Calculus 1 By: Dr.

Zaynab Anwer
1 Chapter 1: Functions .................................................................................................... 2

1.1 Functions , Domain and Range ............................................................................. 2

1.2 Graphs of Functions .............................................................................................. 3

1.3 Piecewise-Defined Functions ............................................................................... 4

1.4 Even Functions and Odd Functions: Symmetry ................................................... 6

1.5 Common Function ................................................................................................ 6

1.6 Combining Functions (Sums, Differences, Products, and Quotients) .................. 7

1.7 Composite Functions ............................................................................................ 8

1.8 Shifting a Graph of a Function ............................................................................. 9

1.9 Trigonometric Functions .................................................................................... 11

1.10 Exponential Functions ..................................................................................... 14

1.11 Inverse Functions and Logarithms .................................................................. 17

1.12 Inverse Trigonometric Functions .................................................................... 21

2 Chapter 2: LIMITS AND CONTINUITY ................................................................... 25

2.1 Limit of a Function and Limit Laws ................................................................... 25

2.2 One-Sided Limits ................................................................................................ 30

2.3 Limits Involving (sin θ)/θ ................................................................................... 32

2.4 Continuity ........................................................................................................... 34

2.5 Continuous Extension to a Point ........................................................................ 37

2.6 Limits Involving Infinity; Asymptotes of Graphs .............................................. 38

2.7 Infinite Limits ..................................................................................................... 42

3 DIFFERENTIATION ................................................................................................... 44

3.1 Tangents and the Derivative at a Point ............................................................... 44

3.2 The rate of change of a function: ........................................................................ 45

3.3 The Derivative as a Function .............................................................................. 45

1
 3.4 Differentiation Rules .......................................................................................... 47

3.5 Second- and Higher-Order Derivatives .............................................................. 49

3.6 Derivatives of Trigonometric Functions ............................................................ 50

3.7 The Chain Rule (Derivative of a Composite Function)...................................... 53

3.8 Implicitly Defined Functions: ............................................................................. 55

3.9 Tangents, and Normal Lines ............................................................................... 56

4 APPLICATIONS OF DERIVATIVES ........................................................................ 58

4.1 Extreme Values of Functions.............................................................................. 58

4.2 Rolle's Theorem and Mean Value Theorem ....................................................... 60

4.3 Monotonic Functions and the First Derivative Test ........................................... 61

4.4 Concavity ............................................................................................................ 63

4.5 Steps to graph a function: ................................................................................... 64

References: Calculus Thomas

1 Chapter 1: Functions

1.1 Functions , Domain and Range

Def: A function f from a set D to a set Y is a rule that assigns a unique (single) element
f(x) Y to each element xD.

The set D of all possible input values is called the domain of the function. The set of all
values of f(x) as x varies throughout D is called the range of the function.

EXAMPLE 1

Solution:

2
1- 𝑦 = 𝑥 2 gives a real y-value for any real number x, so the domain is (- ∞,∞).

The range of 𝑦 = 𝑥 2 is [0, ∞) because the square of any real number is nonnegative and
𝑥 = √𝑦 , x to be real y≥ 0.

2- y = l/x gives a real y-value for every x except x = 0. For the rules of arithmetic, we
cannot divide any number by zero. The domain is ℝ\{0}. The range of y = 1/x, can be
found by x = 1/y is the input assigned to the output value y. Then range is ℝ\{0}.

3- 𝑦 = √𝑥 gives a real y-value only if x≥ 0 so the domain is [0,∞).

The range of 𝑦 = √𝑥 can be found by y≥0 and 𝑥 = 𝑦 2 so range =[0, ∞ )

4- 𝑦 = √4 − 𝑥 : 4 - x ≥0  4≥x. The formula gives real y-values for all x≥ 4.

The range : first y≥0 , second 𝑥 = 4 − 𝑦 2  range =[0, ∞ ).

5- 𝑦 = √1 − 𝑥 2 gives a real y-value if 1 − 𝑥 2 ≥ 0  (1-x)(1+x) ≥0

Domain= [-1,1].

