Chapter 1

Introduction
Data Communication
Data communication is a vital part of the information society because it provides the infrastructure
allowing the computers to communicate with one another. Data communications are the exchange of data
between two devices via some form of transmission medium such as a wired or wireless. For data
communications to occur, the communicating devices must be part of a communication system made up of
combination of hardware and software. The effectiveness of a data communications system depends on
four fundamental characteristics: delivery, accuracy and timeliness.

1. Delivery: The system must deliver data to the correct destination. Data must receive by
the intended device or user and only by that device or user.
2. Accuracy: The system must deliver the data accurately. Data that had altered in
transmission and left uncorrected are unusable.
3. Timeliness: The system must deliver data in a timely manner. Data delivered late are
useless. Data delivering in the same order that they produced, and without significant
delay. This kind of delivery is called real-time transmission.
4. Jitter: Jitter refers to the variation in the packet arrival time. It is the uneven delay in
the delivery of audio or video packets. For example, let us assume that video packets is
sent every 3D Ms. If some of the packets arrive with 3D-ms delay and others with 4D-
ms de-lay, an uneven quality in the video is the result.
Data Representation
Information today comes in different forms such as text, numbers, images, audio, and video.

Text: - In data communications, text is represented as a bit pattern, a sequence of bits (Os
or 1s). Different sets of bit patterns have been design to represent text symbols. Each set a
called a code, and the process of representing symbols is called coding. Today, the
prevalent coding system is called Unicode, which uses 32 bits to represent a symbol or
character used in any language in the world. The American Standard Code for Information
Interchange (ASCII) developed some decades ago in the United States, now constitutes the
first 127 characters in Unicode and referred to as Basic Latin.

Numbers: - Numbers are also represented by bit patterns. However, a code such as ASCII
is not use to represent numbers; the number directly converted to a binary number to
simplify mathematical operations.

Images: - Images are also represented by bit patterns. In its simplest form, an image is
composed of a matrix of pixels (picture elements), where each pixel is a small dot. The size
of the pixel depends on the resolution. For example, an image can be divided in-to 1000
pixels or 10,000 pixels. In the second case, there is a better representation of the image
(better resolution), but more memory is needed to store the image. After an image is divided
into pixels, each pixel is assigned a bit pattern. The size and the value of the pattern depend
 on the image. For an image made of only black and white dots (e.g., a chessboard), a I-bit
pattern is enough to represent a pixel. If an image is not made of pure white and pure black
pixels, you can increase the light gray pixel by 10, and a white pixel by 11. There are
several methods to represent color images. One method is called RGB, so called because
each color is made of a combination of three primary colors: red, green, and blue. The
intensity of each color is measured, and a bit pattern is assigned to it. Another method is
YCM, in which a color is made of a combination of three other primary colors: yellow,
cyan, and magenta.

Audio: - Audio refers to the recording or broadcasting of sound or music. Audio is by

nature different from text, numbers, or images. It is continuous, not discrete. Even when
we use a microphone to change voice or music to an electric signal, we create a continuous
signal.

Video: - Video refers to the recording or broadcasting of a picture or movie. Video can
either be produced as a continuous entity (e.g., by a TV camera), or it can be a combination
of images, each a discrete entity, arranged to convey the idea of motion. Again, we can
change video to a digital or an analog signal.
1.1 Evolution of Data Communications Systems

1837 - Samuel Morse exhibited a working Telegraph, According to the History of

computing has its earliest roots in telegraph systems. An account of data communication
history posted by telecommunications experts at general telecom, LLC also points to a
telegraph patent that inventor Charles Wheatstone filed that same year.
1843- Alexander Bain patented a Printing Telegraph, Telegraph service used by the
Great western Railway, an endorsement that allowed the service to expand across the
nation.
1876 - Improving on the telegraph, according to the History of Computing, Alexander
Graham Bell introduce the Telephone.
1895 - The development of early telecommunications The Radio is invention by
Guglielmo Marconi, and it is make great developments in communication technology.
1947 - The Transistor introduced by Bells Labs, This is a device that found integration
in myriad subsequent electronic products.
1958 These technologies are expanded by US government with its launch of a
Communications-oriented satellite, and the first facsimile transmission over standard
telephone lines occurred four years later.
1962 - After the first Fax Transmission, the modulation of data into sound for transmission
across telephone lines spread in popularity for several years. However,
modulation/demodulation, or modem, technology continued to carry slower data traffic for
the remainder of the 20th century.
1969 According to the History of Computing, the development of Internet Protocol (IP)
marked a significant milestone in data communication history. Within the following
decades, early packet communication technologies like ATM, Frame Relay and Integrated
 Services Digital Network (ISDN) emerged as a viable solution for commercial and high-
end residential data needs.
1991 More than 1 Million servers had come online using Internet Protocol Technology,
and the World Wide Web emerged as the primary component of the Internet by the mid-
1990s.
Basic Communication Model

Figure 1.1 Simple Communication model

The fundamental purpose of a communications system is the exchange of data between two parties.
Figure presents one particular example, which is the communication between a workstation and a server
over a public telephone network. Another example is the exchange of voice signals between two telephones
over the same network. The key elements of the model are:
A Communication system has following components:

1. Message: It is the information or data to be share. It can consist of text, numbers, pictures,
sound, video, or any combination of these.
2. Sender: The device/computer generates and sends that message.
3. Receiver: is the device or computer that receives the message. The location of receiver
computer is generally different from the sender computer. The distance between sender and
receiver depends upon the types of network used in between.
4. Medium: It is the channel or physical path through which the message carried from sender to
the receiver. The medium can be wired as if twisted pair wire, coaxial cable, fiber-optic cable
or wireless like laser, radio waves, and microwaves.
5. Protocol: It is a set of rules that is govern while the communication occur between the devices.
Both sender and receiver follow same protocols to communicate with each other.
A protocol performs the following functions:

1. Data sequencing: It refers to breaking a long message into smaller packets of fixed size. Data
sequencing rules define the method of numbering packets to detect loss or du-plication of
packets, to identify correctly the packets, which belong to same message.
2. Data routing: Data routing defines the most efficient path between the source and destination.
3. Data formatting: Data formatting rules define which group of bits or characters within packet
constitute data, control, addressing, or other information.
4. Flow control: A communication protocol also prevents a fast sender from overwhelming a
slow receiver. It ensures resource sharing and protection against traffic congestion by
regulating the flow of data on communication lines.
5. Error control: These rules designed to detect errors in messages and to ensure transmission
of correct messages. The most common method is to retransmit erroneous message block. In
such a case, a block having error discarded by the receiver and is re-transmitted by the sender.
6. Precedence and order of transmission: These rules ensure that all the nodes get a chance to
use the communication lines and other resources of the network based on the priorities
assigned to them.
7. Connection establishment and termination: These rules define how connections are
established, maintained and terminated when two nodes of a network want to communicate
with each other.
8. Data security: Providing data security and privacy built into most communication software
packages. It prevents access of data by unauthorized users.
9. Log information: Several communication software designed to develop log information,
which consists of all jobs and data communications tasks that have taken place. Such
information may be use for charging the users of the network based on their usage of the
network resources.

1.2 Analog and Digital Data Transmission, Data Communication Terminology

An Analog signal is any continuous signal for which the time varying feature (variable) of the
signal is a representation of some other time varying quantity, i.e., analogous to another time varying signal.
It differs from a digital signal in terms of small fluctuations in the signal, which are meaningful.
A digital signal uses discrete (discontinuous) values. By contrast, non-digital (or analog) systems
use a continuous range of values to represent information. Although digital representations are discrete, the
information represented can be either discrete, such as numbers or letters, or continuous, such as sounds,
images, and other measurements of continuous systems.

Figure1.2: Analog and Digital Signal

Analog and digital signals used to transmit information, usually through electric signals. In both
these technologies, the information, such as any audio or video, transformed into electric signals. The
difference between analog and digital technologies is that in analog technology, information translated into
electric pulses of varying amplitude. In digital technology, translation of information is into binary format
(zero or one) where each bit is representative of two distinct amplitudes.
Properties of Digital vs Analog signals
Digital information has certain properties that distinguish it from analog communication methods. These
include

Synchronization digital communication uses specific synchronization sequences for

determining synchronization.
Language digital communications requires a language, which should be possess by both
sender and receiver and should specify meaning of symbol sequences.
Errors disturbances in analog communication causes errors in actual intended
communication but disturbances in digital communication does not cause errors enabling
error free communication. Errors should be able to substitute, insert or delete symbols to
be expressed.
Copying analog communication copies are quality wise not as good as their originals
while due to error free digital communication, copies can be made indefinitely.
Granularity for a continuously variable analog value to be represented in digital form
there occur quantization error which is difference in actual analog value and digital
representation and this property of digital communication is known as granularity.
Differences in Usage in Equipment
Many devices come with built in translation facilities from analog to digital. Microphones and
speaker are perfect examples of analog devices. Analog technology is cheaper but there is a limitation of
size of data that can be transmitted at a given time.
Digital technology has revolutionized the way most of the equipment's work. Data is converted into
binary code and then reassembled back into original form at reception point. Since these can be easily
manipulated, it offers a wider range of options. Digital equipment is more expensive than analog equipment.
Comparison of Analog vs Digital Quality
Digital devices translate and reassemble data and in the process are more prone to loss of quality
as compared to analog devices. Computer advancement has enabled use of error detection and error
correction techniques to remove disturbances artificially from digital signals and improve quality.
Differences in Applications
Digital technology has been most efficient in cellular phone industry. Analog phones have become
redundant even though sound clarity and quality was good.
Analog technology comprises of natural signals like human speech. With digital technology, this
human speech can be saved and stored in a computer. Thus, digital technology opens up the horizon for
endless possible uses.

Data Communication Terminology

 Data Channel: -In this medium data carries from one point to another point.
Baud: - Each communication channel has certain capacity and it can carry information up
to that extent only. This capacity measured in terms of Baud.
Bits per Second: -The speed at which data transferred between two points measured in
terms of Bits per Second or bps.
bps bits per second,
Bps Bytes per second (Note capital B)
Bandwidth The amount of data a communication system can transfer per unit time
referred as Bandwidth of the system. Bandwidth simply indicates the data transfer rate. The
more the data needed to be transmitted in the given unit time the more should be the
bandwidth. Alternatively, it can be said that more the bandwidth of the communication
system more will be the data transfer rate. Bandwidth measured in bps or Baud. Generally,
a Baud is identical to bits per second. A rate of 100 Baud is equal to 100 bps.
In digital context, the level of bandwidth falls into three category:
Narrowband Speed of narrowband varies between 45 to 300 Baud. Low speed
devices use this narrowband channels.
Voice-band- Speed of voice-band channels ranges up to 9600 Baud. They are
generally use in the ordinary telephone voice communication.
Broadband The speed of broadband channels ranges up to 1 million Baud or more.
High-speed devices use broadband for large volume of data transfer at high rate.
Broadcast television, microwave and satellite uses broadband channel.
Data Transfer Rates: - The amount of data transferred per second by a communication
channel is known as data transfer rate. It is measure in bits per second (bps).
1.3 Standard Organizations
An association of organizations, governments, manufacturers and users form the standards
organizations and are responsible for developing, coordinating and maintaining the standards .The purpose
is that all data communications equipment are manufacturers and users comply with these standards. The
primary standards organizations for data communication are:

1. International Standard Organization (ISO)

ISO is the international organization for standardization on a wide range of subjects.
It is comprised mainly of members from the standards committee of various governments
throughout the world. It is even responsible for developing models, which provides high
level of system compatibility, quality enhancement, improved productivity and reduced
costs. The ISO is also responsible for endorsing and coordinating the work of the other
standards organizations.
2. International Telecommunications Union-Telecommunication Sector (ITU-T)
ITU-T is one of the four permanent parts of the International Telecommunications Union
based in Geneva, Switzerland. It has developed three sets of specifications: the V series for modem
interfacing and data transmission over telephone lines, the X series for data transmission over
public digital networks, email and directory services; the I and Q series for Integrated Services
Digital Network (ISDN) and its extension Broadband ISDN. ITU-T membership consists of
 government authorities and representatives from many countries and it is the present standards
organization for the United Nations.

3. Institute of Electrical and Electronics Engineers (IEEE)

IEEE is an international professional organization founded in United States and is
comprised of
largest professional society with over 200,000 members. It develops communication and
information processing standards with the underlying goal of advancing theory, creativity, and
product quality in any field related to electrical engineering.

4. American National Standards Institute (ANSI)

ANSI is the official standards agency for the United States and is the U.S voting
representative for the ISO. ANSI is a completely private, non-profit organization comprised of
equipment manufacturers and users of data processing equipment and services. ANSI membership
is comprised of people form professional societies, industry associations, governmental and
regulatory bodies, and consumer goods.

5. Electronics Industry Association (EIA)

EIA is a non-profit U.S. trade association that establishes and recommends industrial
standards. EIA activities include standards development, increasing public awareness, and
lobbying and it is responsible for developing the RS (recommended standard) series of standards
for data and communications.

6. Telecommunications Industry Association (TIA)

TIA is the leading trade association in the communications and information technology
industry. It facilitates business development opportunities through market development, trade
promotion, trade shows, and standards development. It represents manufacturers of
communications and information technology products and facilitates the convergence of new
communications networks.

7. Internet Architecture Board (IAB)

IAB earlier known as Internet Activities Board is a committee created by ARPA (Advanced
Research Projects Agency) to analyze the activities of ARPANET whose purpose is to accelerate
the advancement of technologies useful for U.S military. IAB is a technical advisory group of the
Internet Society and its responsibilities are:

i. Oversees the architecture protocols and procedures used by the Internet.

ii. Manages the processes used to create Internet Standards and serves as an appeal
board for complaints regarding improper execution of standardization process.
iii. Responsible for administration of the various Internet assigned numbers
iv. Acts as a representative for Internet Society interest in liaison relationships with
other organizations.
v. Acts as a source of advice and guidance to the board of trustees and officers of
Internet Society concerning various aspects of internet and its technologies.
8. Internet Engineering Task Force (IETF)
 The IETF is a large international community of network designers, operators, vendors and
researchers concerned with the evolution of the Internet architecture and smooth operation of the
Internet.

9. Internet Research Task Force (IRTF)

The IRTF promotes research of importance to the evolution of the future Internet by
creating focused, long-term and small research groups working on topics related to Internet
protocols, applications, architecture and technology.
Applications

Airline reservation system

American airline: Sabre system
United airline: Apollo reservation system
Automatic teller machine
Swift: Society for Worldwide Interbank Financial Telecommunication
Sales order entry
Point of sale
Universal product code
Unstructured data application
Electronic mail
Ownership of content
Simple mail transfer protocol (SMTP)
No foreign characters
No executable files
Limited size
Multipurpose Internet mail extensions (MIME)

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 Chapter 2
Data Transmission

Data Transmission

Data transmission refers to the process of transferring data between two or more digital
devices. Data is transmitted from one device to another in analog or digital format. Basically,
data transmission enables devices or components within devices to speak to each other.

Figure 2.1: Data Transmission Classification

2.1 Parallel and Serial Transmission

How does data transmission work between digital devices?

Data is transferred in the form of bits between two or more digital devices. There are two
methods used to transmit data between digital devices: serial transmission and parallel
transmission. Serial data transmission sends data bits one after another over a single channel.
Parallel data transmission sends multiple data bits at the same time over multiple channels.

Serial Transmission

When data is sent or received using serial data transmission, the data bits are organized in a specific
order, since they can only be sent one after another. The order of the data bits is important as it
dictates how the transmission is organized when it is received. It is viewed as a reliable data
transmission method because a data bit is only sent if the previous data bit has already been
received.
 Figure 2.2: Serial Data Transmission
Serial transmission has two classifications: asynchronous and synchronous.

1. Asynchronous Serial Transmission

Data bits can be sent at any point in time. Stop bits and start bits are used between data bytes to
synchronize the transmitter and receiver and to ensure that the data is transmitted correctly. The
time between sending and receiving data bits is not constant, so gaps are used to provide time
between transmissions.

