Multiple access protocol-

ALOHA, CSMA, CSMA/CA and

CSMA/CD
Data Link Layer
The data link layer is used in a computer network to transmit the data between two devices
or nodes. It divides the layer into parts such as data link control and the multiple access
resolution/protocol. The upper layer has the responsibility to flow control and the error
control in the data link layer, and hence it is termed as logical of data link control. Whereas
the lower sub-layer is used to handle and reduce the collision or multiple access on a
channel. Hence it is termed as media access control or the multiple access resolutions.
Data Link Control
A data link control is a reliable channel for transmitting data over a dedicated link using
various techniques such as framing, error control and flow control of data packets in the
computer network.
What is a multiple access protocol?
When a sender and receiver have a dedicated link to transmit data packets, the data link
control is enough to handle the channel. Suppose there is no dedicated path to
communicate or transfer the data between two devices. In that case, multiple stations
access the channel and simultaneously transmits the data over the channel. It may create
collision and cross talk. Hence, the multiple access protocol is required to reduce the
collision and avoid crosstalk between the channels.
For example, suppose that there is a classroom full of students. When a teacher asks a
question, all the students (small channels) in the class start answering the question at the
same time (transferring the data simultaneously). All the students respond at the same time
due to which data is overlap or data lost. Therefore it is the responsibility of a teacher
(multiple access protocol) to manage the students and make them one answer.
Following are the types of multiple access protocol that is subdivided into the different
process as:
A. Random Access Protocol
In this protocol, all the station has the equal priority to send the data over a channel. In
random access protocol, one or more stations cannot depend on another station nor any
station control another station. Depending on the channel's state (idle or busy), each station
transmits the data frame. However, if more than one station sends the data over a channel,
there may be a collision or data conflict. Due to the collision, the data frame packets may be
lost or changed. And hence, it does not receive by the receiver end.
Following are the different methods of random-access protocols for broadcasting frames on
the channel.
o Aloha
o CSMA
o CSMA/CD
o CSMA/CA
ALOHA Random Access Protocol
It is designed for wireless LAN (Local Area Network) but can also be used in a shared
medium to transmit data. Using this method, any station can transmit data across a network
simultaneously when a data frameset is available for transmission.
Aloha Rules
1. Any station can transmit data to a channel at any time.
2. It does not require any carrier sensing.
3. Collision and data frames may be lost during the transmission of data through
multiple stations.
4. Acknowledgment of the frames exists in Aloha. Hence, there is no collision detection.
5. It requires retransmission of data after some random amount of time.

Pure Aloha
Whenever data is available for sending over a channel at stations, we use Pure Aloha. In
pure Aloha, when each station transmits data to a channel without checking whether the
channel is idle or not, the chances of collision may occur, and the data frame can be lost.
When any station transmits the data frame to a channel, the pure Aloha waits for the
receiver's acknowledgment. If it does not acknowledge the receiver end within the specified
time, the station waits for a random amount of time, called the backoff time (Tb). And the
station may assume the frame has been lost or destroyed. Therefore, it retransmits the
frame until all the data are successfully transmitted to the receiver.
1. The total vulnerable time of pure Aloha is 2 * Tfr.
2. Maximum throughput occurs when G = 1/ 2 that is 18.4%.
3. Successful transmission of data frame is S = G * e ^ - 2 G.

As we can see in the figure above, there are four stations for accessing a shared channel and
transmitting data frames. Some frames collide because most stations send their frames at
the same time. Only two frames, frame 1.1 and frame 2.2, are successfully transmitted to
the receiver end. At the same time, other frames are lost or destroyed. Whenever two
frames fall on a shared channel simultaneously, collisions can occur, and both will suffer
damage. If the new frame's first bit enters the channel before finishing the last bit of the
second frame. Both frames are completely finished, and both stations must retransmit the
data frame.
Slotted Aloha
The slotted Aloha is designed to overcome the pure Aloha's efficiency because pure Aloha
has a very high possibility of frame hitting. In slotted Aloha, the shared channel is divided
into a fixed time interval called slots. So that, if a station wants to send a frame to a shared
channel, the frame can only be sent at the beginning of the slot, and only one frame is
allowed to be sent to each slot. And if the stations are unable to send data to the beginning
of the slot, the station will have to wait until the beginning of the slot for the next time.
However, the possibility of a collision remains when trying to send a frame at the beginning
of two or more station time slot.
1. Maximum throughput occurs in the slotted Aloha when G = 1 that is 37%.
2. The probability of successfully transmitting the data frame in the slotted Aloha is S =
G * e ^ - 2 G.
3. The total vulnerable time required in slotted Aloha is Tfr.
CSMA (Carrier Sense Multiple Access)
It is a carrier sense multiple access based on media access protocol to sense the traffic on a
channel (idle or busy) before transmitting the data. It means that if the channel is idle, the
station can send data to the channel. Otherwise, it must wait until the channel becomes idle.
Hence, it reduces the chances of a collision on a transmission medium.
CSMA Access Modes
1-Persistent: In the 1-Persistent mode of CSMA that defines each node, first sense the
shared channel and if the channel is idle, it immediately sends the data. Else it must wait
and keep track of the status of the channel to be idle and broadcast the frame
unconditionally as soon as the channel is idle.
Non-Persistent: It is the access mode of CSMA that defines before transmitting the data,
each node must sense the channel, and if the channel is inactive, it immediately sends the
data. Otherwise, the station must wait for a random time (not continuously), and when the
channel is found to be idle, it transmits the frames.
P-Persistent: It is the combination of 1-Persistent and Non-persistent modes. The P-
Persistent mode defines that each node senses the channel, and if the channel is inactive, it
sends a frame with a P probability. If the data is not transmitted, it waits for a (q = 1-p
probability) random time and resumes the frame with the next time slot.
O- Persistent: It is an O-persistent method that defines the superiority of the station before
the transmission of the frame on the shared channel. If it is found that the channel is
inactive, each station waits for its turn to retransmit the data.
CSMA/ CD
It is a carrier sense multiple access/ collision detection network protocol to transmit data
frames. The CSMA/CD protocol works with a medium access control layer. Therefore, it first
senses the shared channel before broadcasting the frames, and if the channel is idle, it
transmits a frame to check whether the transmission was successful. If the frame is
successfully received, the station sends another frame. If any collision is detected in the
CSMA/CD, the station sends a jam/ stop signal to the shared channel to terminate data
transmission. After that, it waits for a random time before sending a frame to a channel.
CSMA/ CA
It is a carrier sense multiple access/collision avoidance network protocol for carrier
transmission of data frames. It is a protocol that works with a medium access control layer.
When a data frame is sent to a channel, it receives an acknowledgment to check whether
the channel is clear. If the station receives only a single (own) acknowledgments, that means
the data frame has been successfully transmitted to the receiver. But if it gets two signals (its
own and one more in which the collision of frames), a collision of the frame occurs in the
shared channel. Detects the collision of the frame when a sender receives an
acknowledgment signal.
Following are the methods used in the CSMA/ CA to avoid the collision:
Interframe space: In this method, the station waits for the channel to become idle, and if it
gets the channel is idle, it does not immediately send the data. Instead of this, it waits for
some time, and this time period is called the Interframe space or IFS. However, the IFS time
is often used to define the priority of the station.
Contention window: In the Contention window, the total time is divided into different slots.
When the station/ sender is ready to transmit the data frame, it chooses a random slot
number of slots as wait time. If the channel is still busy, it does not restart the entire
process, except that it restarts the timer only to send data packets when the channel is
inactive.
Acknowledgment: In the acknowledgment method, the sender station sends the data frame
to the shared channel if the acknowledgment is not received ahead of time.
B. Controlled Access Protocol
It is a method of reducing data frame collision on a shared channel. In the controlled access
method, each station interacts and decides to send a data frame by a particular station
approved by all other stations. It means that a single station cannot send the data frames
unless all other stations are not approved. It has three types of controlled
access: Reservation, Polling, and Token Passing.
C. Channelization Protocols
It is a channelization protocol that allows the total usable bandwidth in a shared channel to
be shared across multiple stations based on their time, distance and codes. It can access all
the stations at the same time to send the data frames to the channel.
Following are the various methods to access the channel based on their time, distance and
codes:
1. FDMA (Frequency Division Multiple Access)
2. TDMA (Time Division Multiple Access)
3. CDMA (Code Division Multiple Access)
FDMA
It is a frequency division multiple access (FDMA) method used to divide the available
bandwidth into equal bands so that multiple users can send data through a different
frequency to the subchannel. Each station is reserved with a particular band to prevent the
crosstalk between the channels and interferences of stations.