Range: . First y≥0 , second 𝑥 2 = 1 − 𝑦 2  𝑥 = ±√1 − 𝑦 2 which means that we get the
same solution above i.e. y=[-1,1] this implies that the range should be [0.1].

1.2 Graphs of Functions

If f is a function with domain D, its graph consists of the points in the Cartesian plane
whose coordinates are the input-output pairs for f. In set notation, the graph is {(x,f(x)) /
xD}.

EXAMPLE 1: The graph of the function f(x) = x + 2

EXAMPLE 2:

3
1.3 Piecewise-Defined Functions
Sometimes a function is described by using different formulas on different parts of its
domain. One example is the absolute value function.

Example 3:

Example 4: the function

4
Example 5: greatest integer function or the integer floor function: The function
whose value at any number x is the greatest integer less than or equal to x. It is denoted
⌊𝑥 ⌋. Observe that:

Example 6: least integer function or the integer ceiling function: The function whose
value at any number x is the smallest integer greater than or equal to x. It is denoted ⌈𝑥 ⌉.

5
EXAMPLE 7: The function graphed in example 4 is decreasing on (-∞,0] and increasing
on [0, 1]. The function is neither increasing nor decreasing on the interval [1,∞).

1.4 Even Functions and Odd Functions: Symmetry

The graph of an even function is symmetric about they-axis. Since f( -x) = f(x) , a point
(x,y) lies on the graph if and only if the point (-x, y) lies on the graph . A reflection across
the y-axis leaves the graph unchanged.

The graph of an odd function is symmetric about the origin. Since f( -x) =- f(x) , a point
(x,y) lies on the graph if and on1y if the point (-x, -y) lies on the graph.

EXAMPLE 8:

1.5 Common Function

6
1.6 Combining Functions (Sums, Differences, Products, and Quotients)
(f + g)(x) = f(x) + g(x).

(f - g)(x) = f(x) - g(x).

(fg)(x) = f(x)g(x).

At each of these functions the domain = domain (f) ∩ 𝑑𝑜𝑚𝑎𝑖𝑛(𝑔)

At any point of domain (f) ∩ 𝑑𝑜𝑚𝑎𝑖𝑛(𝑔) at which g(x) ≠ 0, we can also define the
function f/g by the formula:

7
Functions can also be multiplied by constants: If c is a real number, then the function

cf is defined for all x in the domain of f by (cf)(x) = cf(x).

1.7 Composite Functions

Definition: If f and g are functions, the composite function fog is defined by

(f 0 g)(x) = f(g(x)).

The domain of fog consists of the numbers x in the domain of g for which g(x) lies in the
domain of f.

8
1.8 Shifting a Graph of a Function

9
10
1.9 Trigonometric Functions

Angles

Angles are measured in degrees or radians. One radian is the angle subtended at the centre
of a circle by an arc that is equal in length to the radius of the circle, that is, θ = s / r,
where θ is the subtended angle in radians, s is arc length,
and r is radius.

Let the circle is a unit circle having radius r = 1, one complete

revolution of the unit circle is 360 degree has arc length 2r*π
=2π radians, so we have

π radians = 180°

11
12
13
1.10 Exponential Functions
The function of the form is the exponential function.

A function of the form ƒ(𝑥) = 𝑎 𝑥 , 𝑎 > 0, a  1 is called an exponential function with

base a. Its domain is the set of all real numbers. For an exponential function f we have
𝑓(𝑥+1)
𝑓(𝑥)
a.

For integer and rational exponents, the value of an exponential function ƒ(𝑥) = 𝑎 𝑥 is
obtained arithmetically as follows. If x = n is a positive integer, the number 𝑎𝑛 is given
by multiplying a by itself n times:

Rules for Exponents:

The graph of an exponential function depends on the value of a.