Figure2.3: Asynchronous Serial Transmission

The advantage of using the asynchronous method is that no synchronization is required between
the transmitter and receiver devices. It is also a more cost effective method. A disadvantage is that
data transmission can be slower, but this is not always the case.

Advantages of Asynchronous transmission

i. This method of data transmission is cheaper in cost as compared to synchronous e.g. If
lines are short, asynchronous transmission is better, because line cost would be low and
idle time will not be expensive.
 ii. In this approach each individual character is complete in itself, therefore if character is
corrupted during transmission, its successor and predecessor character will not be affected.
iii. It is possible to transmit signals from sources having different bit rates.
iv. The transmission can start as soon as data byte to be transmitted becomes available.
v. Moreover, this mode of data transmission in easy to implement.

Disadvantages of asynchronous transmission

i. This method is less efficient and slower than synchronous transmission due to the overhead
of extra bits and insertion of gaps into bit stream.
ii. Successful transmission inevitably depends on the recognition of the start bits. These bits
can be missed or corrupted.

2. Synchronous Serial Transmission

Data bits are transmitted as a continuous stream in time with a master clock. The data transmitter
and receiver both operate using a synchronized clock frequency; therefore, start bits, stop bits, and
gaps are not used. This means that data moves faster and timing errors are less frequent because
the transmitter and receiver time is synced. However, data accuracy is highly dependent on timing
being synced correctly between devices. In comparison with asynchronous serial transmission, this
method is usually more expensive.

Figure 2.4: Synchronous serial transmission

Application of Synchronous transmission

i. Synchronous transmission is used for high speed communication between computers.
Advantage of Synchronous transmission
i. This method is faster as compared to asynchronous as there are no extra bits (start bit &
stop bit) and also there is no gap between the individual data bytes.
Disadvantages of Synchronous transmission
i. It is costly as compared to asynchronous method. It requires local buffer storage at the
two ends of line to assemble blocks and it also requires accurately synchronized clocks at
both ends. This lead to increase in the cost.
ii. The sender and receiver have to operate at the same clock frequency. This requires proper
synchronization which makes the system complicated.

When is serial transmission used to send data?

 Serial transmission is normally used for long-distance data transfer. It is also used in cases
where the amount of data being sent is relatively small. It ensures that data integrity is maintained
as it transmits the data bits in a specific order, one after another. In this way, data bits are received
in-sync with one another.

Parallel Transmission

When data is sent using parallel data transmission, multiple data bits are transmitted over multiple
channels at the same time. This means that data can be sent much faster than using serial
transmission methods.

Figure 2.5: Parallel Transmission

Given that multiple bits are sent over multiple channels at the same time, the order in which a bit
string is received can depend on various conditions, such as proximity to the data source, user
location, and bandwidth availability. Two examples of parallel interfaces can be seen below. In
the first parallel interface, the data is sent and received in the correct order. In the second parallel
interface, the data is sent in the correct order, but some bits were received faster than others.

Figure 2.6: Example of Parallel Transmission Data Received Correctly

Figure 2.7: Example of Parallel Transmission Data Received Incorrectly

Advantages and Disadvantages of Using Parallel Data Transmission

The main advantages of parallel transmission over serial transmission are:
It is easier to program.
Data is sent faster.
Although parallel transmission can transfer data faster, it requires more transmission channels than
serial transmission. This means that data bits can be out of sync, depending on transfer distance
and how fast each bit loads. A simple of example of where this can be seen is with a voice over IP
(VOIP) call when distortion or interference is noticeable. It can also be seen when there is skipping
or interference on a video stream.

When is parallel transmission used to send data?

Parallel transmission is used when:
A large amount of data is being sent.
The data being sent is time-sensitive.
And the data needs to be sent quickly.
A scenario where parallel transmission is used to send data is video streaming. When a video is
streamed to a viewer, bits need to be received quickly to prevent a video pausing or buffering.
Video streaming also requires the transmission of large volumes of data. The data being sent is
also time-sensitive as slow data streams result in poor viewer experience.

2.2 Line Configuration

A link is a communication pathway that transfer data from one device to another. Devices can
be a computer, printer or any other device that is capable to send and receive data. For visualization
purpose, imagine any link as a line drawn between two points.
For communication to occur, two devices must be connected in some way to the same link at the
same time. There are two possible types of connections:
Point-to-Point Connection
Multipoint Connection

Point-to-Point Connection :
A point-to-point connection provides a dedicated link between two devices. The entire capacity
of the link is reserved for transmission between those two devices. Most point-to-point connections
use a actual length of wire or cable to connect the two end, but other options such as microwave
or satellite links are also possible. Point to point network topology is considered to be one of the
easiest and most conventional network topologies. It is also the simplest to establish and
understand. e.g TV and Remote.
 Figure 2.8: Point to Point Protocol

Multipoint Connection :
It is also called Multidrop configuration. In this connection two or more devices share a single
link. More than two devices share the link that is the capacity of the channel is shared now. With
shared capacity, there can be two possibilities in a Multipoint Line configuration:
Spatial Sharing: If several devices can share the link simultaneously, its called Spatially
shared line configuration.
Temporal (Time) Sharing: If users must take turns using the link , then its called
Temporally shared or Time Shared Line configuration.

Figure 2.9: Multipoint Protocol (Temporal Sharing)

2.3 Bit Rate/ Baud Rate, Transmission Channel, RS-232C and RS-449 Interface
Standards

Bit Rate/Baud Rate

 Bit rate and Baud rate are generally used in data communication,
Bit rate is the transmission of number of bits per second. On the other hand, Baud rate is
defined as the number of signal units per second. The formula which relates both bit rate and baud
rate is given below:

Bit rate = Baud rate x the number of bit per baud.

Difference between bit rate and baud rate

1. Bit rate is defined as the transmission of number of bits per second where as Baud rate is
defined as the number of signal units per second.
2. Bit rate is also defined as per second travel number of bits where as Baud rate is also
defined as per second number of changes in signal.
3. Bit rate emphasized on computer efficiency While baud rate emphasized on data
transmission.
4. The formula of Bit Rate is:- baud rate x the number of bit per baud
5. The formula of Baud Rate is:- bit rate / the number of bit per baud

Transmission Channels

The data transmission channels is needed for data transmission. These can be Guided Channels
or Unguided Channels.

Guided Media:
Guided media use a physical connection between two devices. The waves are guided along a
physical path over the medium. A signal has to travel within the physical limits of the guided
medium. These may be:

Twisted Pair Cable: Twisted pair cable is a cable, which is made by intertwining two
separate insulated wires together. A twisted pair cable consists of two conductors, which
are normally made of copper. This pair has a bandwidth to distance ratio of about 1 MHz
per kilometer. These are of two types: shielded and un-shielded. Shielded Twisted Pair
(STP) has a fine wire mesh surrounding the wires, which helps to protect the transmission
Unshielded Twisted Pair (UTP) does not have, that mesh. Shielded cable used in older
telephone networks, network, and data communications to reduce outside interference.

Optical Fiber: Optical fiber cable is a cable made of optical fibers that can transmit large
amounts of information at the speed of light. It is a medium and the technology associated
with the transmission of information as light pulses along a glass or plastic strand. Optical
fiber carries much more information than conventional copper wire. In one cable, there are
many optical fibers. The glass fiber requires more protection within an outer cable than
copper. It consists of two concentric cylinders: an inner core and a cladding used to
surround the core. These are made of transparent plastic or glass material. The density of
the core and cladding must be such to be helpful to reflect the beam of light. The core
guides the beam and cladding prevents it. A laser or Light Emitting Diode (LED) usually
generates the signal. The speed of data transfer is high. Due to high speed and little
disturbance, these being used rapidly in telecommunications.
 Advantages of Optical Fiber
Higher Bandwidth helps data at a higher rate.
Less signal attenuation.
Immunity to electromagnetic interface.
Lightweight.
Limitations of Optical Fiber
It needs experts to install it and provide maintenance.
Being unidirectional needs two fibers for bi-directional communication.
Cost factor is high.

Unguided Media
Unguided media transfers the signals through wireless medium. It transports electromagnetic
waves in the air, which received by the devices to catch them. These can be:

Radio Waves: Radio waves are an invisible form of electromagnetic radiation, and it is
one of the widest ranges in the electromagnetic spectrum. A radio wave is an
electromagnetic wave propagated by an antenna. The frequency ranges from 3 Kilo-Hertz
to 1 Giga-Hertz. These can travel in any direction and easy to produce waves. It eliminates
the cost of physical medium and is very useful for long distanced communication. These
are of a very long wavelength, such as thousands of meters, tend to travel along the surface
of the earth and even penetrate into the water. These are useful for communication with
submarines and for broadcasting time signals, radio broadcast, cellular telephones, etc.
Each communication service uses a part of the spectrum that is suitable for its needs. These
days' cellular radios are used to provide mobile phone networks. These operate in the VHF
(Very High Frequency) band. These help in multi casting, which means it, transmit a signal
for specific group, which may be more than one. These used in FM radios, cordless phones,
etc. A communication between single source and destination known as unicast and if there
are many receivers to catch the signals sent by sender at any destination, it is called
broadcast.

Bluetooth: Bluetooth is used to send and receive data over short distance in mobile and
related technology. A Bluetooth connection is wireless and automatic, and it has a number
of interesting features that can simplify our daily lives.

Microwaves: Microwaves are radio frequencies, which ranges between about 1 GHz (one
gigahertz) to about 300 GHz. It may be defined as a short electromagnetic wave (longer
than infrared but shorter than radio waves) used for radar and ovens and for transmitting
telephone, facsimile video and data. These are unidirectional waves and hence have less
interference by a pair of aligned antenna to another. Uses of Microwave are radio
transmission, telecommunication carriers and TV stations.

Satellite is another form of microwave system. Repeaters present in the sky supplement it.
Satellites have a high bandwidth and can support variety of channels. It has some
limitations such as:
High set up cost.
The lifetime is limited.
 These waves cannot be receive inside the building.

RS-232C

RS-232C is a long-established standard ("C" is the current version) that describes the
physical interface and protocol for relatively low-speed serial data communication between
computers and related devices.
An industry trade group, the Electronic Industries Association (EIA), defined it originally
for teletypewriter devices.
RS-232C is the interface that your computer uses to talk to and exchange data with your
modem and other serial devices.
Somewhere in your PC, typically on a Universal Asynchronous - Receiver/Transmitter
(UART) chip on your motherboard, the data from your computer is transmitted to an
internal or external modem (or other serial device) from its Data Terminal Equipment
(DTE) interface.
Since data in your computer flows along parallel circuits and serial devices can handle only
one bit at a time, the UART chip converts the groups of bits in parallel to a serial stream
of bits.
As your PC's DTE agent, it also communicates with the modem or other serial de-vice,
which, in accordance with the RS-232C standard, has a complementary inter-face called
the Data Communications Equipment (DCE) interface.
One of the advantages of a serial system is that it lends itself to transmission over tele-
phone lines.
The serial digital data can be converted by modem, placed onto a standard voice-grade
telephone line, and converted back to serial digital data at the receiving end of the line by
another modem.

communication eq
This definition defines data terminal equipment, as the equipment is the modem.
A modem cable has pin-to-pin connections and designed to connect DTE device to a DCE
device.
The RS-232C standard is an asynchronous serial communication method.
Serial means that the information is sent 1-bit at a time.
Asynchronous means that no clock signal is sent with the data. Each side uses its own
clock and a start and stop bit. Synchronous communication means that a clock signal is
sent in addition to a data signal.
The RS-232C standard works at the physical layer of the communication standard. This is
the lowest level and the one that physically connects the devices.
The communication is done through the serial port of the PC. This is a male connector with
25 (old) or 9 (new) pins, in both cases only 9 pins, at the most, are used.
 Figure 2.30: Connection between DCE to DTE

Interface Standards:
In telecommunications, an interface standard is a standard that describes one or more
functional characteristics (such as code conversion, line assignments, or protocol
compliance) or physical characteristics (such as electrical, mechanical, or optical
characteristics) necessary to allow the exchange of information between two or more
(usually different) systems or pieces of equipment.
An interface standard may include operational characteristics and acceptable levels of
performance.
In the military community, interface standards permit command and control functions to
be performed using communication and computer systems.

RS 449 Interface
Is able to send data at high Speed without stray noise causing interference is to use a
differential form of signaling.
As the RS449 receivers use a differential input, and they are not reference to ground, any
noise that is pick up does not affect the input.
This means that higher levels of noise can be tolerate without any degradation to the
performance to the data communications system.
For the RS449 interface, ten additional circuits' functions have been provided when
compared to RS232.
In addition to this the RS449 interface requires the use of 37 way D-type connectors and
9 way D-type connectors, the latter being necessary when use is made of the secondary
channel interchange circuits.

Transmission Modes

Transmission mode means transferring of data between two devices. It is also known as
communication mode. Buses and networks are design to allow communication to occur between
individual devices that are interconnected. There are three types of transmission mode:
Simplex Mode
Half-Duplex Mode
Full-Duplex Mode
 Figure 4.11: Types of Transmission Modes

Simplex Mode
In Simplex mode, the communication is unidirectional, as on a one-way street. Only one
of the two devices on a link can transmit, the other can only receive. The simplex mode
can use the entire capacity of the channel to send data in one direction.
Example: Keyboard and traditional monitors. The keyboard can only introduce input; the
monitor can only give the output.

Figure 2.12: Simplex

Half-Duplex Mode
In half-duplex mode, each station can both transmit and receive, but not at the same time.
When one device is sending, the other can only receive, and vice versa. The half-duplex
mode is used in cases where there is no need for communication in both direction at the
same time. The entire capacity of the channel can be utilized for each direction. Example:
Walkie- talkie in which message is sent one at a time and messages are sent in both the
directions.
 Figure 2.15: Half- Duplex

Full-Duplex Mode
In full-duplex mode, both stations can transmit and receive simultaneously. In full duplex
mode, signals going in one direction share the capacity of the link with signals going in
other direction, this sharing can occur in two ways:
Either the link must contain two physically separate transmission paths, one
for sending and other for receiving.
Alternatively, the capacity is divided between signals travelling in both
directions.
Full-duplex mode is use when communication in both direction is required all the time. The
capacity of the channel however must be divided between the two directions.
Example: Telephone Network in which there is communication between two persons by a
telephone line, through which both can talk and listen at the same time.

Figure2.16: Full Duplex

********************
 Chapter 3
Signals and Systems

Signals
The signal. Stated in mathematical terms, a signal is merely a function. Analog signals are
continuous-valued; digital signals are discrete-valued. The independent variable of the signal could be time
(speech, for example), space (images), or the integers (denoting the sequencing of letters and numbers in
the football score).
Signals are classified into the following categories:

Continuous Time and Discrete Time Signals

Deterministic and Non-deterministic Signals
Even and Odd Signals
Periodic and Aperiodic Signals
Energy and Power Signals
Real and Imaginary Signals
i. Continuous Time and Discrete Time Signals
A signal said to be continuous when it is define for all instants of time.

Figure3.7: Continuous Signal

A signal is said to be discrete when it is defined at only discrete instants of time/

Figure3.8: Discrete Signal

ii. Deterministic and Non-deterministic Signals
 A signal is said to be deterministic if there is no uncertainty with respect to its value at any
instant of time. Or, signals which can be defined exactly by a mathematical formula are known as
deterministic signals.

Figure 3.9: Deterministic Signal

A signal is said to be non-deterministic if there is uncertainty with respect to its value at
some instant of time. Non-deterministic signals are random in nature hence they are called random
signals. Random signals cannot be describe by a mathematical equation. They are model in
probabilistic terms.