TDMA
Time Division Multiple Access (TDMA) is a channel access method. It allows the same
frequency bandwidth to be shared across multiple stations. And to avoid collisions in the
shared channel, it divides the channel into different frequency slots that allocate stations to
transmit the data frames. The same frequency bandwidth into the shared channel by
dividing the signal into various time slots to transmit it. However, TDMA has an overhead of
synchronization that specifies each station's time slot by adding synchronization bits to each
slot.
CDMA
The code division multiple access (CDMA) is a channel access method. In CDMA, all stations
can simultaneously send the data over the same channel. It means that it allows each station
to transmit the data frames with full frequency on the shared channel at all times. It does
not require the division of bandwidth on a shared channel based on time slots. If multiple
stations send data to a channel simultaneously, their data frames are separated by a unique
code sequence. Each station has a different unique code for transmitting the data over a
shared channel. For example, there are multiple users in a room that are continuously
speaking. Data is received by the users if only two-person interact with each other using the
same language. Similarly, in the network, if different stations communicate with each other
simultaneously with different code language.

What is Ethernet?
A LAN is a data communication network connecting various terminals or computers within a
building or limited geographical area. The connection between the devices could be wired or
wireless. Ethernet, Token rings, and Wireless LAN using IEEE 802.11 are examples of
standard LAN technologies.In this article we will see ethernet in detail.
Ethernet
Ethernet is the most widely used LAN technology and is defined under IEEE standards 802.3.
The reason behind its wide usability is that Ethernet is easy to understand, implement, and
maintain, and allows low-cost network implementation. Also, Ethernet offers flexibility in
terms of the topologies that are allowed. Ethernet generally uses a bus topology. Ethernet
operates in two layers of the OSI model, the physical layer and the data link layer. For
Ethernet, the protocol data unit is a frame since we mainly deal with DLLs. In order to handle
collisions, the Access control mechanism used in Ethernet is CSMA/CD.
Although Ethernet has been largely replaced by wireless networks.A wired networking still
uses Ethernet more frequently. Wi-Fi eliminates the need for cables by enabling users to
connect their smartphones or laptops to a network wirelessly. The 802.11ac Wi-Fi standard
offers faster maximum data transfer rates when compared to Gigabit Ethernet. However,
wired connections are more secure and less susceptible to interference than wireless
networks.
History of Ethernet
Robert Metcalfe’s invention of Ethernet in 1973 completely changed computer networking.
With Ethernet Version 2’s support for 10 Mbps and an initial data rate of 2.94 Mbps, it first
gained popularity in 1982. Ethernet’s adoption was accelerated by the IEEE 802.3
standardization in 1983. Local area networks (LANs) and the internet were able to expand
quickly because of the rapid evolution and advancement of Ethernet, which over time
reached speeds of 100 Mbps, 1 Gbps, 10 Gbps, and higher. It evolved into the standard
technology for wired network connections, enabling dependable and quick data
transmission for private residences, commercial buildings, and data centers all over the
world.
There are different types of Ethernet networks that are used to connect devices and transfer
data.
Let’s discuss them in simple terms:
1. Fast Ethernet: This type of Ethernet network uses cables called twisted pair or CAT5.
It can transfer data at a speed of around 100 Mbps (megabits per second). Fast
Ethernet uses both fiber optic and twisted pair cables to enable communication.
There are three categories of Fast Ethernet: 100BASE-TX, 100BASE-FX, and 100BASE-
T4.
2. Gigabit Ethernet: This is an upgrade from Fast Ethernet and is more common
nowadays. It can transfer data at a speed of 1000 Mbps or 1 Gbps (gigabit per
second). Gigabit Ethernet also uses fiber optic and twisted pair cables for
communication. It often uses advanced cables like CAT5e, which can transfer data at
a speed of 10 Gbps.
3. 10-Gigabit Ethernet: This is an advanced and high-speed network that can transmit
data at a speed of 10 gigabits per second. It uses special cables like CAT6a or CAT7
twisted-pair cables and fiber optic cables. With the help of fiber optic cables, this
network can cover longer distances, up to around 10,000 meters.
4. Switch Ethernet: This type of network involves using switches or hubs to improve
network performance. Each workstation in this network has its own dedicated
connection, which improves the speed and efficiency of data transfer. Switch
Ethernet supports a wide range of speeds, from 10 Mbps to 10 Gbps, depending on
the version of Ethernet being used.
In summary, Fast Ethernet is the basic version with a speed of 100 Mbps, Gigabit Ethernet is
faster with a speed of 1 Gbps, 10-Gigabit Ethernet is even faster with a speed of 10 Gbps,
and Switch Ethernet uses switches or hubs to enhance network performance.The
Manchester Encoding Technique is used in Ethernet. Using Manchester encoding, data can
be transmitted over a physical medium in communication systems. It is a type of line coding
where the signal transitions, as opposed to the absolute voltage levels, serve as the data
representation.
Each bit of information is split into two equal time periods, or “halves,” in Manchester
encoding. If the signal level is higher during the first half of the bit period than it is during
the second, the result is a logic high (typically 1), or vice versa.

