layer as an aggregation point for security implementations.

The Remaining Steps

 Implementing and Verifying the Design

 The design document should include a list of checks to be performed both during
the pilot or prototype phase and during the implementation, to ensure that the
network is functioning as required
 Monitoring and Redesigning the Network
 During operation, the network is constantly monitored and checked for errors and
problems. A network redesign might be required if troubleshooting problems
become too frequent or even impossible to manage.

4.4 Lecture Activities

 Review the network of your organization and report on the network topology that it
depicts.
 How big is the network? Does it span over more than one flour? Building?.
 Which devices have been deployed in this network?

 Was the a two-tier model or a three-tier model?.

 4.5 Self –Test Questions
 List and briefly explain the goals of network system design.
 What are the considerations that one needs to take into account when designing a
LAN?
 What makes the star network model a preferred model for implementing networks?
 Discuss the main benefits of implementing your network using the three-tier
architecture.

4.6 Summary
In this lesson we have learnt:
 Network systems design goals.
 About the considerations that need to be taken into account when designing LANs.
 About the benefits of network system designs.
 Different network design models/topologies.
 The benefits of the three-tier network design architecture.

4.7 Suggestion for Further Reading

The learner can read further by visiting the link provided below and reading the
literature presented:
http://www.scte.org/documents/pdf/CCNA4%20Sample.pdf