Figure3.10: Non-Deterministic Signal

iii. Even and Odd Signals

A signal is said to be even when it satisfies the condition x(t) = x(-t)
Example 1:
Let x(t) = t2
x(-t) = (-t)2 = t2 = x(t)
, t2 is even function

Example 2: As shown in the following diagram, rectangle function x(t) = x(-t) so it is also even
function.
 Figure3.11: Even and Odd Signals
A signal is said to be odd when it satisfies the condition x(t) = -x(-t)

Example 3: t, t3 ... And sin t

Let x(t) = sin t
x(-t) = sin(-t) = -sin t = -x(t)
, sin t is odd function.

e(t) and odd function o(t).

e 0(t )
where

e -t )]

iv. Periodic and Aperiodic Signals

A signal is said to be periodic if it satisfies the condition
x(t) = x(t + T) or x(n) = x(n + N).
Where
T = fundamental time period,
1/T = f = fundamental frequency.
 Figure3. 12: Periodic and aperiodic signals
The above signal will repeat for every time interval T0 hence it is periodic with period T0.

v. Energy and Power Signals

A signal is said to be energy signal when it has finite energy.

Energy E=

A signal is said to be power signal when it has finite power.

Power P=

NOTE: A signal cannot be both, energy and power simultaneously. In addition, a signal may be
neither energy nor power signal.
Power of energy signal = 0
Energy of power signal

vi. Real and Imaginary Signals

A signal is said to be real when it satisfies the condition x(t) = x*(t)
A signal is said to be odd when it satisfies the condition x(t) = -x*(t)
Example:
If x(t)= 3 then x*(t)=3*=3 here x(t) is a real signal.
If x(t)= 3j then x*(t)=3j* = -3j = -x(t) hence x(t) is a odd signal.

Note: For a real signal, imaginary part should be zero. Similarly, for an imaginary signal, real part
should be zero.

Systems
 Is a combination of elements, components that perform some task?
is a set of element which produces o/p in response to i/p
Mathematically, y(n) = f[ x(n) ]
Systems are classified into the following categories:
linear and Non-linear Systems
Time Variant and Time Invariant Systems
linear Time variant and linear Time invariant systems
Static and Dynamic Systems
Causal and Non-causal Systems
Invertible and Non-Invertible Systems
Stable and Unstable Systems

i. linear and Non-linear Systems

A system said to be linear when it satisfies superposition and homogenate principles.
Consider two systems with inputs as x1(t), x2(t), and outputs as y1 (t), y2 (t) respectively. Then,
according to the superposition and homogenate principles,
T [a1 x1(t) + a2 x2(t)] = a1 T[x1(t)] + a2 T[x2(t)]
T [a1 x1(t) + a2 x2(t)] = a1 y1 (t) + a2 y2 (t)
From the above expression, is clear that response of overall system is equal to response of
individual system.
Example:
(t) = x2(t)
Solution:
y1 (t) = T[x1(t)] = x12(t)
y2 (t) = T[x2(t)] = x22(t)
T [a1 x1(t) + a2 x2(t)] = [a1 x1(t) + a2 x2(t)] 2
Which is not equal to a1 y1 (t) + a2 y2 (t). Hence, the system is said to be nonlinear.

ii. Time Variant and Time Invariant Systems

A system said to be time variant if its input and output characteristics vary with time. Otherwise,
the system is consider as time invariant.
The condition for time invariant system is:
y (n , t) = y(n-t)
The condition for time variant system is:
-t)
 Where y (n , t) = T[x(n-t)] = input change
y (n-t) = output change
Example:
y(n) = x(-n)
y(n, t) = T[x(n-t)] = x(-n-t)
y(n-t) = x(-(n-t)) = x(-n + t)
-t). Hence, the system is time variant.

iii. linear Time variant (LTV) and linear Time Invariant (LTI) Systems
If a system is both linear and time variant, then it is called linear time variant (LTV) system. If a
system is both linear and time Invariant then that system is called linear time invariant (LTI) system.

iv. Static and Dynamic Systems

Static system is memory-less whereas dynamic system is a memory system.
Example 1: y (t) = 2 x (t)
For present value t=0, the system output is y (0) = 2x (0). Here, the output is only dependent
upon present input. Hence the system is memory less or static.
Example 2: y (t) = 2 x (t) + 3 x (t-3)
For present value t=0, the system output is y(0) = 2x(0) + 3x(-3).
Here x(-3) is past value for the present input for which the system requires memory to get
this output. Hence, the system is a dynamic system.

v. Causal and Non-Causal Systems

A system is said to be causal if its output depends upon present and past inputs, and does not depend
upon future input. For non causal system, the output depends upon future inputs also.
Example 1: y(n) = 2 x(t) + 3 x(t-3)
For present value t=1, the system output is y(1) = 2x(1) + 3x(-2).
Here, the system output only depends upon present and past inputs. Hence, the system is
causal.
Example 2: y(n) = 2 x(t) + 3 x(t-3) + 6x(t + 3)
For present value t=1, the system output is y(1) = 2x(1) + 3x(-2) + 6x(4) Here, the system
output depends upon future input. Hence the system is non-causal system.
 vi. Invertible and Non-Invertible systems
A system said to invertible if the input of the system appears at the output.

Invertible system
Y(S) = X(S) H1(S) H2(S)
= X(S) H1(S) · 1/(H1(S)) Since H2(S) = 1/( H1(S) )
Y(S) = X(S)

x(t)
Hence, the system is invertible.
If then the system is said to be non-invertible.

vii. Stable and Unstable Systems

The system is said to be stable only when the output is bounded for bounded input. For a bounded
input, if the output is unbounded in the system then it is said to be unstable.
Note: For a bounded signal, amplitude is finite.
Example 1: y (t) = x2(t)
Let the input is u(t) (unit step bounded input) then the output y(t) = u2(t) = u(t) = bounded
output.
Hence, the system is stable.
Example 2:

Hence, the system is unstable.

Channel Capacity Theorem (Shannon- Hartley theorem)

Suppose a source sends r messages per second, and the entropy of a message is H bits per message. The
information rate is R = r H bits/second.
One can intuitively reason that, for a given communication system, as the information rate increases the
number of errors per second will also increase. Surprisingly, however, this is not the case.

nformation rate R is less than C, then one can approach arbitrarily small error probabilities by using
intelligent coding techniques.

longer delays and higher computational requirements.

it merely states that such a coding method

exists. The proof can therefore not be used to develop a coding method that reaches the channel capacity.
The negation of this theorem is also true: if R > C, then errors cannot be avoided regardless of the coding
technique used.
Shannon-Hartley theorem
Consider a bandlimited Gaussian channel operating in the presence of additive Gaussian noise:

Figure 3.13: Shannon-Hartley Theorem

The Shannon-Hartley theorem states that the channel capacity given by
C = B log2 (1 + S/N)
Where C is the capacity in bits per second, B is the bandwidth of the channel in Hertz, and S/N is the signal-
to-noise ratio.

********************
 Chapter 5
Overview of Data Communication Networking

A computer network is a system in which multiple computers connected to each other to share
information and resources.
The term "computer network" is use to mean an interconnected collection of autonomous
computer. Two computers are said to be interconnect only if they are able to exchange information.

Figure 5.1: Simply connected networks

Characteristics of a Computer Network
Share resources from one computer to another.
Create files and store them in one computer, access those files from the other computer(s)
connected over the network.
Connect a printer, scanner, or a fax machine to one computer within the network and let
other computers of the network use the machines available over the network.
Following is the list of hardware's required to set up a computer network.
Network Cables
Distributors
Routers
Internal Network Cards
External Network Cards

Types of Network:
1. Personal Area Network
A Personal Area Network (PAN) is smallest network, which is very personal to a user. This
may include Bluetooth enabled devices or infrared enabled devices. PAN has connectivity
range up to 10 meters. PAN may include wireless computer keyboard and mouse, Bluetooth
enabled headphones, wireless printers and TV remotes. For example, Piconet is Bluetooth-
enabled Personal Area Network, which may contain up to 8 devices connected together in a
master-slave fashion.
 Figure 5.2: PAN

2. Local Area Network

A local area network (LAN) supplies networking capability to a group of computers in

close proximity to each other such as in an office building, a school, or a home.
A LAN is useful for sharing resources like files, printers, games or other applications.
A LAN in turn often connects to other LANs, and to the Internet or other WAN.
Most local area networks are built with relatively inexpensive hardware such as
Ethernet cables, network adapters, and hubs. Wireless LAN and other more advanced
LAN hardware options also exist.
Specialized operating system software may be used to configure a local area network.
For example, most flavors of Microsoft Windows provide a software package called
Internet Connection Sharing (ICS) that supports controlled access to LAN resources.

Figure 5.3: LAN

3. Wide Area Network

A WAN spans a large geographic area, such as a state, province or country. WANs
often connect multiple smaller networks, such as local area networks (LANs) or metro
area networks (MANs).
The world's most popular WAN is the Internet. Some segments of the Internet, like
VPN-based extranets, are also WANs in themselves.
 Finally, many WANs are corporate or research networks that utilize leased lines.
WANs generally utilize different and much more expensive networking equipment
than do LANs. Key technologies often found in WANs include SONET, Frame Relay,
and ATM.

Figure 5.4: WAN

3. Metropolitan Area Network

A Metropolitan Area Network (MAN) is one of a number of types of networks.

A MAN is a relatively new class of network, it serves a role similar to an ISP, but for
corporate users with large LANs. There are three important features which dis-
criminate MANs from LANs or WANS:
The network size falls intermediate between LANs and WANs. A MAN typically
covers an area of between 5 and 50 km diameter. Many MANs cover an area the
size of a city.
A MAN (like a WAN) is not generally owned by a single organization. The MAN,
its communications links and equipment are generally owned by either a
consortium of users or by a single network provider who sells the service to the
users. This level of service provided to each user must therefore can be negotiated
with the MAN operator, and some performance guarantees are normally specified.
A MAN often acts as a high-speed network to allow sharing of regional re-sources
(similar to a large LAN). It is also frequently used to provide a shared connection
to other networks using a link to a WAN.
 Figure 5.5: MAN

Network Topologies

Figure 5.6: Network Topologies

i. Bus Topology:

In this type of network topology, all the nodes of a network are connected to a common
transmission medium having two endpoints.
All the data that travels over the network is transmitted through a common transmission
medium known as the bus or the backbone of the network.
When the transmission medium has exactly two endpoints, the network topology is
- In case the transmission medium, also
called as the network backbone, has more than two endpoints, the network is said to
have a distributed bus topology.
Bus topology is easy to handle and implement and is best suited for small networks.
But the downside of this topology is that the limited cable length limits the number of
stations, thus limiting the performance to a less number of nodes.

ii. Ring Topology:

In a ring topology, every node in the network is connected to two other nodes and the
first and the last nodes are connected to each other.
The data that are transmitted over the network pass through each of the nodes in the
ring until they reach the destination node.
In a ring network, the data and the signals that pass over the network travel in a single
direction.
 The dual ring topology varies in having two connections between each of the network
nodes.
The data flow along two directions in the two rings formed thereby.
The ring topology does not require a central server to manage connectivity be-tween
the nodes and facilitates an orderly network operation.
But, the failure of a single station in the network can render the entire network
inoperable.
Changes and moves in the stations forming the network affect the network operation.

iii. Mesh Topology:

In a full mesh network, each network node connected to every other node in the
network.
Due to this arrangement of nodes, it becomes possible for a simultaneous trans-mission
of signals from one node to several other nodes.
In a partially connected mesh network, only some of the network nodes connected to
more than one node.
This is beneficial over a fully connected mesh in terms of redundancy caused by the
point-to-point links between all the nodes.
The nodes of a mesh network require possessing some kind of routing logic so that the
signals and the data traveling over the network take the shortest path during each of the
transmissions.

iv. Star Topology:

In this type of network topology, each node of the network connected to a central node,
which known is as a hub.
The data that is transmitted between the network nodes passes across the central hub.
A distributed star formed by the interconnection of two or more individual star
networks.
The centralized nature of a star network provides a certain amount of simplicity while
also achieving isolation of each device in the network.
However, the disadvantage of a star topology is that the network transmission is largely
dependent on the central hub. - The failure of the central hub results in total network
inoperability.

v. Tree Topology:

It is known's as a hierarchical topology and has a central root node that connected to
one or more nodes of a lower hierarchy.
In a symmetrical hierarchy, each node in the network has a specific fixed number of
nodes connected to those at a lower level.
Apart from these basic types of network topologies, there are hybrid network
topologies, which are composed of a combination of two or more basic topologies.
These network mappings aim at harnessing the advantages of each of the basic
topologies used in them.
 Network topologies are the physical arrangements of network nodes and wires. What
is interesting is that the inanimate nodes and wires turn 'live' for the trans-mission of
information!

Protocol Architecture:
Is the layered structure of hardware and software that supports the exchange of data
between systems and supports applications such a as electronic mail and file transfer.
The key features of protocol are:
Syntax: concerns the format of the data blocks
Semantics: Includes control information for coordination and error handling
Timing: Includes speed matching and sequencing

Open System Interconnection (OSI)

The Open System Interconnection (OSI) model defines a networking framework to

implement protocols in seven layers. Use this handy guide to compare the different layers of the
OSI model and understand how they interact with each other. The OSI model does not perform
any functions in the networking process. It is a conceptual framework so we can better understand
the complex interactions that are happening.
The International Standards Organization (ISO) developed the Open Systems
Interconnection (OSI) model. It divides network communication into seven layers. In this model,
layers 1-4 are consider the lower layers, and mostly concern themselves with moving data around.
Layers 5-7, called the upper layers, contain application-level data. Networks operate on one basic
principle: "pass it on." Each layer takes care of a very specific job, and then passes the data onto
the next layer.
In the OSI model, control is pass from one layer to the next, starting at the application layer
(Layer 7) in one station, and proceeding to the bottom layer, over the channel to the next station
and back up the hierarchy. The OSI model takes the task of inter-networking and divides that up
into what referred to as a vertical stack that consists of the following 7 layers.
 Figure 5.7: OSI Layer

1. Physical Layer:
A physical layer covers the physical interface between devices and the rules by which bits
passed from one to another.
It relates to the physical properties of the interface to a transmission medium.
For example, connector that joins one or more circuits.
Electrical part of physical layer relates to the representation of bits.
Functional parts of physical layer specify the function performed by individual circuits
between a system and the transmission medium.
Similarly, procedural part of physical layer species the sequence of events by which bit
streams are exchange across the physical medium.

2. Data Link Layer:

Data link layer attempts to make the physical link reliable and provides the means to
activate, maintain, and deactivate the link.
It provides for the reliable transfer of information across physical link.
It sends blocks with the necessary synchronization, error control and flow control.

3. Network Layer:
Determines how data are transferred between network devices
Routes packets according to unique network device addresses
Provides flow and congestion control to prevent network resource depletion
4. Transport Layer:
It provides the mechanism for the exchange of data between and system.
The connection oriented transport service ensures that data are deliver error free, in
sequence with no loss or duplication.
Manages end-to-end message delivery in network
Provides reliable and sequential packet delivery through error recovery and flow control
mechanisms
Provides connectionless oriented packet delivery

5. Session Layer:
It provides the mechanism for controlling the dialog between application in and systems.
Manages user sessions and dialogues
Controls establishment and termination of logic links between users
Reports upper layer errors

6. Presentation Layer:
It defines the format of the date to be exchange between applications.
It defines the syntax used between applications and provides for the selection and
subsequent modification of the presentation used.
Masks the differences of data formats between dissimilar systems
Specifies architecture-independent data transfer format
Encodes and decodes data; encrypts and decrypts data; compresses and decompresses data

7. Application Layer:
Defines interface-to-user processes for communication and data transfer in net-work
Provides standardized services such as virtual terminal, file and job transfer and operations.

TCP/IP Protocol Architecture

The OSI Model we just looked at is just a reference/logical model. It was design to describe the
functions of the communication system by dividing the communication procedure into smaller and
simpler components. However, when we talk about the TCP/IP model, it was designed and
developed by Department of Defense (DOD) in 1960s and is based on standard protocols. It stands
for Transmission Control Protocol/Internet Protocol. The TCP/IP model is a concise version of the
OSI model. It contains four layers, unlike seven layers in the OSI model. The layers are:

1. Process/Application Layer
2. Host-to-Host/Transport Layer
3. Internet Layer
4. Network Access/Link Layer
 Figure5.8: Diagrammatic comparison of TCP/IP and OSI model
TCP/IP functionality is divided into four layers, each of which include specific protocols:

The application layer provides applications with standardized data exchange. Its
protocols include the HTTP, FTP, Post Office Protocol 3 (POP3), Simple Mail Transfer
Protocol (SMTP) and Simple Network Management Protocol (SNMP). At the application
layer, the payload is the actual application data.