Since we are talking about IEEE 802.3 standard Ethernet, therefore, 0 is expressed by a high-
to-low transition, a 1 by the low-to-high transition. In both Manchester Encoding and
Differential Manchester, the Encoding Baud rate is double of bit rate.
Key Features of Ethernet
1. Speed: Ethernet is capable of transmitting data at high speeds, with current Ethernet
standards supporting speeds of up to 100 Gbps.
2. Flexibility: Ethernet is a flexible technology that can be used with a wide range of
devices and operating systems. It can also be easily scaled to accommodate a
growing number of users and devices.
3. Reliability: Ethernet is a reliable technology that uses error-correction techniques to
ensure that data is transmitted accurately and efficiently.
4. Cost-effectiveness: Ethernet is a cost-effective technology that is widely available and
easy to implement. It is also relatively low-maintenance, requiring minimal ongoing
support.
5. Interoperability: Ethernet is an interoperable technology that allows devices from
different manufacturers to communicate with each other seamlessly.
6. Security: Ethernet includes built-in security features, including encryption and
authentication, to protect data from unauthorized access.
7. Manageability: Ethernet networks are easily managed, with various tools available to
help network administrators monitor and control network traffic.
8. Compatibility: Ethernet is compatible with a wide range of other networking
technologies, making it easy to integrate with other systems and devices.
 9. Availability: Ethernet is a widely available technology that can be used in almost any
setting, from homes and small offices to large data centers and enterprise-level
networks.
10. Simplicity: Ethernet is a simple technology that is easy to understand and use. It does
not require specialized knowledge or expertise to set up and configure, making it
accessible to a wide range of users.
11. Standardization: Ethernet is a standardized technology, which means that all
Ethernet devices and systems are designed to work together seamlessly. This makes
it easier for network administrators to manage and troubleshoot Ethernet networks.
12. Scalability: Ethernet is highly scalable, which means it can easily accommodate the
addition of new devices, users, and applications without sacrificing performance or
reliability.
13. Broad compatibility: Ethernet is compatible with a wide range of protocols and
technologies, including TCP/IP, HTTP, FTP, and others. This makes it a versatile
technology that can be used in a variety of settings and applications.
14. Ease of integration: Ethernet can be easily integrated with other networking
technologies, such as Wi-Fi and Bluetooth, to create a seamless and integrated
network environment.
15. Ease of troubleshooting: Ethernet networks are easy to troubleshoot and diagnose,
thanks to a range of built-in diagnostic and monitoring tools. This makes it easier for
network administrators to identify and resolve issues quickly and efficiently.
16. Support for multimedia: Ethernet supports multimedia applications, such as video
and audio streaming, making it ideal for use in settings where multimedia content is
a key part of the user experience.Ethernet is a reliable, cost-effective, and widely
used LAN technology that offers high-speed connectivity and easy manageability for
local networks.
Advantages of Ethernet
Speed: When compared to a wireless connection, Ethernet provides significantly more
speed. Because Ethernet is a one-to-one connection, this is the case. As a result, speeds of
up to 10 Gigabits per second (Gbps) or even 100 Gigabits per second (Gbps) are possible.
Efficiency: An Ethernet cable, such as Cat6, consumes less electricity, even less than a wifi
connection. As a result, these ethernet cables are thought to be the most energy-efficient.
Good data transfer quality: Because it is resistant to noise, the information transferred is of
high quality.
Baud rate = 2* Bit rate
Disadvantages of Ethernet
Distance limitations: Ethernet has distance limitations, with the maximum cable length for a
standard Ethernet network being 100 meters. This means that it may not be suitable for
larger networks that require longer distances.
Bandwidth sharing: Ethernet networks share bandwidth among all connected devices,
which can result in reduced network speeds as the number of devices increases.
Security vulnerabilities: Although Ethernet includes built-in security features, it is still
vulnerable to security breaches, including unauthorized access and data interception.
Complexity: Ethernet networks can be complex to set up and maintain, requiring specialized
knowledge and expertise.
Compatibility issues: While Ethernet is generally interoperable with other networking
technologies, compatibility issues can arise when integrating with older or legacy systems.
Cable installation: Ethernet networks require the installation of physical cables, which can
be time-consuming and expensive to install.
Physical limitations: Ethernet networks require physical connections between devices,
which can limit mobility and flexibility in network design.

What is Backbone Network?

A backbone network is a central infrastructure that is designed to distribute different
networks and data across various interlinked networks in a larger network environment,
such as within a corporation, across multiple campuses, or across geographic regions. It's a
part of network architecture that provides a path for the exchange of information between
different LANs or sub-networks. A backbone can tie together diverse networks within the
same building, across different buildings, or over a wide area.
How Does a Backbone Network Work?
1. Backbone Network
The backbone network is essentially the main highway of network traffic, designed for high
capacity and expansive reach. This network acts as the core framework that interlinks
various key nodes, such as different regions, major data centers, and Internet Service
Providers (ISPs). It ensures that data can travel long distances quickly and efficiently.
Backbone networks are typically composed of high-bandwidth fiber optic cables and are
supported by high-performance routers and switches that can handle large amounts of data.
 Function: The primary function of the backbone network is to connect large and
geographically dispersed networks, including those of large enterprises, ISPs, and
even entire countries.
 Importance: It provides the essential infrastructure for the internet and cloud
services, making it possible for data to be exchanged globally at high speeds.
2. Distribution Network (Including Backhaul)
The distribution network serves as a bridge between the high-capacity backbone network
and the localized access networks. It includes the concept of backhaul, which refers to the
intermediate links between the core network and the peripheral networks. This part of the
network typically involves smaller data channels than the backbone and is used to distribute
the internet traffic from the backbone to specific areas, such as metropolitan area networks
(MANs), local neighborhoods, or individual buildings.
 Function: To distribute traffic from the backbone to regional or local areas.
  Example: This could include connecting a major city’s backbone connection to
various neighborhoods or business districts within the city.
3. Access Network (Last Mile)
The access network, often referred to as the "last mile," is the final segment of the network
that directly connects end users or subscribers to the internet. This part of the network
extends from the distribution network to individual customers' premises, such as homes,
offices, or specific buildings. The last mile can be wired, like using coaxial or fiber optic
cables, or wireless, such as 4G/5G mobile networks.
 Function: To provide the actual connection to the end users, allowing them to access
internet and cloud services.
 Challenges: This part of the network often faces challenges related to scalability,
quality of service, and maintenance, as it deals directly with the consumer.
Types of Backbone Networks
Backbone networks can be categorized into several types based on their structure and the
method they use to connect various parts of a network. Here are the main types of
backbone networks:
1. Serial Backbone: This is the simplest form of backbone where all the network devices are
connected in a single line or series. Each device is directly connected to two other devices,
except for those at the ends.
2. Distributed Backbone: In a distributed backbone, all of the network devices are
interconnected through one or more central devices, typically routers or switches. This
structure allows for better management and scalability compared to a serial backbone.
3. Collapsed Backbone: This type involves a single router or switch to which all other parts
of the network connect. It centralizes the network management but can create a bottleneck
if the central device fails or is overloaded.
4. Parallel Backbone: This configuration uses multiple backbone cables or paths to connect
the same devices, providing redundancy and increasing the overall network capacity and
reliability.
Functions of Backbone Network
The functions of Backbone Network are :
1. High-Capacity Data Transmission: It uses high-speed transmission technologies like fiber
optics to handle the massive data load needed for large-scale internet and enterprise
activities.
2. Interconnectivity: Acts as a central hub connecting smaller networks across geographic
regions, allowing them to communicate and share data seamlessly.
3. Scalability: Designed to be easily expandable, accommodating increasing amounts of data
and new technologies without major overhauls.
4. Redundancy: Includes multiple alternative routes for data to travel, ensuring that even if
one part of the network fails, the system as a whole remains operational.
5. Routing Management: Utilizes sophisticated routing protocols to determine the best
paths for data to follow for efficient and fast delivery.
Conclusion
In conclusion, understanding the backbone network is crucial for anyone involved in network
management or planning. This core component of networking infrastructure ensures
efficient, reliable, and scalable data transmission across various regions and systems.
Whether you're looking to improve your organization's connectivity or enhance the user
experience, mastering the fundamentals of backbone networks—ranging from types like
serial, distributed, collapsed, and parallel—is essential. As technology advances and the
demand for high-speed internet and cloud services grows, the role of backbone networks in
global and local communications continues to be pivotal.