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The Natural Exponential Function 𝑒 𝑥
The most important exponential function is the natural exponential function, whose base
is the special number e. The number e is irrational, and its value is 2.718281828. The
1 𝑛
number e is defined as the number to which the expression (1 + ) Since e > 1, the
𝑛

graph of the natural exponential function is as below:

Properties of exponential functions

1. The domain is the set of all real numbers: D = R

2. The range is the set of positive numbers: R = (0, +). (This means that a x is always
positive, that is a x > 0 for all x. The equation ax = negative number has no solution)

3. There are no x-intercepts

4. The y-intercept is (0, 1)

5. The x-axis (line y = 0) is a horizontal asymptote

6. An exponential function is increasing when a > 1 and decreasing when 0 < a < 1

15
Example:

Use shifting to graph 𝑓(𝑥) = 3−𝑥 − 2. Start with a basic function and use one shift at a
time. This function is obtained from the graph of 𝑦 = 3𝑥 by first reflecting it about y-
axis (obtaining 𝑦 = 3−𝑥 ) and then shifting the graph down by 2 units. Make sure to plot
the three points on the graph of the basic function!

Remark: Function 𝑦 = 3𝑥 has a horizontal asymptote, so remember to shift it too when

performing shift up/down.

Example:
Graph 𝑓(𝑥) = 3𝑒 2𝑥−1 .

16
1.11 Inverse Functions and Logarithms

One-to-One Functions
A function ƒ(x) is one-to-one on a domain D if ƒ(x1) ≠ ƒ(x2) whenever x1 ≠ x2 in D.

Example:

(a) ƒ(𝑥) = √𝑥 is one-to-one on any domain of nonnegative numbers because √𝑥1 ≠

√𝑥 2 whenever 𝑥1 ≠ 𝑥2 .

5𝜋
(b) g(x) = sin x is not one-to-one on the interval [0, 𝜋] because 𝑠𝑖𝑛 (𝜋/6) = 𝑠𝑖𝑛 ( ).
6

17
The Horizontal Line Test for One-to-One Functions
A function y = ƒ(x) is one-to-one if and only if its graph intersects each hori-zontal line
at most once.
Inverse Functions
Since each output of a one-to-one function comes from just one input, the effect of the
function can be inverted to send an output back to the input from which it came.
DEFINITION
Suppose that ƒ is a one-to-one function on a domain D with range R. The inverse function
ƒ−1 is defined by

Example:

Remark:

18
Logarithmic Functions
An exponential function is one to one, since if 𝑎𝑢 = 𝑎𝑣 , 𝑡ℎ𝑒𝑛 𝑢 = 𝑣 and therefore has
the inverse. Its inverse is called the logarithm function with base a.

19
DEFINITION
The logarithm function with base a, 𝑦 = log 𝑎 𝑥, is the inverse of the base a exponential
function 𝑦 = 𝑎 𝑥 , 𝑎 > 0, a  1.

The domain of log 𝑎 𝑥, is (0, ∞), the range of 𝑎 𝑥 . The range of log 𝑎 𝑥 is (-∞, ∞), the
domain of 𝑎 𝑥 .

Logarithms with base e and base 10 are so important in applications that many calculators
have special keys for them.

ln 𝑒 = 1

20
Properties of Logarithms

Example:

Change of Base Formula

then

1.12 Inverse Trigonometric Functions

21
Since these restricted functions are now one-to-one, they have inverses, denoted by:

22
sin function.

23
24
2 Chapter 2: LIMITS AND CONTINUITY

2.1 Limit of a Function and Limit Laws

The limit of a function is the behaviour of that function near a particular input.

EXAMPLE 1:

How does the function behave near x=1?

Solution: The given formula defines f for all real numbers x except x =1 (we cannot divide
by zero). For any x ≠ 1, we can simplify the formula by factoring the numerator and
cancelling common factors:

The graph of f is the line y= x + 1 with the point (1, 2) removed. This removed point is
shown as a "hole" in the figure.

EXAMPLE 2:

25
The limits of f(x), g(x), and h(x) all equal 2 as x approaches 1. However, only h(x) has the
same function value as its limit at x=1.

Some limits:

(a) If f is the identity function f(x) = x, then for any value of 𝑥𝑜 ,

(h) If f is the constant function f(x) = k (function with the constant value k), then:

For example

Note: Some ways that limits can fail to exist as described in the next example.