The transport layer is responsible for maintaining end-to-end communications across the
network. TCP handles communications between hosts and provides flow control,
multiplexing and reliability. The transport protocols include TCP and User Datagram
Protocol (UDP), which is sometimes used instead of TCP for special purposes.

The network layer also called the internet layer, deals with packets and connects
independent networks to transport the packets across network boundaries. The network
layer protocols are the IP and the Internet Control Message Protocol (ICMP), which is used
for error reporting.

The physical layer, also known as the network interface layer or data link layer, consists
of protocols that operate only on a link -- the network component that interconnects nodes
or hosts in the network. The protocols in this lowest layer include Ethernet for local area
networks (LANs) and the Address Resolution Protocol (ARP).

Difference between TCP/IP and OSI

TCP refers to Transmission Control Protocol where as OSI refers to Open Systems
Interconnection.
TCP/IP has four layers & OSI has seven layers.
TCP/IP is more reliable than OSI is less reliable
 TCP/IP does not have very strict boundaries where as OSI has strict boundaries
TCP/IP follow a horizontal approach where as OSI follows a vertical approach.
TCP/IP uses both session and presentation layer in the application layer itself and OSI uses
different session and presentation layers.
TCP/IP developed protocols then model where as OSI developed model then protocol.
Transport layer in TCP/IP does not provide assurance delivery of packets and in OSI;
model transport layer provides assurance delivery of packets.
TCP/IP model network layer only provides connection less services whereas Connection
less and connection oriented both services are provided by network layer in OSI model.
Protocols cannot be replaced easily in TCP/IP model While in OSI model; Protocols are
better covered and is easy to replace with the change in technology.

Local Area Network Architectures, LLC/MAC & Routing

Local Area Network (LAN) is a data communication network connecting various terminals or
computers within a building or limited geographical area. The connection among the devices could be wired
or wireless. Ethernet, Token Ring and Wireless LAN using IEEE 802.11 are examples of standard LAN
technologies.
LLC / MAC
The Open System Interconnections (OSI) model is a 7 layered networking framework that conceptualizes
how communications should be done between heterogeneous systems. The data link layer is the second

The logical link control (LLC) sublayer

The medium access control (MAC) sublayer
The following diagram depicts the position of the LLC sublayer

Figure 5.9: LLC and MAC in OSI Layer

Functions of LLC Sublayer

The primary function of LLC is to multiplex protocols over the MAC layer while
transmitting and likewise to de-multiplex the protocols while receiving.
LLC provides hop-to-hop flow and error control.
It allows multipoint communication over computer network.
Frame Sequence Numbers are assign by LLC.
In case of acknowledged services, it tracks acknowledgements
Function of MAC sublayer

It provides an abstraction of the physical layer to the LLC and upper layers of the OSI
network.
It is responsible for encapsulating frames so that they are suitable for transmission via the
physical medium.
It resolves the addressing of source station as well as the destination station, or groups of
destination stations.
It performs multiple access resolutions when more than one data frame to be transmit. It
determines the channel access methods for transmission.
It also performs collision resolution and initiating retransmission in case of collisions.
It generates the frame check sequences and thus contributes to protection against
transmission errors.

Ethernet (IEEE 802.3)

Ethernet is most widely used LAN Technology, which is define under IEEE standards 802.3. The
reason behind its wide usability is Ethernet is easy to understand, implement, maintain and allows low-cost
network implementation. In addition, Ethernet offers flexibility in terms of topologies, which are allowed.
Ethernet generally uses Bus Topology. Ethernet operates in two layers of the OSI model, Physical Layer,
and Data Link Layer. For Ethernet, the protocol data unit is Frame since we mainly deal with DLL. In order
to handle collision, the Access control mechanism used in Ethernet is CSMA/CD.
Currently, these data rates are define for operation over optical fibers and twisted-pair cables:

i. Fast Ethernet:- Fast Ethernet refers to an Ethernet network that can transfer data at a rate
of 100 Mbit/s.
ii. Gigabit Ethernet:- Gigabit Ethernet delivers a data rate of 1,000 Mbit/s (1 Gbit/s).
iii. 10 Gigabit Ethernet:- 10 Gigabit Ethernet is the recent generation and delivers a data rate
of 10 Gbit/s (10,000 Mbit/s). It is generally use for backbones in high-end applications
requiring high data rates.
Aloha
The Aloha protocol was design as part of a project at the University of Hawaii. It provided data transmission
between computers on several of the Hawaiian Islands involving packet radio networks. Aloha, is a multiple
access protocol at the data link layer and proposes how multiple terminals access the medium without
interference or collision.
There are two different versions of ALOHA:
1. Pure Aloha
Pure Aloha is an un-slotted, decentralized, and simple to implement a protocol. In pure
ALOHA, the stations simply transmit frames whenever they want data to send. It does not check
whether the channel is busy or not before transmitting. In case, two or more stations transmit
simultaneously, the collision occurs and frames are destroyed. Whenever any station transmits a
frame, it expects the acknowledgment from the receiver. If it is not received within a specified time,
the station assumes that the frame or acknowledgment has been destroyed. Then, the station waits
for a random amount of time and sends the frame again. This randomness helps in avoiding more
collisions. This scheme works well in small networks where the load is not much. But in largely
loaded networks, this scheme fails poorly. This led to the development of Slotted Aloha.
To assure pure aloha: Its throughput and rate of transmission of the frame to be predicted.

Figure 5.10: Pure Aloha

For that to make some assumption:

i) All the frames should be the same length.

ii) Stations cannot generate frame while transmitting or trying to transmit frame.
iii) The population of stations attempts to transmit (both new frames and old frames
that collided) according to a Poisson distribution.
Vulnerable Time = 2 * Tt
Efficiency of Pure ALOHA:
Spure= G * e^-2G
where G is number of stations wants to transmit in Tt slot.
Maximum Efficiency:
 Maximum Efficiency will be obtained when G=1/2
(Spure)max = 1/2 * e^-1
= 0.184
Which means, in Pure ALOHA, only about 18.4% of the time used for successful transmissions.
2. Slotted Aloha
This is quite similar to Pure Aloha, differing only in the way transmissions take place.
Instead of transmitting right at demand time, the sender waits for some time. In slotted ALOHA,
the time of the shared channel divided into discrete intervals called Slots. The stations are eligible
to send a frame only at the beginning of the slot and only one frame per slot is send. If any station
is not able to place the frame onto the channel at the beginning of the slot, it has to wait until the
beginning of the next time slot. There is still a possibility of collision if two stations try to send at
the beginning of the same time slot. Still the number of collisions that can possibly take place is
reduce by a large margin and the performance becomes much well compared to Pure Aloha.

Figure 5.11: Slotted Aloha

Collision is possible for only the current slot. Therefore, Vulnerable Time is Tt.
Efficiency of Slotted ALOHA:
Sslotted = G * e^-G
Maximum Efficiency:
(Sslotted)max = 1 * e^-1
= 1/e = 0.368
Maximum Efficiency, in Slotted ALOHA, is 36.8%.

Carrier Sense Multiple Access (CSMA)

This method was develop to decrease the chances of collisions when two or more stations start sending
their signals over the datalink layer. Carrier Sense multiple access requires that each station first check the
state of the medium before sending.
Vulnerable time = Propagation time (Tp)

Figure 5.142: CSMA

The persistence methods can be applied to help the station take action when the channel is busy/idle.
1. Carrier Sense Multiple Access with Collision Detection (CSMA/CD)
In this method, a station monitors the medium after it sends a frame to see if the transmission was
successful. If successful, the station is finished, if not, the frame is sent again.

Figure 5.13: CSMA/ CD

In the diagram, A starts send the first bit of its frame at t1 and since C sees the channel idle at t2, starts

is therefore t3- -t1.

So, the frame transmission time (Tfr) should be at least twice the maximum propagation time (Tp). This
can be deduced when the two stations involved in collision are maximum distance apart.
Process
The entire process of collision detection can be explain as follows:
 Figure 5.14: Algorithm for CSMA/CD

Throughput and Efficiency The throughput of CSMA/CD is much greater than pure or slotted ALOHA.

For 1-persistent method throughput is 50% when G=1.

For non-persistent method throughput can go up to 90%.

2. Carrier Sense Multiple Access with Collision Avoidance (CSMA/CA)

The basic idea behind CSMA/CA is that the station should be able to receive while transmitting to
detect a collision from different stations. In wired networks, if a collision has occurred then the energy of
received signal almost doubles and the station can sense the possibility of collision. In case of wireless
networks, most of the energy is used for transmission and the energy of received signal increases by only
5- Therefore, CSMA/CA has been
specially design for wireless networks.
These are three type of strategies:

InterFrame Space (IFS) When a station finds the channel busy, it waits for a period called
IFS time. IFS can also be used to define the priority of a station or a frame. Higher the IFS
lower is the priority.
Contention Window It is the amount of time divided into slots. A station, which is ready
to send frames, chooses random number of slots as wait time.
Acknowledgements The positive acknowledgements and time-out timer can help
guarantee a successful transmission of the frame.
The entire process for collision avoidance can be explain as follows:
 Figure 5.15: Algorithm for CSMA/ CA
5.3 Wide Area Networks
X.25
X.25 is a protocol suite defined by ITU-T for packet switched communications over WAN (Wide Area
Network). It was originally design for use in the 1970s and became very popular in 1980s. Presently, it
is use for networks for ATMs and credit card verification. It allows multiple logical channels to use the
 same physical line. It also permits data exchange between terminals with different communication
speeds.

X.25 has three protocol layers

Physical Layer: It lays out the physical, electrical and functional characteristics that
interface between the computer terminal and the link to the packet switched node. X.21
physical implementer is commonly use for the linking.
Data Link Layer: It comprises the link access procedures for exchanging data over the
link. Here, control information for transmission over the link is attach to the packets
from the packet layer to form the LAPB frame (Link Access Procedure Balanced). This
service ensures a bit-oriented, error-free, and ordered delivery of frames.
Packet Layer: This layer defines the format of data packets and the procedures for
control and transmission of the data packets. It provides external virtual circuit service.
Virtual circuits may be of two types: virtual call and permanent virtual circuit. The
virtual call is establish dynamically when needed through call set up procedure, and the
circuit is relinquished through call clearing procedure. Permanent virtual circuit, on the
other hand, is fixed and network assigned.
Equipment used

X.21 implementer
DTE : Data Terminal Equipment
DCTE: Data Circuit Terminating Equipment
Frame Relay
Frame Relay is a packet switched communication service from LANs (Local Area Network) to
backbone networks and WANs. It operates at two layers: physical layer and data link layer. It supports
all standard physical layer protocols. It is mostly implement at the data link layer.
Frame Relay uses virtual circuits to connect a single router to multiple remote sites. In most cases,
permanent virtual circuits are used, i.e. a fixed network-assigned circuit is use through which the user
sees a continuous uninterrupted line. However, switched virtual circuits may also be used.
Frame relay is a fast packet technology based on X.25. Data is transmit by encapsulating them in
multiple sized frames. The protocol does not attempt to correct errors and so it is faster. Error correction
is handle by the endpoints, which are responsible for retransmission of dropped frames.
Frame Relay Devices are

DTE: Data Terminal Equipment

DCTE: Data Circuit Terminating Equipment
ATM

Asynchronous Transfer Mode

It is a streamlined packet transfer interface.
ATM makes use of fixed size packets called cells.
The use of fixed size and fixed formats results an efficient scheme for transmission over
high-speed networks.
data rate ranges from 25.6 Mbps to 622.08 Mbps
Physical layer specifies transmission medium and signal encoding scheme
ATM layer defines transmission of data in fixed size cells and defines the use of logical
connection.
ATM adaptation layer maps higher layer information into ATM cells to be trans-ported
over an ATM network.
User plane provides user information into ATM cells to be transported over an ATM
network
user plane provides user information transfer (eg. flow control, error control)
Control plane provides call control and connection control functions.
Management plane performs coordination between all the planes and layers management.

********************
 Chapter 6
Transmission Media
Introduction
Transmission media is a communication channel that carries the information from the sender to the
receiver. Data transmit through the electromagnetic signals. The main functionality of the transmission media
is to carry the information in the form of bits through LAN (Local Area Network). It is a physical path between
transmitter and receiver in data communication. In a copper-based network, the bits in the form of electrical
signals. In a fiber based network, the bits in the form of light pulses. In OSI (Open System Interconnection)
phase, transmission media supports the Layer 1. Therefore, it is consider being as a Layer 1 component. The
electrical signals can be send through the copper wire, fiber optics, atmosphere, water, and vacuum. The
characteristics and quality of data transmission are determine by the characteristics of medium and signal.
Transmission media is of two types are wired media and wireless media. In wired media, medium
characteristics are more important whereas, in wireless media, signal characteristics are more important.
Different transmission media have different properties such as bandwidth, delay, cost and ease of installation
and maintenance. The transmission media is available in the lowest layer of the OSI reference model, i.e.,
Physical layer.

Figure 1: Transmission medium connection

Figure 15: Types of Transmission media

Figure 3:Twisted Pair Cables
Figure 4: UTP and STP Cables
Figure 5: Coaxial Cables

Figure 6: Optical Fiber

 Figure 7: Fiber optic connector

Figure 8: Types of Propagation mode

Figure 9: Modes of propagation

Figure 10: Propagation Method
Figure 11: types of wireless transmission
 Chapter 7
Impairments, Error handling and Compression Techniques

Introduction
When a signal transmit over a communication channel, it is subject to different types of
impairments because of imperfect characteristics of the channel. Therefore, the received and the transmitted
signals are not the same. Outcome of the impairments are manifest in two different ways in analog and
digital signals. These impairments introduce random modifications in analog signals leading to distortion.
On the other hand, in case of digital signals, the impairments lead to error in the bit values.
The impairment can be broadly categorizes into the following three types:

Attenuation and attenuation distortion

Delay distortion
Noise
Attenuation

Strength of a signal falls off with distance over any transmission medium.
Hence, a received signal must have sufficient strength so that the electronic circuitry in the
receiver can detect the signal.
The signal must maintain a level sufficiently higher than noise to be receive without error.
Attenuation is an increasing concern of frequency.
Hence, amplifiers must use that amplify high frequencies more than lower frequencies.
Attenuation is measure in decibels (dB). It measures the relative strengths of two signals
or one signal at two different point.
Attenuation (dB) = 10log10 (P2/P1)
P1 is power at sending end and P2 is power at receiving end.
Delay Distortion

Distortion means that the signal changes its shape.

Distortion can occur in a composite signal made of different frequencies.
Each signal component has its own propagation speed through a medium and, therefore,
its own delay in arriving at the final destination. Difference in delay may create a difference
in phase.
The shape of the composite signal is therefore not the same.
Noise

Noise is another cause of impairments.

As signal transmits through a channel, undesired signal in the form of noise is mixed up
with the signal, along with the distortion introduced by the transmission media.
Noise can be categorized into the following four types:
Thermal Noise
 Intermodulation Noise
Cross talk
Impulse Noise
The thermal noise is due to thermal agitation of electrons in a conductor. It is distributed
across the entire spectrum and that is why it is also known as white noise (as the frequency
encompass over a broad range of frequencies).

When more than one signal share a single transmission medium, intermodulation noise
is generated. For example, two signals f1 and f2 will generate signals of frequencies (f1 +
f2) and (f1 - f2), which may interfere with the signals of the same frequencies sent by the
transmitter. Intermodulation noise is introduced due to nonlinearity present in any part of
the communication system.

Cross talk is a result of bunching several conductors together in a single cable. Signal
carrying wires generate electromagnetic radiation, which is induced on other conductors
because of close proximity of the conductors. While using telephone, it is a common
experience to hear conversation of other people in the background. This is known as cross
talk.

Impulse noise is irregular pulses or noise spikes of short duration generated by phenomena
like lightning, spark due to loose contact in electric circuits, etc. Impulse noise is a primary
source of bit-errors in digital data communication. This kind of noise introduces burst
errors.