Repeaters in Computer
Network
A computer network is made up of various devices, such as the hub, repeater, modem,
switch, computer devices, etc. Each device plays a vital role in networking. Repeaters are
used to extend the network and provide security, strength, and no data loss. In this article
we will discuss repeater in detail.
What is a Repeater?
A repeater is a networking device that helps to regenerate signals to increase the reach of a
network. Also operating at the physical layer of the OSI model, repeaters help overcome
distance-related limitations by strengthening the strength and quality of the signal. They are
instrumental in LANs and WANs as they minimize errors, reduce data loss, and ensure
reliable delivery to specific locations. One of the primary benefits of repeaters is the error
free transfer of data over longer distances. This will ensure efficient and safe
communication.
Repeater

Features of Repeaters
 Repeater can regenerate the signal without modifying it.
 Repeaters can be used in analog signals and digital signals.
 Repeaters can extend the range of networks.
 Dynamic networking is supported by repeater.
 Use of Repeaters reduces error and loss of data.
  Power is required for working of repeaters.
 Using repeater can add complexity in the network.
Working of Repeaters
• Initially the source system transmits the signals. This source systems can be a mobile
phone, laptop or radio.
 This transmitted signal from the source system travels in air if it’s wireless network or
through the cable if it is wired network. As the signal goes away from the source it’s
strength gets weak.
 The signal received to the repeater is not the actual signal sent by source system but
a weak signal. Therefore repeater amplifies this weak signal to get it strengthen.
 The strengthen signal is now being sent from the repeater to its destination. This
signal is more stronger and can travel at longer distance. In short, it extends the
network without losing the quality of signal.
 Repeaters are therefore used in various wireless technologies such as Wi-Fi and
wired technologies such as ethernet.
Types of Repeaters
According to the functions and features repeaters are divided into three types. They are as
follow:
1. According to the type of Signals
According to the type of signal being generated by the Repeater they are classified as:
 Analog Repeater: Analog repeaters are used to amplify only the analog signals.
Analog repeaters receives the analog signal, amplifies it and then regenerates it as
the output. Analog repeaters were mostly used in the older network technologies
where analog signal was used.
 Digital Repeater: Digital repeaters are the type of repeaters that does not amplify
digital signal but regenerates it directly. Digital repeaters are mostly used in the
modern technologies where digital signal is being used. Digital repeaters are also
capable to reconstruct a distorted signal.
2. According to the type of Connected Network
Based on the type of network the repeaters can connect they are categorized as below:
 Wired Repeaters: Wired repeaters are used in wired Local Area Networks(LANs).
Wired repeater receives the signal and repeats it. This helps to extend the network
travel data without loosing it’s strength and data.
 Wireless Repeaters: Wireless repeaters are used in wireless Local Area
Networks(LANs) and Cellular networks. A router connected in the network sends
wireless signal to the repeater. Once received, repeater broadcast the signal to
increase the coverage of network.
3. According to the Domain of LAN Networks
Based on the location of the Repeater in network they are connected, Repeaters are
classified as below:
  Local Repeaters: Local Repeaters are used in Local Area Networks where the network
is very small. The distance between the devices connected in network is very small.
 Remote Repeaters: Remote Repeaters are used in Local Area Networks where
network is very large. The distance between the devices connected in network is
more.
4. Based on Technologies
According to the technology used Repeater are further classified as:
 Microwave Repeater: Microwave repeaters are defined as a type of repeater that are
embedded between the source and destination that is transmitting station and
receiving station. The use of microwave repeater depends upon the distance
between two devices. In microwave repeaters high power transmitters and sensitive
receivers are used.
 Optical Repeater: Optical repeaters are defined as a type of repeaters that are used
for the communication of fibre optic communication systems. Optical repeaters can
amplify and reshape the operations before they are being transmitted. The optical
repeater grabs all the signals from optical fiber cable into electronic form.
 Radio Repeater: Radio repeater is a type of repeater that transmits all the received
data into radio signals. Radio repeaters has two different ports namely radio receiver
and radio transmitter. Radio transmitter is used to retransmit the data that is
received from repeater and radio receiver collects all the incoming data in form of
signals.
 Telephone Repeater: Telephone repeaters are type of repeaters used for long
distance networks. Amplifiers having transistors are used in telephone repeater.
Telephone repeater is a bidirectional communication system. Telephone repeaters
are majorly used for communication in submarines.
Advantages of Repeater
 Better Performance of Network: Repeaters provide with better performance of
network because they do not always depend on processing overheads at the time.
 Cost Effective: Repeaters are more cost effective as compared to other network
devices therefore they are cost effective.
 Extends the network: Repeaters provides with an advantage to extend the available
network for transmission of data.
 No Physical barriers: Using physical devices can led to some barrier while
transmission of signals. With the help of wireless repeaters such issues are resolved.
 Enhanced Signals: When computer devices and routers are connected in a network
over long distance it weakens the strength of signals. While using repeaters it
improves the strength of signals even over long distances.
Disadvantages of Repeater
 Network Traffic: Repeaters do not have features to segment the network traffic.
Therefore repeaters do lack with the property to congestion.
  Network Segmentation: As repeaters do not have feature to segment the network
traffic repeaters cannot create a separate traffic from one cable to another.
 Limited number of repeaters: Use of limited number of repeaters is supported by
the network. If more number of repeaters are used that the specified one, it can
even create collision of packets and increase the noise.
 Collision Domain: The information is passed from various domains repeater is not
able to separate the devices.

What is Network Hub and

How it Works?
Hub in networking plays a vital role in data transmission and broadcasting. A hub is a
hardware device used at the physical layer to connect multiple devices in the network. Hubs
are widely used to connect LANs. A hub has multiple ports. Unlike a switch, a hub cannot
filter the data, i.e. it cannot identify the destination of the packet, So it broadcasts or sends
the message to each port.
What is HUB?
A hub is a multi-port repeater. A hub connects multiple wires coming from different
branches, for example, the connector in star topology which connects different stations.
Hubs cannot filter data, so data packets are sent to all connected devices. In other words,
the collision domain of all hosts connected through hub remains one. Hub does not have any
routing table to store the data of ports and map destination addresses., the routing table is
used to send/broadcast information across all the ports.
How Does a Network Hub Work?
A hub is a multiport device, which has multiple ports in a device and shares the data to
multiple ports altogether. A hub acts as a dumb switch that does not know, which data
needs to be forwarded where so it broadcasts or sends the data to each port.
Suppose there are five ports in a hub A, B, C, D, and E. Consider A wants to send any data
frame, or let’s say A is acting as a sender, so the hub will forward the data transmitted by A
to B, C, D, E. Now, at the same time B also wants to send the data then data received from A
and B will collide and can cause data loss. In this situation, the data gets destroyed, and the
hosts send a jam signal to all the hosts informing them about the collision, and each sender
needs to wait for a certain amount of time.
Types of Network Hubs
Networks hubs are classified into three types:
1. Active Hub: They have a power supply for regenerating, and amplifying the signals.
When a port sends weak signalled data, the hub regenerates the signal and
 strengthens it, then send it further to all other ports. Active hubs are expensive in
costs as compared to passive hubs.
2. Passive Hub: Passive hubs are simply used to connect signals from different network
cables as they do not have any computerised element. They simply connect the wires
of different devices in the star topology. Passive hubs do not do any processing or
signal regeneration and that’s why do not require electricity the most they can do is
they can copy or repeat the signal. It can’t clean the message, and it can’t amplify or
strengthen the signal.
3. Intelligent Hub: Intelligent hubs as the name suggests are smarter than active and
passive hubs. The intelligent hub comprises a special monitoring unit named a
Management Information Base (MIB). This is software that helps in analysing and
troubleshooting network problems. Intelligent hubs work similarly to active hubs but
with some management features. Like it can monitor the traffic of the network and
the configuration of a port.
Features of Hubs
Hubs are the hardware device that operates in the physical layer of the OSI model.
• It supports half-duplex transmission
• It works with shared bandwidth and broadcasting.
• The hub can provide a high data transmission rate to different devices.
• It can detect collisions in the network and send the jamming signal to each port.
• Hub does not support Virtual LAN(VLAN) and spanning tree protocol.
• It is unable to filter the data and hence transmit or broadcast it to each port.
• It cannot find the best route/ shortest path to send any data, which makes it an
inefficient device.
Advantages of Network Hubs
 It is less expensive.
 It does not impact network performance.
 Hub support different network media.
Disadvantages of Network Hubs
 It cannot find the best/ shortest path of the network.
 No mechanism for traffic detection.
 No mechanism for data filtration.
 Not capable of connecting to different network topologies like token ring, ethernet,
etc.