EXAMPLE 3: Discuss the behaviour of the following functions as x 0

Solution:

a) U(x) has no limit as x 0 because its values jump at x = 0. For negative values of x
arbitrarily close to zero, U(x) = 0. For positive values of x arbitrarily close to zero, U(x)=
1. There is no single value L approached by U(x) as x  0.

b) g(x) has no limit as x  0 because the values of g grow arbitrarily large in positive
value as x  0 and go to very small in negative value. There is no fixed real number.
26
EXAMPLE 4:

27
EXAMPLE 5:

EXAMPLE 6:

EXAMPLE 7:

Given that:

Solution

EXAMPLE 8:
1
Find lim 𝑥 2 sin ,𝑥 ≠ 0
𝑥→0 𝑥

1
Solution −1 ≤ 𝑠𝑖𝑛 ≤ 1
𝑥

1
−𝑥 2 ≤ 𝑥 2 sin ≤ 𝑥2
𝑥
1
lim (−𝑥 2 ) ≤ lim 𝑥 2 sin ≤ lim 𝑥 2
𝑥→0 𝑥→0 𝑥 𝑥→0
1
0 ≤ lim 𝑥 2 sin ≤0
𝑥→0 𝑥
EXAMPLE 9: Given |𝑔(𝑥 ) − 4| ≤ 5(𝑥 − 2)2 ∀𝑥 , 𝑓𝑖𝑛𝑑 lim 𝑔(𝑥 )
𝑥→2

Solution: −5(𝑥 − 2)2 ≤ 𝑔(𝑥 ) − 4 ≤ 5(𝑥 − 2)2

28
 −5(𝑥 − 2)2 + 4 ≤ 𝑔(𝑥 ) ≤ 5(𝑥 − 2)2 + 4

lim − 5(𝑥 − 2)2 + 4 ≤ lim 𝑔(𝑥 ) ≤ lim 5(𝑥 − 2)2 + 4

𝑥→2 𝑥→2 𝑥→2

4 ≤ lim 𝑔(𝑥 ) ≤ 4
𝑥→2

∴ lim 𝑔(𝑥 ) = 4 (by Sandwich theorem )

𝑥→2

EXAMPLE 10:

Solution :

1
EXAMPLE 11: Find lim 𝑥 sin
𝑥→0 𝑥

1
Solution : 0 ≤ | sin ( ) | ≤ 1
𝑥

1
0 ≤ |𝑥 | | sin ( ) | ≤ |𝑥|
𝑥
1
0 ≤ |𝑥 sin ( ) | ≤ |𝑥|
𝑥
1
lim 0 ≤ lim |𝑥 sin ( ) | ≤ lim |𝑥|
𝑥→0 𝑥→0 𝑥 𝑥→0

1
0 ≤ lim |𝑥 sin ( ) | ≤ 0
𝑥→0 𝑥
1 1
By Sandwich theorem lim |𝑥 sin ( ) | = 0 , hence lim 𝑥 sin = 0 ( as in
𝑥→0 𝑥 𝑥→0 𝑥

example 10)

29
2.2 One-Sided Limits
To have a limit L as x approaches c, a function f must be defined on both sides of c and
its values f(x) must approach L as x approaches c from either side. Because of this,
ordinary limits are called two-sided.

If f fails to have a two-sided limit at c, it may still have a one-sided limit, that is, a limit
if the approach is only from one side. If the approach is from the right, the limit is a

right-hand limit. From the left, it is a left-hand limit.

EXAMPLE 1: For the function graphed in Figure

Example 2: Find the following limits if it exists.

|𝑥−3|
1) lim
𝑥→3 𝑥 2 −𝑥−6

30
 √2𝑥(𝑥−1)
2) lim
𝑥→1 |𝑥−1|

⌊𝑥⌋
3) lim
𝑥→3 𝑥

𝑥2 − 5 𝑥≤3
4) lim 𝑓(𝑥 ) where 𝑓(𝑥 ) = {
𝑥→3 √𝑥 + 13 𝑥>3

𝐴𝑥 + 1 𝑥≤3
5) Let 𝑓 (𝑥 ) = { 2 find the value of A that let lim 𝑓(𝑥)
𝐴𝑥 − 1 𝑥>3 𝑥→3

exist.