Error Detection and Correction Techniques

When data is transmit from one device to another device, the system does not guarantee whether the
data received by the device is identical to the data transmitted by another device. An Error is a situation
when the message received at the receiver end is not identical to the message transmitted
Errors classified into two categories:

Single-Bit Error
Burst Error
Single- Bit Error
The only one bit of a given data unit is changed from 1 to 0 or from 0 to 1.

Figure 7.16: Single Bit Error

 In the above figure, the message, which sent, was corrupt as single-bit, i.e., 0 bit is changed to one.
Single-Bit Error does not appear more likely in Serial Data Transmission. For example, Sender
sends the data at 10 Mbps, this means that the bit lasts only for 1 ?s and for a single-bit error to
occurred, a noise must be more than 1 ?s.
Single-Bit Error mainly occurs in Parallel Data Transmission. For example, if eight wires are used
to send the eight bits of a byte, if one of the wire is noisy, then single-bit is corrupted per byte.
Burst Error
The two or more bits are changed from 0 to 1 or from 1 to 0 is known as Burst Error. The Burst
Error is determined from the first corrupted bit to the last corrupted bit. The duration of noise in
Burst Error is more than the duration of noise in Single-Bit. Burst Errors are most likely to occur
in Serial Data Transmission. The number of affected bits depends on the duration of the noise and
data rate.

Figure 7.17: Burst Error

Error Detecting Techniques

The most popular Error Detecting Techniques are:

Single parity check

Two-dimensional parity check
Checksum
Cyclic redundancy check

Single Parity Check

Single Parity checking is the simple mechanism and inexpensive to detect the errors.
In this technique, a redundant bit known as a parity bit, which is append at the end of the
data unit so that the number of 1's becomes even. Therefore, the total number of
transmitted bits would be 9 bits.
If the number of 1's bits is odd, then parity bit 1 is append and if the number of 1's bits is
even, then parity bit 0 is appended at the end of the data unit.
 At the receiving end, the parity bit calculated from the received data bits and compared
with the received parity bit.
This technique generates the total number of 1's even, so it is known as even-parity
checking.

Figure 7.18: Even Parity Checking

Drawbacks of Single Parity Checking

It can only detect single-bit errors, which are very rare.

If two bits are interchange, then it cannot detect the errors.

Figure 7.19: Drawback of Single Parity Checking

Two-Dimensional Parity Check

Performance can be improved by using Two-Dimensional Parity Check, which organizes
the data in the form of a table.
Parity check bits are compute for each row, which is equivalent to the single-parity check.
 In Two-Dimensional Parity check, a block of bits is divide into rows, and the redundant
row of bits is added to the whole block.
At the receiving end, the parity bits are compared with the parity bits computed from the
received data.

Figure 7.20: Two Dimensional Parity Check

Drawbacks Of 2D Parity Check

If two bits in one data unit are corrupted and two bits the same position in another data
unit are, also corrupted, then 2D Parity checker will not be able to detect the error.
This technique cannot be used to detect the 4-bit errors or more in some cases.

Checksum
A Checksum is an error detection technique based on the concept of redundancy.
It is divided into two parts:
Checksum Generator
A Checksum generated at the sending side. Checksum generator subdivides the data into equal
segments of n bits each, and all these segments added together by using one's complement
arithmetic. The sum is complemented and appended to the original data, known as checksum
field. The extended data transmitted across the network.
Suppose L is the total sum of the data segments, then the checksum would be. L
 Figure 7.21: Check Sum Generator
The Sender follows the given steps:

The block unit is divided into k sections, and each of n bits.

All the k sections are added together by using one's complement to get the sum.
The sum is complemented and it becomes the checksum field.
The original data and checksum field are sent across the network.

Checksum Checker
A Checksum is verified at the receiving side. The receiver subdivides the incoming data into
equal segments of n bits each, and all these segments are added together, and then this sum is
complemented. If the complement of the sum is zero, then the data is accepted otherwise data
is rejected.
The Receiver follows the given steps:

The block unit is divided into k sections and each of n bits.

All the k sections are added together by using one's complement algorithm to
get the sum.
The sum is complemented.
If the result of the sum is zero, then the data is accepted otherwise the data is
discarded.

Cyclic Redundancy Check (CRC)

CRC is a redundancy error technique used to determine the error.
Following are the steps used in CRC for error detection:
 In CRC technique, a string of n 0's is appended to the data unit, and this n number is
less than the number of bits in a predetermined number, known as division which is
n+1 bits.
Secondly, the newly extended data is divide by a divisor using a process known as
binary division. The remainder generated from this division known as CRC
remainder.
Thirdly, the CRC remainder replaces the appended 0's at the end of the original data.
This newly generated unit is send to the receiver.
The receiver receives the data followed by the CRC remainder. The receiver will treat
this whole unit as a single unit, and it is divide by the same divisor that was used to
find the CRC remainder.
If the resultant of this division is zero which means that it has no error, and the data is accepted.
If the resultant of this division is not zero, which means that, the data consists of an error. Therefore,
the data is discarded.

Figure 22.7: Cyclic Redundancy Check Overview

Let us understand this concept through an example:

Suppose the original data is 11100 and divisor is 1001.
CRC Generator

A CRC generator uses a modulo-2 division. Firstly, three zeroes are appended at the
end of the data as the length of the divisor is 4 and we know that the length of the
string 0s to be appended is always one less than the length of the divisor.
 Now, the string becomes 11100000, and the resultant string is divided by the divisor
1001.
The remainder generated from the binary division is known as CRC remainder. The
generated value of the CRC remainder is 111.
CRC remainder replaces the appended string of 0s at the end of the data unit, and the
final string would be 11100111 which is sent across the network.

Figure 7.23: CRC Redundant Bit Generator

CRC Checker

The functionality of the CRC checker is similar to the CRC generator.

When the string 11100111 is received at the receiving end, then CRC checker
performs the modulo-2 division.
A string is divided by the same divisor, i.e., 1001.
In this case, CRC checker generates the remainder of zero. Therefore, the data is
accepted.
 Figure 7.24: CRC Message Checker
Error Correction Technique

Error Correction codes are used to detect and correct the errors when data is transmitted
from the sender to the receiver.
Error Correction can be handle in two ways:
Backward error correction: Once the error is discover, the receiver requests the
sender to retransmit the entire data unit.
Forward error correction: In this case, the receiver uses the error-correcting code,
which automatically corrects the errors.
A single additional bit can detect the error, but cannot correct it.
For correcting the errors, one has to know the exact position of the error.
For example, If we want to calculate a single-bit error, the error correction code will
determine which one of seven bits is in error. To achieve this, we have to add some
additional redundant bits.
Suppose r is the number of redundant bits and d is the total number of the data bits. The
number of redundant bits r can be calculated by using the formula:
2r>=d+r+1
The value of r is calculated by using the above formula. For example, if the value of d is 4, then the
possible smallest value that satisfies the above relation would be 3.
To determine the position of the bit which is in error, a technique developed by R.W Hamming is
Hamming code which can be applied to any length of the data unit and uses the relationship between
data units and redundant units.
 Hamming Code
Parity bits: The bit which is appended to the original data of binary bits so that the total
number of 1s is even or odd.
Even parity: To check for even parity, if the total number of 1s is even, then the value
of the parity bit is 0. If the total number of 1s occurrences is odd, then the value of the
parity bit is 1.
Odd Parity: To check for odd parity, if the total number of 1s is even, then the value of
parity bit is 1. If the total number of 1s is odd, then the value of parity bit is 0.
Algorithm of Hamming code:

An information of 'd' bits are added to the redundant bits 'r' to form d + r.
The location of each of the (d + r) digits is assigned a decimal value.
The 'r' bits are placed in the positions 1,2,.....2k-1.
At the receiving end, the parity bits are recalculated. The decimal value of the parity
bits determines the position of an error.
Let us understand the concept of Hamming code through an example:
Suppose the original data is 1010, which is to be sent.

Total number of data bits 'd' = 4

Number of redundant bits r : 2r >= d+r+1
2r>= 4+r+1
Therefore, the value of r is 3 that satisfies the above relation.
Total number of bits = d + r = 4+3 = 7;

Determining the position of the redundant bits

The number of redundant bits is 3. The three bits are represented by r1, r2, r4. The position of the
redundant bits is calculated with corresponds to the raised power of 2. Therefore, their
corresponding positions are 1, 21, 22.
The position of r1 = 1
The position of r2 = 2
The position of r4 = 4
Representation of Data on the addition of parity bits:
Determining the Parity bits

Determining the r1 bit

The r1 bit is calculated by performing a parity check on the bit positions whose binary
representation includes 1 in the first position.

We observe from the above figure that the bit positions that includes 1 in the first position are
1, 3, 5, 7. Now, we perform the even-parity check at these bit positions. The total number of 1
at these bit positions corresponding to r1 is even, therefore, the value of the r1 bit is 0.

Determining r2 bit
The r2 bit is calculated by performing a parity check on the bit positions whose binary
representation includes 1 in the second position.

We observe from the above figure that the bit positions that includes 1 in the second position
are 2, 3, 6, 7. Now, we perform the even-parity check at these bit positions. The total number
of 1 at these bit positions corresponding to r2 is odd, therefore, the value of the r2 bit is 1.

Determining r4 bit
The r4 bit is calculated by performing a parity check on the bit positions whose binary
representation includes 1 in the third position.
 We observe from the above figure that the bit positions that includes 1 in the third position are
4, 5, 6, 7. Now, we perform the even-parity check at these bit positions. The total number of 1
at these bit positions corresponding to r4 is even, therefore, the value of the r4 bit is 0.

Data transferred is given below:

Suppose the 4th bit is changed from 0 to 1 at the receiving end, then parity bits are
recalculated.

R1 bit
The bit positions of the r1 bit are 1,3,5,7

We observe from the above figure that the binary representation of r1 is 1100. Now, we
perform the even-parity check, the total number of 1s appearing in the r1 bit is an even
number. Therefore, the value of r1 is 0.

R2 bit
The bit positions of r2 bit are 2,3,6,7.
 We observe from the above figure that the binary representation of r2 is 1001. Now, we
perform the even-parity check, the total number of 1s appearing in the r2 bit is an even
number. Therefore, the value of r2 is 0.

R4 bit
The bit positions of r4 bit are 4,5,6,7.

We observe from the above figure that the binary representation of r4 is 1011. Now, we
perform the even-parity check, the total number of 1s appearing in the r4 bit is an odd
number. Therefore, the value of r4 is 1.

The binary representation of redundant bits, i.e., r4r2r1 is 100, and its corresponding
decimal value is 4. Therefore, the error occurs in a 4 th bit position. The bit value must be
changed from 1 to 0 to correct the error.

Data Compression
DC stands for Data Compression. DC is a digital signal process in which data to be transmitted is
compressed to reduce the storage amount in bits. In other words, you can say that data storage space is
reduced than usual after applying DC. Data transmission greatly reduces data storage space and
transmission capacity. It is also known as source coding or bit-rate reduction. Database management
system, backup utilities, etc. use data compression method widely. There are many file compression
methods but ZIP and ARC are mostly known file formats.
 Figure 7.25: DC
Two Parts of DC

Lossy: In lossy compression method, some part of data is deleted or lost. Because it
identifies and then delete the unnecessary information before transmission.
Lossless: In lossless compression method, compression is done through identifying and
eliminating any statistical redundancy. For instance, when we encode a data source
before transmitting it, its size is effectively reduced and data remains intact and
unchanged.
Benefits of Data Compression

Faster file transfer: It improves the speed of file transfer, as less bandwidth is required
to download the compressed files.
More Storage Capacity: It allows you store more files in the available storage space,
e.g. Lossless compression can reduce a file to 50% of its original size.
Reduces Cost: It allows you reduce the cost of storing data as after compression, you
can store more files in the given storage space.
Reduces latency: On tape, the small file images can be scanned faster to reach a specific
file that reduces latency.
Difference between Lossy Compression and Lossless Compression:

1. Lossy compression is the method, which eliminate the data, which is not noticeable.
While Lossless Compression does not eliminate the data which is not noticeable.
2. In Lossy compression, a file does not restore or rebuilt in its original form. While
in Lossless Compression, A file can be restored in its original form.
3.
Compres
4. Lossy compression reduces the size of data. However, Lossless Compression does
not reduce the size of data.
5. Algorithms used in Lossy compression are: Transform coding, Discrete Cosine
Transform, Discrete Wavelet Transform, fractal compression etc. Algorithms
 used in Lossless compression are Run Length Encoding, Lempel-Ziv-Welch,
Huffman Coding, Arithmetic encoding etc.
6. Lossy compression is used in Images, audio, video. Lossless Compression used in
Text, images, sound.
7. Lossy compression has more data-holding capacity. Lossless Compression has
less data-holding capacity than Lossy compression technique.
 Chapter 8
Data Link Control and Protocol
Data Control Link
Data Link Control is the service provided by the Data Link Layer to provide reliable data
transfer over the physical medium. For example, In the half-duplex transmission mode, one device can
only transmit the data at a time. If both the devices at the end of the links transmit the data
simultaneously, they will collide and leads to the loss of the information. The Data link layer provides
the coordination among the devices so that no collision occurs.
The Data link layer provides three functions:

Line discipline
Flow Control
Error Control

Figure 8.26: Data Link Control Functions

Line Discipline
Line Discipline is a functionality of the Data link layer that provides the coordination among the
link systems. It determines which device can send, and when it can send the data.
Line Discipline can be achieved in two ways:

ENQ/ACK
Poll/select

END/ACK
END/ACK stands for Enquiry/Acknowledgement is use when there is no wrong receiver
available on the link and having a dedicated path between the two devices so that the device capable
of receiving the transmission is the intended one.
END/ACK coordinates which device will start the transmission and whether the recipient is ready
or not.
Working of END/ACK
The transmitter transmits the frame called an Enquiry (ENQ) asking whether the receiver is
available to receive the data or not.
The receiver responses either with the positive acknowledgement (ACK) or with the negative
acknowledgement (NACK) where positive acknowledgement means that the receiver is ready to
receive the transmission and negative acknowledgement means that the receiver is unable to accept
the transmission.
Following are the responses of the receiver:

If the response to the ENQ is positive, the sender will transmit its data, and once all of
its data has been transmit, the device finishes its transmission with an EOT (END-of-
Transmission) frame.
If the response to the ENQ is negative, then the sender disconnects and restarts the
transmission at another time.
If the response is neither negative nor positive, the sender assumes that the ENQ frame
was lost during the transmission and makes three attempts to establish a link before
giving up.
 Figure 8.27: Working END/ACK

Poll/Select
The Poll/Select method of line discipline works with those topologies where one device is designated
as a primary station and other devices are secondary stations.
Working of Poll/Select

In this, the primary device and multiple secondary devices consist of a single
transmission line, and all the exchanges are made through the primary device even
though the destination is a secondary device.
The primary device has control over the communication link, and the secondary device
follows the instructions of the primary device.
The primary device determines which device is allowed to use the communication
channel. Therefore, we can say that it is an initiator of the session.
 If the primary device wants to receive the data from the secondary device, it asks the
secondary device that they anything to send, this process is known as polling.
If the primary device wants to send some data to the secondary device, then it tells the
target secondary to get ready to receive the data, this process is known as selecting.
Select

The select mode is used when the primary device has something to send.
When the primary device wants to send some data, then it alerts the secondary device
for the upcoming transmission by transmitting a Select (SEL) frame, one field of the
frame includes the address of the intended secondary device.
When the secondary device receives the SEL frame, it sends an acknowledgement that
indicates the secondary ready status.
If the secondary device is ready to accept the data, then the primary device sends two
or more data frames to the intended secondary device. Once the data has been
transmitted, the secondary sends an acknowledgement specifies that the data has been
received.