What is a Network Switch and

How Does it Work?
The Switch is a network device that is used to segment the networks into different
subnetworks called subnets or LAN segments. It is responsible for filtering and forwarding
the packets between LAN segments based on MAC address.
Switches have many ports, and when data arrives at any port, the destination address is
examined first and some checks are also done and then it is processed to the devices.
Different types of communication are supported here like unicast, multicast, and broadcast
communication.
Features of Network Switches
 It operates in the Data Link Layer in the OSI Model.
 It performs error checking before forwarding data.
 It transfers the data only to the device that has been addressed.
 It operates in full duplex mode.
 It allocates each LAN segment to a limited bandwidth.
 It uses Unicast (one-to-one), multicast (one-to-many), and broadcast (one-to-all)
transmission modes.
 Packet-switching techniques are used to transfer data packets from source to
destination.
 Switches have a more significant number of ports.
Why Are Network Switches Valuable?
Switches are one of the most important things for transferring information between
different endpoints. Some of the benefits are mentioned below.
 Switches are having full-duplex communication which helps in making effective use
of bandwidth.
 Switches help to provide a wired connection to printers, IoT devices, wireless points,
and many more devices.
 IoT Devices send data through Network Switches that help in making smarter
surroundings with the help of Artificial Intelligence.
 Network Devices are made with the help of Switches that carry a large number of
traffic in telecommunication.
Types of Switches
Switches are mainly classified into the following types that are mentioned below.
 Virtual Switches: Virtual Switches are the switches that are inside Virtual Machine
hosting environments.
 Routing Switches: These are the switches that are used to connect LANs.They also
have the work of performing functions in the Network Layer of the OSI Model.
 Unmanaged Switches: Unmanaged Switches are the devices that are used to enable
Ethernet devices that help in automatic data passing. These are generally used for
home networks and small businesses. In case of the requirement of more switches,
we just add more switches by plug and play method.
 Managed Switches: Managed Switches are switches having more complex networks.
SNMP (Simple Network Management Protocol) can be used for configuring managed
 switches. These types of switches are mostly used in large networks having complex
architecture. They provide better security levels and precision control but they are
more costly than Unmanaged switches.
 LAN Switches: LAN (Local Area Network) Switches are also called ethernet switches
or data switches. LAN switches always try to avoid overlapping of data packets in the
network just by allocating bandwidth in such a manner.
 PoE Switches: Power over Ethernet(PoE) are the switches used in Gigabit Ethernets.
PoE help in combining data and power transmission over the same cable so that it
helps in receiving data and electricity over the same line.
 Smart Switches: Smart Switches are switches having some extra controls on data
transmissions but also have extra limitations over managed Switches. They are also
called partially managed switches.
 Stackable Switches: Stackable switches are connected through a backplane to
combine two logical switches into a single switch.
 Modular Switches: These types of switches help in accommodating two or more
cards. Modular switches help in providing better flexibility.
Advantages of Switches
 Prevents traffic overloading in a network by segmenting the network into smaller
subnets.
 Increases the bandwidth of the network.
 Less frame collision as the switch creates the collision domain for each connection.
Disadvantages of Switches
 It can not stop traffic destined for a different LAN segment from traveling to all other
LAN segments.
 Switches are more expensive.

What is Bridge in Computer

Network – Types, Uses,
Functions & Differences
The bridge is a networking device in a computer network that is used to connect multiple
LANs to a larger LAN. In computer networks, we have multiple networking devices such as
bridges, hubs, routers, switches, etc, each device has its own specification and is used for a
particular purpose. The bridge is a networking device that connects the larger LAN networks
with the group of smaller LAN networks.
In this article, we are going to discuss everything about the bridge including what exactly a
bridge is, and the type of bridges we have in computer networks including transparent
bridges, source routing bridges, and translational bridges, which will be followed by
advantages and disadvantages of the bridge in networking. then how the bridge is different
from the gateway and last we will look into the applications and functions of the bridge in
the network.
Bridge in Computer Network
A bridge in a computer network is a device used to connect multiple LANs together with a
larger Local Area Network (LAN). The mechanism of network aggregation is known as
bridging. The bridge is a physical or hardware device but operates at the OSI model’s data
link layer and is also known as a layer of two switches.
The primary responsibility of a switch is to examine the incoming traffic and determine
whether to filter or forward it. Basically, a bridge in computer networks is used to divide
network connections into sections, now each section has a separate bandwidth and a
separate collision domain. Here bridge is used to improve network performance.

Types of Bridges
There are three types of bridges in computer networks, which are as follows:
 Transparent Bridge: Transparent bridges are invisible to other devices on the
network. This bridge doesn’t reconfigure the network on the addition or deletion of
any station. The prime function of the transparent bridge is to block or forward the
data according to the MAC address.
 Source Routing Bridge: Source routing bridges were developed and designed by IBM
specifically for token ring networks. The frame’s entire route is embedded with the
data frames by the source station to perform the routing operation so that once the
frame is forwarded it must follow a specific defined path/route.
 Translational Bridge: Translational bridges convert the received data from one
networking system to another. Or it is used to communicate or transmit data
between two different types of networking systems. Like if we are sending data from
a token ring to an Ethernet cable, the translational cable will be used to connect both
the networking system and transmit data.
Working of Bridges
Let’s see the step-by-step working of the bridge in computer networks:
 Receiving Data: The bridge gets data packets (or frames) from both network
segments A and B.
  Building a Table: It creates a table of MAC addresses by looking at where the data is
coming from to know which device is on which segment.
 Filtering Data: If the data from network A is meant for a device also on network A,
the bridge stops it from going further.
 Forwarding Data: If the data from network A is meant for a device on network B, the
bridge sends it to the correct place on network B.
 Repeating for Both Sides: The bridge does the same thing for data coming from
network B.

Working of Bridge
Models of Bridge in Computer Networks
There are two main models of bridging in computer network: Local bridging and remote
bridging. Let us learn about them in detail.
 Local Bridging Local bridging connects LAN switches using local cables. This allows
computers on the same Ethernet segment, whether they’re connected to virtual
hubs or physical LANs, to communicate freely. It’s used when LANs within the same
area need to talk to each other directly at the link layer.
 Remote Bridging Remote bridging connects two bridges over a Wide Area Network
(WAN). This model is used when LANs are located in different geographical areas and
need to communicate with each other at the link layer.
Uses of Bridge in Computer Network
 Bridges are used to increase the network capacity as they can integrate multiple
LANs together.
 On receiving a data frame, databases use the bridge to decide whether to accept or
reject the data.
 In the OSI model, it can be used to transmit the data to multiple nodes of the
network.
 Used to broadcast the data even if the MAC address or destination address is
unavailable.
 It forwards data packets despite faulty nodes.
 The data packet can be forwarded or discarded by the bridge when the MAC address
is available.
Functions of Bridges in the Network
 The bridge is used to divide LANs into multiple segments.
 To control the traffic in the network.
 It can interconnect two LANs with a similar protocols.
 It can filter the data based on destination/MAC address.
Advantages
 Bridges can be used as a network extension like they can connect two network
topologies together.
 It has a separate collision domain, which results in increased bandwidth.
 It can create a buffer when different MAC protocols are there for different segments.
 Highly reliable and maintainable. The network can be divided into multiple LAN
segments.
 Simple installation, no requirement of any extra hardware or software except the
bridge itself.
 Protocol transparency is higher as compared to other protocols.
Disadvantages
 Expensive as compared to hubs and repeaters.
 Slow in speed.
 Poor performance as additional processing is required to view the MAC address of
the device on the network.
 As the traffic received is in bulk or is broadcasted traffic, individual filtering of data is
not possible.
 During the broadcasting of data, the network has high broadcast traffic and
broadcast storms can be formed.