31
2.3 Limits Involving (sin θ)/θ

Theorem:

Proof:

𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜃
Then lim =1
𝑥→0 𝜃

32
33
2.4 Continuity

34
35
36
2.5 Continuous Extension to a Point
A function (such as a rational function) may have a limit even at a point where it is not
defined. If f(c) is not defined, but lim 𝑓(𝑥) = 𝐿 exists, we can define a new function
𝑥→𝑐

F(x) by the rule

𝑥2 + 𝑥 − 6
2
𝑥≠2
𝐹 (𝑥 ) = { 𝑥 − 4
5
𝑥=2
4
F is the continuous extension of f to x = 2.

37
has a solution.

2.6 Limits Involving Infinity; Asymptotes of Graphs

1
Example 1: Find lim
𝑥→∞ 𝑥

38
39
and the line y = 2 is a horizontal asymptote of the curve on both left and right. This
example illustrates that a curve may cross one of its horizontal asymptotes many times.

40
Oblique Asymptotes
If the degree of the numerator of a rational function is 1 greater than the degree of the
denominator, the graph has an oblique asymptote.

41
graphs of f and g, goes to zero, making the oblique line

2.7 Infinite Limits

In writing this equation, we are not saying that the limit exists. Nor are we saying that
there is a real number ∞, because there is no such number. We are saying
1
that lim+ 𝑓(𝑥) = does not exist
𝑥→0 𝑥

42
EXAMPLE 13:

EXAMPLE 11: Find the horizontal and vertical asymptotes of the curve

Sol:

lim 𝑦 =1 , i.e the horizontal asymptote y = 1;

𝑥→±∞

lim 𝑦 = ±∞, i.e. the vertical asymptote x = -2.

𝑥→−2

EXAMPLE 12: Find the horizontal and vertical asymptotes of the curve

Sol: the line y = 0 is a horizontal asymptote of the graph.

𝑥 2 − 4 = 0 then x=± 2 and hence the vertical asymptotes are x=2 and x=-2.

EXAMPLE 13: The corves

both have vertical asymptotes at π /2 ± nπ , where cos x = 0

EXAMPLE 13:

43
3 DIFFERENTIATION

3.1 Tangents and the Derivative at a Point

44
3.2 The rate of change of a function:
EXAMPLE 2: The rock fall y = 16𝑡 2 feet during the first t sec. what is the average
speed of the rock? What was the rock speed at t=1?

3.3 The Derivative as a Function

Sol:

45
EXAMPLE 3: Show that the function y = |x| is differentiable on (-∞,0) and (0, ∞ ) but
has no derivative at x =0.

Solution:

To the right of the origin,

To the left of the origin,

At the origin:

46
EXAMPLE 4: Examine if the derivative exists at x = 0 for 𝒚 = √𝒙 ?

Sol:

Since the (right-hand) limit is not finite, there is no derivative at x=0.

if ℎ = 𝑥 − 𝑐 that is 𝑥 = 𝑐 + ℎ then 𝑥 →c iff ℎ → 0 i.e we need to show that

lim 𝑓 (𝑐 + ℎ) = 𝑓(𝑐)
ℎ→0

Caution The converse of Theorem 1 is false How?

3.4 Differentiation Rules

Let 𝑐 𝑖𝑠 𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑡 , u and v is a differentiable functions of x, then
𝑑(𝑐)
1- =0
𝑑𝑥
𝑑
2- 𝑥 𝑛 = 𝑛𝑥 𝑛−1
𝑑𝑥
𝑑 𝑑𝑢
3- (𝑐𝑢) = 𝑐
𝑑𝑥 𝑑𝑥
𝑑 𝑑𝑢 𝑑𝑣
4- (𝑢 + 𝑣 ) = +
𝑑𝑥 𝑑𝑥 𝑑𝑥
𝑑 𝑑𝑣 𝑑𝑢
5- (𝑢. 𝑣 ) = 𝑢 +𝑣
𝑑𝑥 𝑑𝑥 𝑑𝑥
𝑑𝑢 𝑑𝑣
𝑑 𝑢 𝑣 −𝑢
𝑑𝑥 𝑑𝑥
6- ( )=
𝑑𝑥 𝑣 𝑣2

47
Example2:

Example3:

The curve has horizontal tangents at x = 0, 1, and -1. The corresponding points on the
curve are (0, 2), (1,1) and (-1, 1).