Figure 8.28: Select

Poll

The Poll mode is used when the primary device wants to receive some data from the
secondary device.
When a primary device wants to receive the data, then it asks each device whether it
has anything to send.
Firstly, the primary asks (poll) the first secondary device, if it responds with the NACK
(Negative Acknowledgement) means that it has nothing to send. Now, it approaches
the second secondary device, it responds with the ACK means that it has the data to
 send. The secondary device can send more than one frame one after another or
sometimes it may be required to send ACK before sending each one, depending on the
type of the protocol being used.

Figure 8.29: Poll

Flow Control
A set of procedures tells the sender how much data it can transmit before the data
overwhelms the receiver.
The receiving device has limited speed and limited memory to store the data. Therefore,
the receiving device must be able to inform the sending device to stop the transmission
temporarily before the limits are reached.
It requires a buffer, a block of memory for storing the information until they are processed.
Two methods have been developed to control the flow of data:

Stop-and-wait
Sliding window
Stop-and-wait

In the Stop-and-wait method, the sender waits for an acknowledgement after every
frame it sends.
 When acknowledgement is received, then only next frame is sent. The process of
alternately sending and waiting of a frame continues until the sender transmits the EOT
(End of transmission) frame.
Advantage of Stop-and-wait

The Stop-and-wait method is simple as each frame is checked and acknowledged

before the next frame is sent.
Disadvantage of Stop-and-wait

Stop-and-wait technique is inefficient to use as each frame must travel across all the
way to the receiver, and an acknowledgement travels all the way before the next frame
is sent. Each frame sent and received uses the entire time needed to traverse the link.
Sliding Window

The Sliding Window is a method of flow control in which a sender can transmit the
several frames before getting an acknowledgement.
In Sliding Window Control, multiple frames can be sent one after another, due to which
capacity of the communication channel can be utilized efficiently.
A single ACK acknowledge multiple frames.
Sliding Window refers to imaginary boxes at both the sender and receiver end.
The window can hold the frames at either end, and it provides the upper limit on the
number of frames that can be transmitted before the acknowledgement.
Frames can be acknowledged even when the window is not completely filled.
The window has a specific size in which they are numbered as modulo-n means that
they are numbered from 0 to n-1. For example, if n = 8, the frames are numbered from
0,1,2,3,4,5,6,7,0,1,2,3,4,5,6,7,0,1........
The size of the window is represented as n-1. Therefore, maximum n-1 frames can be
sent before acknowledgement.
When the receiver sends the ACK, it includes the number of the next frame that it wants
to receive. For example, to acknowledge the string of frames ending with frame number
4, the receiver will send the ACK containing the number 5. When the sender sees the
ACK with the number 5, it got to know that the frames from 0 through 4 have been
received.
Sender Window

At the beginning of a transmission, the sender window contains n-1 frames, and when
they are sent out, the left boundary moves inward shrinking the size of the window. For
example, if the size of the window is w if three frames are sent out, then the number of
frames left out in the sender window is w-3.
Once the ACK has arrived, then the sender window expands to the number which will
be equal to the number of frames acknowledged by ACK.
 For example, the size of the window is 7, and if frames 0 through 4 have been sent out
and no acknowledgement has arrived, then the sender window contains only two
frames, i.e., 5 and 6. Now, if ACK has arrived with a number 4 which means that 0
through 3 frames have arrived undamaged and the sender window is expanded to
include the next four frames. Therefore, the sender window contains six frames
(5,6,7,0,1,2).

Receiver Window

At the beginning of transmission, the receiver window does not contain n frames, but
it contains n-1 spaces for frames.
When the new frame arrives, the size of the window shrinks.
The receiver window does not represent the number of frames received, but it
represents the number of frames that can be received before an ACK is sent. For
example, the size of the window is w, if three frames are received then the number of
spaces available in the window is (w-3).
Once the acknowledgement is sent, the receiver window expands by the number equal
to the number of frames acknowledged.
Suppose the size of the window is 7 means that the receiver window contains seven
spaces for seven frames. If the one frame is received, then the receiver window shrinks
and moving the boundary from 0 to 1. In this way, window shrinks one by one, so
window now contains the six spaces. If frames from 0 through 4 have sent, then the
window contains two spaces before an acknowledgement is sent.
Error Control
Error Control is a technique of error detection and retransmission.
Categories of Error Control:

Figure 8.30: Categories of Error Control

Stop-and-wait ARQ
Stop-and-wait ARQ is a technique used to retransmit the data in case of damaged or lost frames.
This technique works on the principle that the sender will not transmit the next frame until it receives
the acknowledgement of the last transmitted frame.
Four features are required for the retransmission:
 The sending device keeps a copy of the last transmitted frame until the acknowledgement
is received. Keeping the copy allows the sender to retransmit the data if the frame is not
received correctly.
Both the data frames and the ACK frames are numbered alternately 0 and 1 so that they
can be identified individually. Suppose data 1 frame acknowledges the data 0 frame
means that the data 0 frame has been arrived correctly and expects to receive data 1 frame.
If an error occurs in the last transmitted frame, then the receiver sends the NAK frame
which is not numbered. On receiving the NAK frame, sender retransmits the data.
It works with the timer. If the acknowledgement is not received within the allotted time,
then the sender assumes that the frame is lost during the transmission, so it will retransmit
the frame.
Two possibilities of the retransmission:

Damaged Frame: When the receiver receives a damaged frame, i.e., the frame contains
an error, then it returns the NAK frame. For example, when the data 0 frame is sent,
and then the receiver sends the ACK 1 frame means that the data 0 has arrived correctly,
and transmits the data 1 frame. The sender transmits the next frame: data 1. It reaches
undamaged, and the receiver returns ACK 0. The sender transmits the next frame: data
0. The receiver reports an error and returns the NAK frame. The sender retransmits the
data 0 frame.
Lost Frame: Sender is equipped with the timer and starts when the frame is transmitted.
Sometimes the frame has not arrived at the receiving end so that it can be acknowledged
neither positively nor negatively. The sender waits for acknowledgement until the timer
goes off. If the timer goes off, it retransmits the last transmitted frame.
Sliding Window ARQ
Sliding Window ARQ is a technique used for continuous transmission error control.
Three Features used for retransmission:

In this case, the sender keeps the copies of all the transmitted frames until they have
been acknowledged. Suppose the frames from 0 through 4 have been transmitted, and
the last acknowledgement was for frame 2, the sender has to keep the copies of frames
3 and 4 until they receive correctly.
The receiver can send either NAK or ACK depending on the conditions. The NAK
frame tells the sender that the data have been received damaged. Since the sliding
window is a continuous transmission mechanism, both ACK and NAK must be
numbered for the identification of a frame. The ACK frame consists of a number that
represents the next frame which the receiver expects to receive. The NAK frame
consists of a number that represents the damaged frame.
The sliding window ARQ is equipped with the timer to handle the lost
acknowledgements. Suppose then n-1 frames have been sent before receiving any
acknowledgement. The sender waits for the acknowledgement, so it starts the timer and
 waits before sending any more. If the allotted time runs out, the sender retransmits one
or all the frames depending upon the protocol used.
Two protocols used in sliding window ARQ:

Go-Back-n ARQ: In Go-Back-N ARQ protocol, if one frame is lost or damaged, then
it retransmits all the frames after which it does not receive the positive ACK.
Three possibilities can occur for retransmission:

Damaged Frame: When the frame is damaged, then the receiver sends a NAK frame.

Figure8.31: Sliding window ARQ

In the above figure, three frames have been transmitted before an error discovered in the third
frame. In this case, ACK 2 has been returned telling that the frames 0,1 have been received successfully
without any error. The receiver discovers the error in data 2 frame, so it returns the NAK 2 frame. The
frame 3 is also discarded as it is transmitted after the damaged frame. Therefore, the sender retransmits
the frames 2,3.

Lost Data Frame: In Sliding window protocols, data frames are sent sequentially. If
any of the frames is lost, then the next frame arrive at the receiver is out of sequence.
The receiver checks the sequence number of each of the frame, discovers the frame that
 has been skipped, and returns the NAK for the missing frame. The sending device
retransmits the frame indicated by NAK as well as the frames transmitted after the lost
frame.
Lost Acknowledgement: The sender can send as many frames as the windows allow
before waiting for any acknowledgement. Once the limit of the window is reached, the
sender has no more frames to send; it must wait for the acknowledgement. If the
acknowledgement is lost, then the sender could wait forever. To avoid such situation,
the sender is equipped with the timer that starts counting whenever the window capacity
is reached. If the acknowledgement has not been received within the time limit, then
the sender retransmits the frame since the last ACK.
Selective-Reject ARQ

Selective-Reject ARQ technique is more efficient than Go-Back-n ARQ.

In this technique, only those frames are retransmitted for which negative
acknowledgement (NAK) has been received.
The receiver storage buffer keeps all the damaged frames on hold until the frame in
error is correctly received.
The receiver must have an appropriate logic for reinserting the frames in a correct order.
The sender must consist of a searching mechanism that selects only the requested frame
for retransmission.

Figure 8.32: Go n Back

 Chapter 9
Multiplexing and Switching
Multiplexing

Multiplexing is a technique used to combine and send the multiple data streams over a
single medium. The process of combining the data streams is known as multiplexing
and hardware used for multiplexing is known as a multiplexer.
Multiplexing is achieved by using a device called Multiplexer (MUX) that combines n
input lines to generate a single output line. Multiplexing follows many-to-one, i.e., n
input lines and one output line.
Demultiplexing is achieved by using a device called DE multiplexer (DEMUX)
available at the receiving end. DEMUX separates a signal into its component signals
(one input and n outputs). Therefore, we can say that demultiplexing follows the one-
to-many approach.
Why Multiplexing?

The transmission medium is used to send the signal from sender to receiver. The
medium can only have one signal at a time.
If there are multiple signals to share one medium, then the medium must be divided in
such a way that each signal is given some portion of the available bandwidth. For
example: If there are 10 signals and bandwidth of medium is100 units, then the 10 unit
is shared by each signal.
When multiple signals share the common medium, there is a possibility of collision.
Multiplexing concept is used to avoid such collision.
Transmission services are very expensive.
History of Multiplexing

Multiplexing technique is widely used in telecommunications in which several

telephone calls are carried through a single wire.
Multiplexing originated in telegraphy in the early 1870s and is now widely used in
communication.
George Owen Squier developed the telephone carrier multiplexing in 1910.
 Figure 9.33: Concept of Multiplexing

The 'n' input lines are transmitted through a multiplexer and multiplexer combines the
signals to form a composite signal.
The composite signal is passed through a Demultiplexer and demultiplexer separates a
signal to component signals and transfers them to their respective destinations.
Advantages of Multiplexing:

More than one signal can be sent over a single medium.

The bandwidth of a medium can be utilized effectively.

Multiplexing Techniques
Multiplexing techniques can be classified as:

Figure 9.34: Multiplexing Techniques

i. Frequency-division Multiplexing (FDM)
It is an analog technique.
Frequency Division Multiplexing is a technique in which the available bandwidth of a
single transmission medium is subdivided into several channels.
In the above diagram, a single transmission medium is subdivided into several frequency
channels, and each frequency channel is given to different devices. Device 1 has a
frequency channel of range from 1 to 5.
The input signals are translated into frequency bands by using modulation techniques,
and they are combined by a multiplexer to form a composite signal.
The main aim of the FDM is to subdivide the available bandwidth into different
frequency channels and allocate them to different devices.
Using the modulation technique, the input signals are transmitted into frequency bands
and then combined to form a composite signal.
The carriers which are used for modulating the signals are known as sub-carriers. They
are represented as f1,f2..fn.
FDM is mainly used in radio broadcasts and TV networks.

Figure 9.35: Frequency Division Multiplexing

Advantages Of FDM:
FDM is used for analog signals.
FDM process is very simple and easy modulation.
A Large number of signals can be sent through an FDM simultaneously.
It does not require any synchronization between sender and receiver.
Disadvantages Of FDM:
 FDM technique is used only when low-speed channels are required.
It suffers the problem of crosstalk.
A Large number of modulators are required.
It requires a high bandwidth channel.
Applications Of FDM:
FDM is commonly used in TV networks.
It is used in FM and AM broadcasting. Each FM radio station has different
frequencies, and they are multiplexed to form a composite signal. The
multiplexed signal is transmitted in the air.
ii. Wavelength Division Multiplexing (WDM)

Figure 9.36: Wavelength Division Multiplexing

Wavelength Division Multiplexing is same as FDM except that the optical signals are
transmitted through the fiber optic cable.
WDM is used on fiber optics to increase the capacity of a single fiber.
It is used to utilize the high data rate capability of fiber optic cable.
It is an analog multiplexing technique.
Optical signals from different source are combined to form a wider band of light with the
help of multiplexer.
At the receiving end, demultiplexer separates the signals to transmit them to their
respective destinations.
Multiplexing and Demultiplexing can be achieved by using a prism.
Prism can perform a role of multiplexer by combining the various optical signals to form
a composite signal, and the composite signal is transmitted through a fiber optical cable.
Prism also performs a reverse operation, i.e., demultiplexing the signal.

iii. Time Division Multiplexing

It is a digital technique.
In Frequency Division Multiplexing Technique, all signals operate at the same time with
different frequency, but in case of Time Division Multiplexing technique, all signals
operate at the same frequency with different time.
 In Time Division Multiplexing technique, the total time available in the channel is
distributed among different users. Therefore, each user is allocated with different time
interval known as a Time slot at which data is to be transmitted by the sender.
A user takes control of the channel for a fixed amount of time.
In Time Division Multiplexing technique, data is not transmitted simultaneously rather
the data is transmitted one-by-one.
In TDM, the signal is transmitted in the form of frames. Frames contain a cycle of time
slots in which each frame contains one or more slots dedicated to each user.
It can be used to multiplex both digital and analog signals but mainly used to multiplex
digital signals.
There are two types of TDM:
Synchronous TDM
Asynchronous TDM
Synchronous TDM

A Synchronous TDM is a technique in which time slot is preassigned to every device.

In Synchronous TDM, each device is given some time slot irrespective of the fact that
the device contains the data or not.
If the device does not have any data, then the slot will remain empty.
In Synchronous TDM, signals are sent in the form of frames. Time slots are organized in
the form of frames. If a device does not have data for a particular time slot, then the
empty slot will be transmitted.
The most popular Synchronous TDM are T-1 multiplexing, ISDN multiplexing, and
SONET multiplexing.
If there are n devices, then there are n slots.

Figure 9.37: Concept of Synchronous TDM

 Figure 9.38: Synchronous TDM
In the above figure, the Synchronous TDM technique is implemented. Each device is allocated with
some time slot. The time slots are transmitted irrespective of whether the sender has data to send
or not.

Disadvantages of Synchronous TDM:

The capacity of the channel is not fully utilized as the empty slots are also transmitted
which is having no data. In the above figure, the first frame is completely filled, but in
the last two frames, some slots are empty. Therefore, we can say that the capacity of the
channel is not utilized efficiently.
The speed of the transmission medium should be greater than the total speed of the input
lines. An alternative approach to the Synchronous TDM is Asynchronous Time Division
Multiplexing.
Asynchronous TDM

An asynchronous TDM is also known as Statistical TDM.

An asynchronous TDM is a technique in which time slots are not fixed as in the case of
Synchronous TDM. Time slots are allocated to only those devices which have the data
to send. Therefore, we can say that Asynchronous Time Division multiplexor transmits
only the data from active workstations.
An asynchronous TDM technique dynamically allocates the time slots to the devices.
In Asynchronous TDM, total speed of the input lines can be greater than the capacity of
the channel.
Asynchronous Time Division multiplexor accepts the incoming data streams and creates
a frame that contains only data with no empty slots.
In Asynchronous TDM, each slot contains an address part that identifies the source of
the data.
 The difference between Asynchronous TDM and Synchronous TDM is that many slots
in Synchronous TDM are unutilized, but in Asynchronous TDM, slots are fully utilized.
This leads to the smaller transmission time and efficient utilization of the capacity of the
channel.
In Synchronous TDM, if there are n sending devices, then there are n time slots. In
Asynchronous TDM, if there are n sending devices, then there are m time slots where m
is less than n (m<n).
The number of slots in a frame depends on the statistical analysis of the number of input
lines.