Introduction of a Router
Network devices are physical devices that allow hardware on a computer network to
communicate and interact with one another. For example Repeater, Hub, Bridge, Switch,
Routers, Gateway, Router, and NIC, etc.
What is a Router?
A Router is a networking device that forwards data packets between computer networks.
One or more packet-switched networks or subnetworks can be connected using a router. By
sending data packets to their intended IP addresses, it manages traffic between different
networks and permits several devices to share an Internet connection.
Let us understand this by a very general example, suppose you search
for www.google.com in your web browser then this will be a request that will be sent from
your system to Google`s server to serve that webpage, now your request which is nothing
but a stream of packets don`t just go to the google`s server straightaway they go through a
series of networking devices known as a router which accepts this packets and forwards
them to correct path and hence it reaches to the destination server. A router has several
interfaces by which it can connect to several host systems. Routers are the devices that are
operated on the Network Layer of the OSI Model, these are the most common devices used
in networking.

Router
How Does Router Work?
• A router determines a packet’s future path by examining the destination IP address
of the header and comparing it to the routing database. The list of routing tables outlines
how to send the data to a specific network location. They use a set of rules to determine the
most effective way to transmit the data to the specified IP address.
• To enable communication between other devices and the internet, routers utilize a
modem, such as a cable, fiber, or DSL modem. Most routers include many ports that can
connect a variety of devices to the internet simultaneously. In order to decide where to
deliver data and where traffic is coming from, it needs routing tables.
• A routing table primarily specifies the router’s default path. As a result, it might not
determine the optimum path to forward the data for a particular packet. For instance, the
office router directs all networks to its internet service provider through a single default
channel.
• Static and dynamic tables come in two varieties in the router. The dynamic routing
tables are automatically updated by dynamic routers based on network activity, whereas the
static routing tables are configured manually.

Router Network
Types of Router
There are several types of routers. Some of them are mentioned below:
 1. Broadband Routers: These are one of the important kinds of routers. It is used to do
different types of things. it is used to connect computers or it is also used to connect
to the internet.
2. Wireless routers: These routers are used to create a wireless signal in your office or
home.
3. Wired Routers: Wired Router is used to connects multiple wired devices using a
Ethernet cable, It takes the transmission data from the modem and distribute it to a
further network, it is widely used in schools and small offices.
4. Edge Routers: As the name indicates, these are located at the edges usually
connected to an Internet Service Provider, and distribute packets across multiple
packets.
5. Core Routers: Core routers distribute packets within the same network. The main
task is to carry heavy data transfers.
6. Virtual Router: They are implemented using a software on the virtual machine , and
they are more flexible and scalable.
7. Portable Routers: They are used to create private Wi-Fi and hence designed for easy
portability.
Functions of Router
The router performs below major functions:
1. Forwarding: The router receives the packets from its input ports, checks its header,
performs some basic functions like checking checksum, and then looks up to the
routing table to find the appropriate output port to dump the packets onto, and
forwards the packets onto that output port.
2. Routing: Routing is the process by which the router ascertains what is the best path
for the packet to reach the destination, It maintains a routing table that is made
using different algorithms by the router only.
3. Network Address Translation (NAT): Routers use NAT to translate between different
IP address ranges. This allows devices on a private network to access the internet
using a single public IP address.
4. Security: Routers can be configured with firewalls and other security features to
protect the network from unauthorized access, malware, and other threats.
5. Quality of Service (QoS): Routers can prioritize network traffic based on the type of
data being transmitted. This ensures that critical applications and services receive
adequate bandwidth and are not affected by lower-priority traffic.
6. Virtual Private Network (VPN) connectivity: Routers can be configured to allow
remote users to connect securely to the network using a VPN.
7. Bandwidth management: Routers can be used to manage network bandwidth by
controlling the amount of data that is allowed to flow through the network. This can
prevent network congestion and ensure that critical applications and services receive
adequate bandwidth.
 8. Monitoring and diagnostics: Routers can be configured to monitor network traffic
and provide diagnostics information in the event of network failures or other issues.
This allows network administrators to quickly identify and resolve problems.
Architecture of Router
A generic router consists of the following components:
1. Input Port: This is the interface by which packets are admitted into the router, it
performs several key functions as terminating the physical link at the router, this is
done by the leftmost part in the below diagram, and the middle part does the work
of interoperating with the link-layer like decapsulation, in the last part of the input
port the forwarding table is looked up and is used to determine the appropriate
output port based on the destination address.
2. Switching Fabric: This is the heart of the Router, It connects the input ports with the
output ports. It is kind of a network inside a networking device. The switching fabric
can be implemented in several ways some of the prominent ones are:
 Switching via memory: In this, we have a processor which copies the packet
from input ports and sends it to the appropriate output port. It works as a
traditional CPU with input and output ports acting as input and output
devices.
 Switching via bus: In this implementation, we have a bus that connects all the
input ports to all the output ports. On receiving a packet and determining
which output port it must be delivered to, the input port puts a particular
token on the packet and transfers it to the bus. All output ports can see the
packets but they will be delivered to the output port whose token has been
put in, the token is then scraped off by that output port and the packet is
forwarded
 Switching via interconnection network: This is a more sophisticated network,
here instead of a single bus we use a 2N bus to connect n input ports to n
output ports.
3. Output Port: This is the segment from which packets are transmitted out of the
router. The output port looks at its queuing buffers (when more than one packets
have to be transmitted through the same output port queuing buffers are formed)
and takes packets, does link layer functions, and finally transmits the packets to an
outgoing link.
4. Routing Processor: It executes the routing protocols, and it works like a traditional
CPU. It employs various routing algorithms like the link-state algorithm, distance-
vector algorithm, etc. to prepare the forwarding table, which is looked up to
determine the route and the output port.
Architecture of Router
Security Challenges in Router
There are several challenges faced by the router, due to which an unauthorized access is
taken by another party. Here below are some security challenges in router:
1. Vulnerability Exploits
Firmware is automatically installed on all hardware-based routers to assist the operation of
the router. Like any other programme, router firmware frequently has flaws that hackers
could use against it. Vendors of routers usually release updates to fix these flaws. Router
firmware needs to be updated on a frequent basis as a result. Attackers have the ability to
monitor traffic on unpatched routers and utilise them as part of a botnet.
2. DDoS Attacks
Distributed Denial-Of-Service (DDoS) attacks against network infrastructure frequently target
both large and small organisations. Network outages can be caused by unmitigated network
layer DDoS attacks, which can overload routers or bring them down. Using Cloudflare Magic
Transit is one way to defend networks and routers against DDoS attacks of this nature.
3. Administration Credentials
To carry out administration tasks, a set of admin credentials is included with every router.
The default values for these credentials are “admin” for the username and “admin” for the
password. As soon as possible, change the username and password to something more
secure since, if they are not changed, attackers can use them to remotely take over the
router. They are aware of the typical default values for these credentials.
Advantages of Router
 Easier Connection: Sharing a single network connection among numerous machines
is the main advantage of router. This enables numerous people to connect to the
internet, boosting total productivity. In addition, routers have connections between
various media and network designs.
 Security: Undoubtedly, installing a router is the first step in securing a network
connection. Because using a modem to connect directly to the internet exposes your
computer to several security risks. So that the environment is somewhat secure,
routers can be utilized as an intermediary between two networks. While not
a firewall or antivirus replacement.
 NAT Usage: Routers use Network Address Translation (NAT) to map multiple private
IP addresses into one public IP address. This allows for a better Internet connection
and information flow between all devices connected to the network.
  Supports Dynamic Routing: The router employs dynamic routing strategies to aid in
network communication. The internet work’s optimum path is chosen through
dynamic routing. Additionally, it creates collision and broadcast domains. Overall, this
can lessen network traffic.
 Filtering of Packets: Switching between packets and filtering packets are two more
router services. A collection of filtering rules are used by routers to filter the
network. The packets are either allowed or passed through.
Disadvantages of Router
 Slower: Routers analyze multiple layers of information, from the physical layer to the
network layer, which slows down connections. The same issue can also be
encountered when multiple devices are connected to these network devices, causing
“connection waiting”.
 High Cost: They are more expensive than some other tools for systems
administration. This includes security, extension, and the focal point. As a result,
routers are typically not the greatest option for issues.
 Need for configuration: The router must be properly configured to work properly. In
general, the more complex the intended use, the more configuration is required. This
requires professional installation, which can add to the cost of buying a router.
 Quality Issues: The time transitions are not always accurate. Even yet, some modern
devices use the 2.4GHz band, which is frequently deactivated. These kinds of
separations are frequently possible for those who live in apartments and
condominiums.
 Bandwidth shortages: Dynamic routing techniques used by routers to support
connections tend to cause network overhead, consuming a lot of bandwidth. This
leads to a bandwidth shortage that significantly slows down the internet connection
between connected devices.
Applications of Router
There are several applications of router because nowadays routers are widely used in most
of the networking communication for better communication:
 Hardware equipment, such as servers from BSC, MGW, IN, SGSN, and other remote
location networks, is connected to these networks via routers.
 It is utilised in both wired and wireless communication since it supports a high speed
of data transmission due to its utilisation of STM connections for connectivity.
 Routers are frequently used by internet service providers to transfer data, such as
audio, video, image, and email, from one location to another. Additionally, it can
transmit data globally by utilising the destination’s IP address.
Routers provide access control. It can be set up so that some users can access all of the data
while others can access just a subset of it.
What are Gateways in
Computer Network?
A gateway is a network node or device that connects two networks that use different
transmission protocols. Gateways play an important role in connecting two networks. It
works as the entry-exit point for a network because all traffic that passes across the
networks must pass through the gateway.
What is Gateway?
A gateway is a connecting point of any network that helps it to connect with different
networks. The gateway monitors and controls all the incoming and outgoing traffic of the
network. Suppose there are two different networks and they want to communicate with
each other, so they need to set up a path between them. Now that path will be made
between gateways of those different networks. Gateways are also known as protocol
converters because they help to convert protocol supported by traffic of the different
networks into that are supported by this network. Because of that, it makes smooth
communication between two different networks.
How does Gateway Work?
Gateway has a simple working methodology of five steps:
 Step 1: It gets data from the network
 Step 2: It intercepts and analyzes the received data.
 Step 3: It routes the data to the destination address.
 Step 4: It converts the received data to make that compatible with the receiver
network.
 Step 5: It sends the final data inside the network.