Example5:

48
The choice of which rules to use in solving a differentiation problem can make a
difference in how much work you have to do. Here is an example.

Example 6:

3.5 Second- and Higher-Order Derivatives

Example:

49
3.6 Derivatives of Trigonometric Functions

𝒅
1) (𝒔𝒊𝒏𝒙) = 𝒄𝒐𝒔𝒙
𝒅𝒙

Proof:

𝒅
2) (𝒄𝒐𝒔𝒙) = −𝒔𝒊𝒏𝒙
𝒅𝒙

Proof:

50
 𝒅
3) (𝒕𝒂𝒏𝒙) = 𝒔𝒆𝒄𝟐 𝒙
𝒅𝒙

Proof:

𝒅
(𝒄𝒐𝒕) = −𝒄𝒔𝒄𝟐 𝒙 (H. W.)
𝒅𝒙

𝒅
(𝒔𝒆𝒄𝒙) = 𝒔𝒆𝒄𝒙 𝒕𝒂𝒏𝒙 (H.W.)
𝒅𝒙

𝒅
4) (𝒄𝒔𝒄𝒙) = −𝒄𝒔𝒄𝒙 𝒄𝒐𝒕𝒙
𝒅𝒙

Proof:

51
Example: Find y" if y = secx.

Sol.:

52
3.7 The Chain Rule (Derivative of a Composite Function)

Example 2: (1) (2)

Sol:

2)

53
Example 3:

Example 4:

Example 5:

positive.

the quotient of two positive numbers.

54
3.8 Implicitly Defined Functions:

Sol:

Sol:

55
3.9 Tangents, and Normal Lines

56
57
4 APPLICATIONS OF DERIVATIVES

4.1 Extreme Values of Functions

Maximum and minimum values are called extreme values of the function f. Absolute
maxima or minima are also referred to as global maxima or minima.

Example 1:

58
59
interior point x = 0 where the graph has a cusp.

4.2 Rolle's Theorem and Mean Value Theorem

60
EXAMPLE 1: Show that the equation 𝑥 3 + 3𝑥 + 1 = 0 has exactly one real solution.

EXAMPLE 2 The function 𝑓(𝑥) = 𝑥 2 is continuous for 0 ≤ x≤ 2 and differentiable

for 0 < x < 2. Since f(0) = 0 and f(2) = 4, the Mean Value Theorem says that at some point
4−0
c in the interval, the derivative f'(x) = 2x must have the value = 2. In this case we
2−0
can identify c by solving the equation 2c = 2 to get c=1. However, it is not always easy
to find e algebraically, even though we know it always exists.

4.3 Monotonic Functions and the First Derivative Test

COROLLARY: Suppose that f is continuous on [a, b] and differentiable on (a, b).
61
 𝑓(𝑥2 )−𝑓(𝑥1 )
there is some c(𝑥1 , 𝑥2 ) such that : 𝑓 ′ (𝑐) = >0
𝑥2 −𝑥1

Since 𝑥1 ≤ 𝑥2 therefore 𝑓(𝑥1 ) ≤ 𝑓(𝑥2 ).

The same as decreasing.

62
4.4 Concavity

DEFINITION:

63
4.5 Steps to graph a function:

64
65
66
67
EXAMPLE 10: Sketch a graph of the function

68
Exercises 1.1

1,2,3,4, 17, 18, 20, 25, 26, 33, 34, 36, 47, 48, 49,58,

Exercises 1.2

1-5, 7,9, 13 c, 21-23, 36,47,49, 56,57,61

Exercises 1.3

13, 19

69