Figure 9.39: Concept of Asynchronous TDM

In the above diagram, there are 4 devices, but only two devices are sending the data, i.e., A and C.
Therefore, the data of A and C are only transmitted through the transmission line.
Frame of above diagram can be represented as:

The above figure shows that the data part contains the address to determine the source of the data.
Switching

When a user accesses the internet or another computer network outside their immediate
location, messages are sent through the network of transmission media. This technique
of transferring the information from one computer network to another network is known
as switching.
Switching in a computer network is achieved by using switches. A switch is a small
hardware device which is used to join multiple computers together with one local area
network (LAN).
Network switches operate at layer 2 (Data link layer) in the OSI model.
Switching is transparent to the user and does not require any configuration in the home
network.
Switches are used to forward the packets based on MAC addresses.
A Switch is used to transfer the data only to the device that has been addressed. It verifies
the destination address to route the packet appropriately.
It is operated in full duplex mode.
Packet collision is minimum as it directly communicates between source and destination.
It does not broadcast the message as it works with limited bandwidth.
Why is Switching Concept required?
Switching concept is developed because of the following reasons:

Bandwidth: It is defined as the maximum transfer rate of a cable. It is a very critical

and expensive resource. Therefore, switching techniques are used for the effective
utilization of the bandwidth of a network.
Collision: Collision is the effect that occurs when more than one device transmits the
message over the same physical media, and they collide with each other. To overcome
this problem, switching technology is implemented so that packets do not collide with
each other.
Advantages of Switching:

Switch increases the bandwidth of the network.

It reduces the workload on individual PCs as it sends the information to only that device
which has been addressed.
It increases the overall performance of the network by reducing the traffic on the
network.
There will be less frame collision as switch creates the collision domain for each
connection.
Disadvantages of Switching:
 A Switch is more expensive than network bridges.
A Switch cannot determine the network connectivity issues easily.
Proper designing and configuration of the switch are required to handle multicast
packets.

Switching techniques
In large networks, there can be multiple paths from sender to receiver. The switching technique will
decide the best route for data transmission. Switching technique is used to connect the systems for making
one-to-one communication.
Classification of Switching Techniques

i. Circuit Switching
Circuit switching is a switching technique that establishes a dedicated path between
sender and receiver.
In the Circuit Switching Technique, once the connection is established then the
dedicated path will remain to exist until the connection is terminated.
Circuit switching in a network operates in a similar way as the telephone works.
A complete end-to-end path must exist before the communication takes place.
In case of circuit switching technique, when any user wants to send the data, voice,
video, a request signal is sent to the receiver then the receiver sends back the
acknowledgment to ensure the availability of the dedicated path. After receiving the
acknowledgment, dedicated path transfers the data.
Circuit switching is used in public telephone network. It is used for voice
transmission.
Fixed data can be transferred at a time in circuit switching technology.
 Communication through circuit switching has 3 phases:
Circuit establishment
Data transfer
Circuit Disconnect

Figure 9.40: Circuit switching between two nodes

Circuit Switching can use either of the two technologies:

Space Division Switches:

Space Division Switching is a circuit switching technology in which a single
transmission path is accomplished in a switch by using a physically separate set
of cross points.
Space Division Switching can be achieved by using crossbar switch. A crossbar
switch is a metallic cross point or semiconductor gate that can be enabled or
disabled by a control unit.
The Crossbar switch is made by using the semiconductor. For example, Xilinx
crossbar switch using FPGAs.
Space Division Switching has high speed, high capacity, and non-blocking
switches.
Space Division Switches can be categorized in two ways:
Crossbar Switch
Multistage Switch

a. Crossbar Switch
The Crossbar switch is a switch that has n input lines and n output lines. The crossbar switch has
n2 intersection points known as cross points.
Disadvantage of Crossbar switch:
The number of cross points increases as the number of stations is increased. Therefore, it becomes
very expensive for a large switch. The solution to this is to use a multistage switch.

b. Multistage Switch
 Multistage Switch is made by splitting the crossbar switch into the smaller units and then
interconnecting them.
It reduces the number of cross points.
If one path fails, then there will be an availability of another path.
Advantages Of Circuit Switching:
In the case of Circuit Switching technique, the communication channel is
dedicated.
It has fixed bandwidth.
Disadvantages Of Circuit Switching:
Once the dedicated path is established, the only delay occurs in the speed of data
transmission.
It takes a long time to establish a connection approx. 10 seconds during which no
data can be transmitted.
It is more expensive than other switching techniques as a dedicated path is
required for each connection.
It is inefficient to use because once the path is established and no data is
transferred, then the capacity of the path is wasted.
In this case, the connection is dedicated therefore no other data can be transferred
even if the channel is free.

ii. Message Switching

Message Switching is a switching technique in which a message is transferred as a
complete unit and routed through intermediate nodes at which it is stored and forwarded.
In Message Switching technique, there is no establishment of a dedicated path between
the sender and receiver.
The destination address is appended to the message. Message Switching provides a
dynamic routing as the message is routed through the intermediate nodes based on the
information available in the message.
Message switches are programmed in such a way so that they can provide the most
efficient routes.
Each and every node stores the entire message and then forward it to the next node. This
type of network is known as store and forward network.
Message switching treats each message as an independent entity.
 Figure 9.41: Concepts of Message Switching

Advantages Of Message Switching

Data channels are shared among the communicating devices that improve the
efficiency of using available bandwidth.
Traffic congestion can be reduced because the message is temporarily stored in
the nodes.
Message priority can be used to manage the network.
The size of the message which is sent over the network can be varied. Therefore,
it supports the data of unlimited size.
Disadvantages Of Message Switching
The message switches must be equipped with sufficient storage to enable them to
store the messages until the message is forwarded.
The Long delay can occur due to the storing and forwarding facility provided by
the message switching technique.

iii. Packet Switching

The packet switching is a switching technique in which the message is sent in one go,
but it is divided into smaller pieces, and they are sent individually.
The message splits into smaller pieces known as packets and packets are given a unique
number to identify their order at the receiving end.
Every packet contains some information in its headers such as source address, destination
address and sequence number.
Packets will travel across the network, taking the shortest path as possible.
All the packets are reassembled at the receiving end in correct order.
If any packet is missing or corrupted, then the message will be sent to resend the message.
If the correct order of the packets is reached, then the acknowledgment message will be
sent.
 Figure 9.42: Concept of Packet Switching

There are two approaches to Packet Switching:

a. Datagram Packet switching:

It is a packet switching technology in which packet is known as a datagram, is
considered as an independent entity. Each packet contains the information about
the destination and switch uses this information to forward the packet to the
correct destination.
The packets are reassembled at the receiving end in correct order.
In Datagram Packet Switching technique, the path is not fixed.
Intermediate nodes take the routing decisions to forward the packets.
Datagram Packet Switching is also known as connectionless switching.
b. Virtual Circuit Switching
Virtual Circuit Switching is also known as connection-oriented switching.
In the case of Virtual circuit switching, a preplanned route is established before
the messages are sent.
Call request and call accept packets are used to establish the connection between
sender and receiver.
In this case, the path is fixed for the duration of a logical connection.
Let's understand the concept of virtual circuit switching through a diagram:
 In the above diagram, A and B are the sender and receiver respectively. 1 and 2
are the nodes.
Call request and call accept packets are used to establish a connection between
the sender and receiver.
When a route is established, data will be transfer.
After transmission of data, an acknowledgment signal sent by the receiver that
the message has been received.
If the user wants to terminate the connection, a clear signal is sent for the
termination.

Advantages Of Packet Switching:

Cost-effective: In packet switching technique, switching devices do not require
massive secondary storage to store the packets, so cost is minimized to some extent.
Therefore, we can say that the packet switching technique is a cost-effective
technique.
Reliable: If any node is busy, then the packets can be rerouted. This ensures that the
Packet Switching technique provides reliable communication.
Efficient: Packet Switching is an efficient technique. It does not require any
established path prior to the transmission, and many users can use the same
communication channel simultaneously, hence makes use of available bandwidth
very efficiently.
Disadvantages Of Packet Switching:
Packet Switching technique cannot be implemented in those applications that require
low delay and high-quality services.
The protocols used in a packet switching technique are very complex and requires
high implementation cost.
 If the network is overloaded or corrupted, then it requires retransmission of lost
packets, it can also lead to the loss of critical information if errors are nor recovered.
Cellular Architecture

A network of cells each with a base station.

A packet switched network for communication between the base stations and mobile
switching centers.
The public switched telephone network to connect subscribers to the wider telephony
network

Cellular Configuration
In all cellular systems, land area is divided into a number of cells each with its radio service. In AMPS
the area is large which in digital services, the area is much smaller. Conventionally cells are hexagonal
in shape. Each cell uses a frequency range that is not use by its adjacent cells. However, frequencies
may be reused in non-adjacent cells.
At the center of each cell is a base station through which mobile phones and other mobile devices
transmit data and voice.
The following diagram represents the configuration.

Mobile Switching Centre's

A mobile switching Centre (MSC) is a network switching subsystem of a cellular phone system. It is
also called mobile telephone switching office (MTSO). All base stations are connected to an MSC.

Call set-up and release.

Routing of calls and messages sent via SMS.
Managing conference calls and calls on hold.
Fax services.
Billing
Interfacing with other networks like public switched telephone network (PSTN) and
Internet.

Figure 9.12: Switching Center

 Chapter 10
Data Encoding & Modulation
Encoding and Modulation
Encoding is the process of converting data into a format required for a number of information
processing needs, including:

Program compiling and execution.

Data transmission, storage and compression/decompression.
Application data processing, such as file conversion.
Encoding is also used to reduce the size of audio and video files.
E.g. ASCII (American standard code for Information Interchange), MIME (Multipurpose
Internet Mail Extensions).
Modulation is the process of varying one or more properties of a high frequency signal called carrier
signal according with a modulating signal, which typically contains information to be transmitted. The
technique of superimposing the message signal on the carrier is known as modulation. The three key
parameters are: Amplitude (volume), phase (Phase) and frequency (Pitch). Modulation of a sine waveform
is used to transform a baseband message into a pass band signal, for example low frequency audio signal
into a radio frequency signal (RF Signal).
Encoding Techniques
The data encoding technique is divided into the following types, depending upon the type of data
conversion.

Analog data to Analog signals the modulation techniques such as Amplitude

Modulation, Frequency Modulation and Phase Modulation of analog signals, fall under
this category.
Analog data to Digital signals this process can be termed as digitization, which is
done by Pulse Code Modulation PCM. Hence, it is nothing but digital modulation. As
we have already discussed, sampling and quantization are the important factors in this.
Delta Modulation gives a better output than PCM.
Digital data to Analog signals the modulation techniques such as Amplitude Shift
Keying ASK, Frequency Shift Keying FSK, Phase Shift Keying PSK, etc., fall under
this category.
Digital data to Digital signals

Digital Transmission
Data can be represented either in analog or digital form. The computers used the digital form to
store the information. Therefore, the data needs to be convert into digital form so that a computer can use
it.
A line code is the code used for data transmission of a digital signal over a transmission line. This
process of coding is chosen to avoid overlap and distortion of signal such as inter-symbol interference.
 Properties of Line Coding

As the coding is done to make more bits transmit on a single signal, the bandwidth
used is much reduced.
For a given bandwidth, the power is efficiently used.
The probability of error is much reduced.
Error detection is done and the bipolar too has a correction capability.
Power density is much favorable.
The timing content is adequate.
Long strings of 1s and 0s is avoided to maintain transparency.

DIGITAL-TO-DIGITAL CONVERSION
Digital-to-digital encoding is the representation of digital information by a digital signal. When binary
1s and 0s generated by the computer are translated into a sequence of voltage pulses that can be
propagated over a wire, this process is known as digital-to-digital encoding.

Digital-to-digital encoding divided into three categories:

i. Unipolar
Digital transmission system sends the voltage pulses over the medium link such as wire
or cable.
In most types of encoding, one voltage level represents 0, and another voltage level
represents 1.
The polarity of each pulse determines whether it is positive or negative.
This type of encoding is known as Unipolar encoding as it uses only one polarity.
In Unipolar encoding, the polarity is assigned to the 1 binary state.
In this, 1s are represented as a positive value and 0s are represented as a zero value.
 In Unipolar Encoding, '1' is considered as a high voltage and '0' is considered as a zero
voltage.
Unipolar encoding is simpler and inexpensive to implement.
Unipolar encoding has two problems that make this scheme less desirable:
DC Component
Synchronization

ii. Polar
Polar encoding is an encoding scheme that uses two voltage levels: one is positive, and
another is negative.
By using two voltage levels, an average voltage level is reduced, and the DC component
problem of unipolar encoding scheme is alleviated.

a) NRZ
NRZ stands for Non-return zero.
In NRZ encoding, the level of the signal can be represented either positive or negative.
 The two most common methods used in NRZ are:
NRZ-L: In NRZ-L encoding, the level of the signal depends on the type of the bit that it
represents. If a bit is 0 or 1, then their voltages will be positive and negative respectively.
Therefore, we can say that the level of the signal is dependent on the state of the bit.
NRZ-I: NRZ-I is an inversion of the voltage level that represents 1 bit. In the NRZ-I
encoding scheme, a transition occurs between the positive and negative voltage that
represents 1 bit. In this scheme, 0 bit represents no change and 1 bit represents a change
in voltage level.

b) RZ
RZ stands for Return to zero.
There must be a signal change for each bit to achieve synchronization. However, to
change with every bit, we need to have three values: positive, negative and zero.
RZ is an encoding scheme that provides three values, positive voltage represents 1, the
negative voltage represents 0, and zero voltage represents none.
In the RZ scheme, halfway through each interval, the signal returns to zero.
In RZ scheme, 1 bit is represented by positive-to-zero and 0 bit is represented by
negative-to-zero.
 Disadvantage of RZ:
It performs two signal changes to encode one bit that acquires more bandwidth.

c) Biphase
Biphase is an encoding scheme in which signal changes at the middle of the bit interval
but does not return to zero.
Biphase encoding is implemented in two different ways:

Manchester
It changes the signal at the middle of the bit interval but does not return to zero for
synchronization.
In Manchester encoding, a negative-to-positive transition represents binary 1, and
positive-to-negative transition represents 0.
Manchester has the same level of synchronization as RZ scheme except that it has two
levels of amplitude.
Differential Manchester
It changes the signal at the middle of the bit interval for synchronization, but the presence
or absence of the transition at the beginning of the interval determines the bit. A transition
means binary 0 and no transition means binary 1.
In Manchester Encoding scheme, two signal changes represent 0 and one signal change
represent 1.
iii. Bipolar
Bipolar encoding scheme represents three voltage levels: positive, negative, and zero.
In Bipolar encoding scheme, zero level represents binary 0, and binary 1 is represented by
alternating positive and negative voltages.
If the first 1 bit is represented by positive amplitude, then the second 1 bit is represented
by negative voltage, third 1 bit is represented by the positive amplitude and so on. This
alternation can also occur even when the 1bits are not consecutive.
Bipolar can be classified as:

a) AMI
 AMI stands for alternate mark inversion where mark work comes from telegraphy, which
means 1. So, it can be redefined as alternate 1 inversion.
In Bipolar AMI encoding scheme, 0 bit is represented by zero level and 1 bit is
represented by alternating positive and negative voltages.
Advantage:
DC component is zero.
Sequence of 1s bits are synchronized.
Disadvantage:
This encoding scheme does not ensure the synchronization of a long string of 0s
bits.

b) B8ZS
B8ZS stands for Bipolar 8-Zero Substitution.
This technique is adopted in North America to provide synchronization of a long
sequence of 0s bits.
In most of the cases, the functionality of B8ZS is similar to the bipolar AMI, but the only
difference is that it provides the synchronization when a long sequence of 0s bits occur.
B8ZS ensures synchronization of a long string of 0s by providing force artificial signal
changes called violations, within 0 string pattern.
When eight 0 occurs, then B8ZS implements some changes in 0s string pattern based on
the polarity of the previous 1 bit.
If the polarity of the previous 1 bit is positive, the eight 0s will be encoded as zero, zero,
zero, positive, negative, zero, negative, positive.
 If the polarity of previous 1 bit is negative, then the eight 0s will be encoded as zero,
zero, zero, negative, positive, zero, positive, negative.

c) HDB3
HDB3 stands for High-Density Bipolar 3.
HDB3 technique was first adopted in Europe and Japan.
HDB3 technique is designed to provide the synchronization of a long sequence of 0s bits.
In the HDB3 technique, the pattern of violation is based on the polarity of the previous
bit.
When four 0s occur, HDB3 looks at the number of 1s bits occurred since the last
substitution.
If the number of 1s bits is odd, then the violation is made on the fourth consecutive of 0.
If the polarity of the previous bit is positive, then the violation is positive. If the polarity
of the previous bit is negative, then the violation is negative.