Gateway
Actually what happens on the gateway after receiving a data packet is that they check
header information that is present in the data packet. After that, it validates the
destination IP address and searches for any error. If it gets no error then it makes that data
packet compatible for the new network by converting protocols or other stuff.
Functionality of Gateways
There are various functionalities that are supported by any gateway:
 LAN to WAN connections- It can connect a group of personal computers
i.e. LAN(Local Area Network) to the Internet i.e. WAN(Wide Area Network).
 Controls incoming and outgoing data- It is located on the boundary of any network,
so it controls incoming and outgoing data packets from/to any network.
 Works as a Protocol Converter- It makes sure that the data packet from another
network is compatible with this network. So it converts their protocols into
supported protocols and other stuff of the data packets before it enters into the
network.
 Information Collector- It collects data from different sections of the network to make
a better diagnosis of any data packets. In this process, it collects information.
 Routing of data packets- It is responsible for routing data packets to different
networks because it knows about the routing path of different networks that are in
communication with its network.
Different Types of Gateways
Gateways can be classified into multiple categories on different bases like on the basis of the
direction of flow of data, functionality, etc...
On the Basis of the Direction of the Flow of Data
 Unidirectional Gateways: Unidirectional Gateway allows the flow of data in only one
direction. It means the changes that occurred in the source can be copied to the
destination but the changes that occurred in the destination can't be copied to the
source.
 Bidirectional Gateways: Bidirectional Gateways allow the flow of data in both
directions. It means changes that occurred in the source can be copied to the
destination and changes that occurred in the destination can be copied to the
source.
Based on Functionality
 Email Security Gateway: It scans email for any type of malicious content before
allowing it to enter the network.
 Cloud Storage Gateway: It helps in data transfer between the cloud and the nodes of
the network. It converts different API requests into that form which can be
understandable by cloud platforms.
 Network Gateway: This is the most popular type of gateway, it acts as an interface
between two different networks using different protocols.
 Internet-To-Orbit Gateway (I2O): Project HERMES and Global Educational Network
for Satellite Operations (GENSO) are two well-known I2O gateways that connect
devices on the Internet to satellites and spacecraft orbiting the earth.
 IoT Gateway: Before delivering sensor data to the cloud network, IoT gateways
assimilate it from Internet of Things (IoT) devices in the field and translate it between
sensor protocols. They link user applications, cloud networks, and IoT devices.
  VoIP Trunk Gateway: By using a VoIP (voice over Internet Protocol) network, it
makes data transmission between POTS (plain old telephone service) devices like
landlines and fax machines easier.
Advantages of Gateways
 It helps in connecting two different networks.
 It filters and does not allow anything that can harm the network.
 It helps by doing protocol conversion.
 It provides security from external attacks.
Disadvantages of Gateways
 Its implementation is difficult and costly.
 It is hard to manage.
 It causes time delay because the conversion of data according to the network takes
time.
 Failure of the gateway can cause the failure of connection with other networks.

What is Routing?
The process of choosing a path across one or more networks is known as Network Routing.
Nowadays, individuals are more connected on the internet and hence, the need to use
Routing Communication is essential.
Routing chooses the routes along which Internet Protocol (IP) packets get from their source
to their destination in packet-switching networks. This article will discuss the details of the
Routing Process along with its different types and working principles.
What is a Router?
Routers are specialized pieces of network hardware that make these judgments about
Internet routing. It is a networking device that forwards data packets between computer
networks. Also, it helps to direct traffic based on the destination IP address. It ensures that
data reaches its intended destination.
As the router connects different networks, it manages data traffic between them. The Router
operates at Layer 3 (the network layer) of the OSI Model. It is also responsible for
determining the best path for data to travel from one network to another.
What is Routing?
Routing refers to the process of directing a data packet from one node to another. It is an
autonomous process handled by the network devices to direct a data packet to its intended
destination. Note that, the node here refers to a network device called - 'Router'.
Routing is a crucial mechanism that transmits data from one location to another across a
network (Network type could be any like LAN, WAN, or MAN).
The process of routing involves making various routing decisions to ensure reliable &
efficient delivery of the data packet by finding the shortest path using various routing
metrics which we will be discussing in this article.
Routing of a data packet is done by analyzing the destination IP Address of the packet. Look
at the below image:

Routing of packets
 The Source Node (Sender) sends the data packet on the network, embedding the IP
in the header of the data packet.
 The nearest router receives the data packet, and based on some metrics, further
routes the data packet to other routers.
 Step 2 occurs recursively till the data packet reaches its intended destination.
Note: There are limits to how many hop counts a packet can do if it is exceeded, the packet
is considered to be lost.
What are Different Types of Routing?
Routing is typically of 3 types, each serving its purpose and offering different functionalities.