If the number of 1s bits since the last substitution is odd.

If the number of 1s bits is even, then the violation is made on the place of the first and
fourth consecutive 0s. If the polarity of the previous bit is positive, then violations are
negative, and if the polarity of the previous bit is negative, then violations are positive.

If the number of 1s bits since the last substitution is even.

ANALOG-TO-DIGITAL CONVERSION

When an analog signal is digitalized, this is called an analog-to-digital conversion.

Suppose human sends a voice in the form of an analog signal, we need to digitalize the
analog signal which is less prone to noise. It requires a reduction in the number of values
in an analog message so that they can be represented in the digital stream.
In analog-to-digital conversion, the information contained in a continuous wave form is
converted in digital pulses.
Techniques for Analog-To-Digital Conversion

i. PAM
PAM stands for pulse amplitude modulation.
PAM is a technique used in analog-to-digital conversion.
PAM technique takes an analog signal, samples it, and generates a series of digital pulses
based on the result of sampling where sampling means measuring the amplitude of a signal
at equal intervals.
PAM technique is not useful in data communication as it translates the original wave form
into pulses, but these pulses are not digital. To make them digital, PAM technique is
modified to PCM technique.
ii. PCM
PCM stands for Pulse Code Modulation.
PCM technique used to modify the pulses created by PAM to form a digital signal. To
achieve this, PCM quantizes PAM pulses. Quantization is a process of assigning integral
values in a specific range to sampled instances.
PCM is made of four separate processes: PAM, quantization, binary encoding, and digital-
to-digital encoding.
Digital to analog
To send the digital data over an analog media, it needs to be converted into analog signal. There can be two
cases according to data formatting.

Band-pass: The filters are used to filter and pass frequencies of interest. A bandpass is a
band of frequencies, which can pass the filter.

Low-pass: Low-pass is a filter that passes low frequencies signals.

When digital data is converted into a bandpass analog signal, it is called digital-to-analog
conversion. When low-pass analog signal is converted into bandpass analog signal, it is
called analog-to-analog conversion.

Digital-to-Analog Conversion

When data from one computer is sent to another via some analog carrier, it is first converted
into analog signals. Analog signals are modified to reflect digital data.
An analog signal is characterized by its amplitude, frequency, and phase. There are three
kinds of digital-to-analog conversions:

i. Amplitude Shift Keying

 In this conversion technique, the amplitude of analog carrier signal is modified to reflect
binary data.

Figure 10.43: Amplitude Shift Keying

When binary data represents digit 1, the amplitude is held; otherwise, it is set to 0. Both
frequency and phase remain same as in the original carrier signal.

ii. Frequency Shift Keying

In this conversion technique, the frequency of the analog carrier signal is modified to reflect
binary data.
 Figure 10.44: Frequency Shift Keying
This technique uses two frequencies, f1 and f2. One of them, for example f1, is chosen to
represent binary digit 1 and the other one is used to represent binary digit 0. Both amplitude
and phase of the carrier wave kept intact.

iii. Phase Shift Keying

In this conversion scheme, the phase of the original carrier signal is altered to reflect the
binary data.

Figure 10.45: Phase Shift Keying

 When a new binary symbol is encountered, the phase of the signal is altered. Amplitude
and frequency of the original carrier signal is kept intact.

iv. Quadrature Phase Shift Keying

QPSK alters the phase to reflect two binary digits at once. This is done in two different
phases. The main stream of binary data is divided equally into two sub-streams. The serial
data is converted in to parallel in both sub-streams and then each stream is converted to
digital signal using NRZ technique. Later, both the digital signals are merged together.

Analog-to-Analog Conversion

Analog-to-analog conversion, or modulation, is the representation of analog information

by an analog signal. A characteristic of carrier wave is varied according to the instantaneous
amplitude of the modulating signal by virtue of a process. This modulation is generally needed
when a bandpass channel is required. Bandpass is a range of frequencies, which are transmitted
through a bandpass filter which is a filter allowing specific frequencies to pass preventing
signals at unwanted frequencies.

Analog-to-Analog conversion can be done in three ways:

1. Amplitude Modulation
2. Frequency Modulation
3. Phase Modulation

1. Amplitude Modulation
Amplitude modulation is a process by which the wave signal is transmitted by modulating
the amplitude of the signal. It is often called as AM and is commonly used in transmitting a piece
of information through a radio carrier wave. Amplitude modulation is mostly used in the form of
electronic communication.
Currently, this technique is used in many areas of communication such as in portable two-
way radios, citizens band radio, VHF aircraft radio and in modems for computers. Amplitude
modulation is also used to mention the mediumwave AM radio broadcasting.
What is Amplitude Modulation?
Amplitude modulation or just AM is one of the earliest modulation methods that is used in
transmitting information over the radio. This technique was devised in the 20th century at a time
when Landell de Moura and Reginald Fessenden were conducting experiments using a
radiotelephone in the 1900s. After successful attempts, the modulation technique was established
and used in electronic communication.
In general, amplitude modulation definition is given as a type of modulation where the
amplitude of the carrier wave is varied in some proportion with respect to the modulating data or
the signal.
 As for the mechanism, when amplitude modulation is used there is a variation in the
amplitude of the carrier. Here, the voltage or the power level of the information signal changes the
amplitude of the carrier. In AM, the carrier does not vary in amplitude. However, the modulating
data is in the form of signal components consisting of frequencies either higher or lower than that
of the carrier. The signal components are known as sidebands and the sideband power is responsible
for the variations in the overall amplitude of the signal.
The AM technique is totally different from frequency modulation and phase modulation
where the frequency of the carrier signal is varied in the first case and in the second one the phase
is varied respectively.
Types of Amplitude Modulation
There are three main types of amplitude modulation. They are;

Double sideband-suppressed carrier modulation (DSB-SC).

Single Sideband Modulation (SSB).
Vestigial Sideband Modulation (VSB).
 Carrier wave
Modulation signal
Amplitude modulated Wave

Modulation index =

Bandwidth
Advantages of Amplitude Modulation
1. Few components needed: At the receiver side, the original signal is extracted (demodulated)
using a circuit consisting of very few components.
 2. Low cost: The components used in amplitude modulation is very cheap. So the AM transmitter
and AM receiver build at low cost.
3. It is simple to implement.
4. Long distance communication: Amplitude modulated waves can travel a longer distance.
Disadvantages of Amplitude Modulation
1. Amplitude modulation is inefficient in terms of its power usage: As we know that the
message signal contains information whereas the carrier signal does not contain any information. In
amplitude modulation, most of the power is concentrated in the carrier signal which contains no
information. At the receiver side, the power consumed by the carrier wave is wasted.
2. It requires high bandwidth: The amplitude modulation is not efficient in terms of its use of
bandwidth. It requires a bandwidth equal to twice that of the highest audio signal frequency.
3. This type of transmission can be easily affected by the external radiation.
4. This type of transmission is also affected by the man-made noises or radiations like waves from
other antennas or channels.
5. Amplitude modulation (AM) cannot be used for transmitting music as done by frequency
modulation (FM).
6. Amplitude modulation cannot be used for transmission of sensitive information like in the army,
where interpretation or loss or disruption during transmission is not an option.
Applications of Amplitude Modulation
1. Air band radio: The amplitude modulation is extensively used in aerospace industry. The VHF
(Very High Frequency) transmissions made by the airborne equipment still use amplitude
modulation. The radio contact between ground to ground and also ground to air use amplitude
modulated (AM) signals.
2. Broadcast transmission: Amplitude modulation (AM) is still widely used for broadcasting
either short or medium or long wave bands.
3. Quadrature amplitude modulation: Amplitude modulation is used in the transmission of data
of almost everything, from short-range transmission such as wifi to cellular communications.
Quadrature amplitude modulation is formed by mixing two carriers that are out of phase by 90°.
4. Single sideband: The amplitude modulation (AM) in the form of single sideband is still used
for HF (High Frequency) radio links.

2. Frequency Modulation

Frequency modulation is a type of modulation where the frequency of the carrier signal
varies as per amplitude variations of the message signal.
or
Frequency modulation is a type of modulation where the information (message signal) is
transmitted over a carrier wave by varying its frequency in accordance with the amplitude
of the message signal.
or
Frequency modulation is the process of superimposing the message signal onto the carrier
signal and the resulting wave with variable frequency is called a frequency modulated
wave.
or
Frequency modulation is the process of transmitting information over a carrier wave by
varying its frequency in accordance with the amplitude of the message signal.

Frequency Modulation Diagram

In frequency modulation, the frequency of the carrier signal is varied whereas the
amplitude of the carrier signal remains constant. Frequency modulation is also simply
referred to as FM.
The below figures show the frequency modulation.
The first figure shows the message signal or modulating signal which contains information,
the second figure shows the high frequency carrier wave which contains no information,
and the last figure shows the resultant frequency modulated wave.
The third figure shows that the frequency of both the positive and negative half cycles of
the carrier wave is varied in accordance with the instant amplitude of the modulating signal
(message signal).
In frequency modulation, the amount of change in frequency of the carrier signal is
the
carrier signal has a frequency deviation of ± 4 kHz. In such case, the carrier signal will
move up and down by 4 kHz. The frequency of the modulated wave is high when the
message signal reaches its maximum amplitude.
The carrier wave does not contain any information so even if we change the frequency of
the carrier wave, there will be no information loss. However, if we change the frequency
of the modulating signal, some amount of information loss will occur because the
modulating signal contains the information. So the frequency of the modulating signal
should not be changed.
Amplitude modulation was the first modulation technique developed to transmit voice
signals by using radio waves. Frequency modulation was developed after amplitude
modulation. The main advantage of frequency modulation over amplitude modulation is
that it is more resistant to additive noise than amplitude modulation.
As we know that the message signal contains information. However, we cannot transmit
message signals to very large distances because of its low signal strength. Hence we use a
high signal strength carrier wave to transmit information over very large distances. In
simple words, the message signal takes the help of a carrier signal to transmit information
over very large distances.
The frequency modulation technique is widely used for FM broadcasting. It is also used in
radar, telemetry, seismic prospecting, video transmission systems, music synthesis, two-
way radio systems, and magnetic tape recording systems.
The main advantage of frequency modulation (FM) in radio transmission is that it has a
large signal-to-noise ratio (ratio of signal power to the noise power) and therefore rejects
radio frequency interference better than the amplitude modulation (AM). Hence, most
music is broadcast over FM radio.
The frequency modulation and phase modulation belongs to the family of angle
modulation. Frequency and phase modulation are dependent on each other. When the
frequency of the carrier signal varies, the phase of the carrier signal also varies. Similarly,
when the phase of the carrier signal varies, the frequency of the carrier signal also varies.
However, if frequency is varied directly, then it is called frequency modulation. And if
phase is varied directly, then it is called phase modulation.
Modulation Index of Frequency Modulation
Frequency modulation index describes how the frequency of the carrier signal and
amplitude of message signal affects the frequency of the frequency modulated (FM) signal.
or
Frequency modulation index is defined as the ratio of maximum frequency deviation of the
carrier signal to the frequency of the message signal.

Where,
Fm = Frequency of the message signal
Frequency Modulation Deviation Ratio
Frequency modulation deviation ratio is defined as the ratio of the maximum carrier
frequency deviation to the highest message signal frequency.

Types of frequency modulation

Normally an unmodulated carrier signal contains a single frequency. However, when the
carrier signal is mixed with the message signal, two additional frequencies are created for
the frequency modulated signal. These additional frequencies are known as sidebands. The
 highest frequency of the carrier signal is known as upper sideband and the lowest frequency
of the carrier signal is known as lower sideband.
The bandwidth of the modulated signal can be obtained by taking the difference between
the highest and lowest frequencies of the modulated signal. The bandwidth of an FM signal
is depends on the frequency deviation. When the frequency deviation is high, the
bandwidth required will be large; and when the frequency deviation is low, the bandwidth
required is low. Depending on the bandwidth requirement, frequency modulation can be
divided into two types: Wideband FM and Narrowband FM.
Wideband FM
In wideband FM, the modulation index normally exceeds 1.
The frequency deviation is very high in wideband FM. However, the maximum permissible
frequency deviation is 75 KHz.
The wideband FM has infinite bandwidth.
The noise will be better suppressed in wideband FM because of its large frequency
deviation.
Wideband FM occupies up to 15 times the bandwidth of the narrowband FM.
Because of its high quality transmission, wideband FM is used in entertainment
broadcasting.
Narrowband FM
The modulation index in narrowband FM is nearly unity.
The frequency deviation is very low in narrowband FM. The maximum frequency
deviation is 5 kHz.
Narrowband FM is frequently used for short distance communications.
Because of its low quality transmission, narrowband FM is used for mobile
communications.
Advantages of Frequency modulation
i. All the power transmitted in frequency modulation is useful whereas in
amplitude modulation, most of the power is in carrier (which is useless).
ii. Adjacent channel interference does not takes place in frequency modulation.
iii. High signal to noise ratio (S/N). In simple words, it has less noise.
Drawbacks of Frequency modulation
It requires wider bandwidth than amplitude modulation.
Applications of frequency modulation
1. FM broadcasting
2. Radar
3. Magnetic tape recording systems
4. Telemetry
5. Two-way radio systems
6. Music synthesis
7. Seismic prospecting
8. Video transmission systems

3. Phase Modulation
Phase modulation is a type of modulation where the phase of the carrier signal varies as
per amplitude variations of the message signal.
or
Phase modulation is a type of angle modulation in which the total phase angle of the carrier
signal is varied in accordance with the amplitude of the message signal.
or
Phase modulation is the process of transmitting information over a carrier wave by varying
its phase in accordance with the amplitude of the message signal.
Phase Modulation Diagram
In phase modulation, the phase of the carrier signal is varied whereas the amplitude of the
carrier signal remains constant. Phase modulation is also referred to as PM.
The below three figures show the phase modulation.
The first figure shows the low frequency modulating signal or message signal which
contains useful information, the second figure shows the high frequency carrier wave
which does not contain any information, and the last figure shows the resultant phase
modulated signal.
The third figure shows that the phase of both the positive and negative half cycles of the
carrier signal varies as per amplitude variations of the modulating signal. During the
positive half cycle, the carrier signal phase shifts in one direction, whereas during the
negative half cycle, the carrier signal phase shifts in the opposite direction.
In phase modulation, the phase deviation is directly proportional to the amplitude of
message signal.
The noise immunity of the phase modulation is better than amplitude modulation.
However, the noise immunity of the phase modulation is not as good as frequency
modulation.
The signal-to-noise (SNR) ratio of the phase modulation is better than amplitude
modulation. However, the signal-to-noise (SNR) of the phase modulation is not as good as
frequency modulation.
The modulation index of phase modulation is directly proportional to the message signal.
Phase modulation is primarily used for some mobile radio services.
The phase modulation and frequency modulation are closely related to each other. In both
phase and frequency modulation, the total phase angle of the modulated signal varies.
In practice, the phase modulation and frequency modulation are dependent on each other.
When the phase of the carrier signal varies, the frequency of the carrier signal also varies.
Similarly, when the frequency of the carrier signal varies, the phase of the carrier signal
also varies. However, the phase modulation and frequency modulation are not directly
proportional to each other.
In frequency modulation, the total phase angle of a carrier wave changes for a short period
due to the change in frequency of the carrier wave. In phase modulation, the frequency of
a carrier wave changes for a short period due to the change in phase of a carrier wave.