Types of Routing
1. Static Routing
Static routing is also called as "non-adaptive routing". In this, routing configuration is done
manually by the network administrator. Let's say for example, we have 5 different routes to
transmit data from one node to another, so the network administrator will have to manually
enter the routing information by assessing all the routes.
 A network administrator has full control over the network, routing the data packets
to their concerned destinations
 Routers will route packets to the destination configured manually by the network
administrator.
 Although this type of routing gives fine-grained control over the routes, it may not be
suitable for large-scale enterprise networks.
2. Dynamic Routing
Dynamic Routing is another type of routing in which routing is an autonomous procedure
without any human intervention. Packets are transmitted over a network using various
shortest-path algorithms and pre-determined metrics. This type of routing is majorly
preferred in modern networks as it offers more flexibility and versatile functionality.
 It is also known as adaptive routing.
 In this, the router adds new routes to the routing table based on any changes made
in the topology of the network.
 The autonomous procedure of routing helps in automating every routing operation
from adding to removing a route upon updates or any changes made to the network.
3. Default Routing
Default Routing is a routing technique in which a router is configured to transmit packets to
a default route that is, a gateway or next-hop device if no specific path is defined or found.
It is commonly used when the network has a single exit point. The IP Router has the
following address as the default route: 0.0.0.0/0.

Classification of Routing
Algorithms
Routing is the process of establishing the routes that data packets must follow to reach the
destination. In this process, a routing table is created which contains information regarding
routes that data packets follow. Various routing algorithms are used for the purpose of
deciding which route an incoming data packet needs to be transmitted on to reach the
destination efficiently.
Classification of Routing Algorithms
The routing algorithms can be classified as follows:
1. Adaptive Algorithms
2. Non-Adaptive Algorithms
3. Hybrid Algorithms

Types of Routing Algorithm

Routing algorithms can be classified into various types such as distance vector, link state, and
hybrid routing algorithms. Each has its own strengths and weaknesses depending on the
network structure.
1. Adaptive Algorithms
These are the algorithms that change their routing decisions whenever network topology or
traffic load changes. The changes in routing decisions are reflected in the topology as well as
the traffic of the network. Also known as dynamic routing, these make use of dynamic
information such as current topology, load, delay, etc. to select routes. Optimization
parameters are distance, number of hops, and estimated transit time.
Further, these are classified as follows:
 Isolated: In this method each, node makes its routing decisions using the information
it has without seeking information from other nodes. The sending nodes don’t have
information about the status of a particular link. The disadvantage is that packets
may be sent through a congested network which may result in delay. Examples: Hot
potato routing, and backward learning.
 Centralized: In this method, a centralized node has entire information about the
network and makes all the routing decisions. The advantage of this is only one node
is required to keep the information of the entire network and the disadvantage is
that if the central node goes down the entire network is done. The link state
algorithm is referred to as a centralized algorithm since it is aware of the cost of each
link in the network.
 Distributed: In this method, the node receives information from its neighbors and
then takes the decision about routing the packets. A disadvantage is that the packet
may be delayed if there is a change in between intervals in which it receives
information and sends packets. It is also known as a decentralized algorithm as it
computes the least-cost path between source and destination.
2. Non-Adaptive Algorithms
These are the algorithms that do not change their routing decisions once they have been
selected. This is also known as static routing as a route to be taken is computed in advance
and downloaded to routers when a router is booted.
Further, these are classified as follows:
 Flooding: This adapts the technique in which every incoming packet is sent on every
outgoing line except from which it arrived. One problem with this is that packets may
go in a loop and as a result of which a node may receive duplicate packets. These
problems can be overcome with the help of sequence numbers, hop count, and
spanning trees.
 Random walk: In this method, packets are sent host by host or node by node to one
of its neighbors randomly. This is a highly robust method that is usually implemented
by sending packets onto the link which is least queued.
Random Walk
3. Hybrid Algorithms
As the name suggests, these algorithms are a combination of both adaptive and non-
adaptive algorithms. In this approach, the network is divided into several regions, and each
region uses a different algorithm.
Further, these are classified as follows:
 Link-state: In this method, each router creates a detailed and complete map of the
network which is then shared with all other routers. This allows for more accurate
and efficient routing decisions to be made.
 Distance vector: In this method, each router maintains a table that contains
information about the distance and direction to every other node in the network.
This table is then shared with other routers in the network. The disadvantage of this
method is that it may lead to routing loops.

What is Internet Protocol

(IP)?
The Internet Protocol (IP) is a set of rules that allows computers and other devices to
communicate over the Internet. It ensures that information sent from one device reaches
the correct destination by using a unique set of numbers known as IP addresses.
Whether you're browsing websites, sending emails, or watching videos, the Internet
Protocol helps manage how information travels, making sure everything works smoothly and
efficiently.
Why is Internet Protocol Important?
The Internet Protocol is a fundamental component of the Internet and computer networks,
responsible for delivering packets of data from the source host to the destination host based
on their IP addresses. It ensures that packets of data get to the right destination from the
source device.
Each device connected to a network is assigned an IP address, which serves as a "home
address" for the device, enabling other devices to locate and send messages to it and
providing the addressing and routing mechanisms the devices require for their
communications.
IP works in conjunction with the Internet Control Message Protocol (ICMP) to send error
messages and operational information (e.g., destination unreachable, echo requests), which
inform senders about issues in packet delivery. Unlike some protocols, IP does not establish
a connection before transmitting data, making it a connectionless protocol that allows for
more flexible and efficient data transmission
Primary Terminologies
 IP Address: IP address is referred as a number sticker given to each device that
belongs to the network which utilizes Internet Protocol to communicate. It serves
two main purposes: host or network interface recognition, identifier or location
addressing.
 Packet: A packet is a parcel of data that is switched between an origin and a
destination via the Internet or some other network that is based on the packet
switching mechanism. This component mainly has a header and a payload.
 Router: A router is a network device that (serves as) a forwarding point for data
packets between computer networks. Routers carry out the traffic routing functions
through the Internet.
 IPv4: Internet Protocol version 4 (IPv4) is a protocol that tends to provide
connectivity between the desktop computers online and that application layer is the
wider application one that covers most of the Internet communications nowadays
 IPv6: Internet Protocol version 6 (IPv6), the final iteration in the series of the
upgrades to the Internet Protocol, is used for the purpose of identifying, locating and
routing of various computers so that traffic through Internet can be transferred
properly.
How Does IP Addressing Work?
Every device connected to a network (such as the internet or a local network) needs a
unique identifier so it can be located and communicated with other devices. So, the IP
address serves this purpose. IP addresses are used by routers to determine how to forward
data packets across the internet or a local network. This is essential for the delivery of data
between devices located in different geographical regions or network segments.
IP addressing uniquely identifies each device on a network using IPv4 or IPv6 addresses,
assigned either statically or dynamically through DHCP. DNS translates human-readable
domain names into these IP addresses, while protocols like ARP (for IPv4) or NDP (for IPv6)
map IPs to physical MAC addresses locally. Data is encapsulated into IP packets containing
source and destination addresses, which are routed through network devices using routing
tables and protocols such as OSPF or BGP to reach their target. In private networks, NAT
allows multiple devices to share a single public IP, conserving address space and enhancing
security by hiding internal addresses. Upon reaching the destination, packets are
decapsulated and processed by the appropriate applications. This comprehensive system
ensures accurate, secure, and reliable data delivery across interconnected networks.
Working of IP Address
Differences between IPv4 and IPv6
IPv4 and IPv6 are two versions of the Internet Protocol to assign internet protocol addresses
to devices that could be connected to the internet.
The older version is IPv4 which uses a 32-bit address that is written in the form of four sets
of numbers separated by periods, an example of which is 192.168.1.1. It provides about 4.3
billion unique addresses, sufficient at the time when it was first implemented but now
running out due to the countless number of devices that join the internet.
On the other hand, IPv6 was designed to solve this problem. It uses 128-bit addresses,
displayed as eight groups of four alphanumeric characters, and can generate almost limitless
unique addresses.