Mathematics in the Modern World

Chapter 8A: Graphs and Euler Circuits Graph — is a set of points called
vertices and line segments or curves
The Konigsberg Problem called edges.

Two vertices are adjacent if they have a

common edge.

Two edges are adjacent if they share a

common vertex

Loop is an edge, the endpoints of which

Can you walk through each bridge exactly are the same vertex.
once?
Multiple edges are two or more edges
that are incident to the same two
vertices.

Historical Background

Leonard Euler (1707-1783) — Graph is simple if it has no loops or

American mathematician and logician multiple edges.
introduced this formal definition of
relation

Topology — is a branch of mathematics

which illustrates
and analyzes connections
between objects. A graph is connected if there is at least
a path that connects two vertex sets.
Applications of Graph Theory
● Biology and Genetics
● Urban Planning
● Finance and Stock Market
Analysis
● Telecommunications
● Circuit Design
 Mathematics in the Modern World

A graph is disconnected if there is no It is a graph where all the edges are

path to connect two vertex sets. directed from one vertex to another.

It is also called a digraph.

It is a graph in which no edge is drawn

between any two vertices.

It is an undirected graph in which any

two vertices are connected by exactly
one path.

It is a graph in which every possible

edge is drawn between the vertices.
Moreover, this implies that any two
vertices are adjacent.

Two or more graphs are equivalent if the

edges form the same connections of
vertices.

Are the graphs below equivalent?

A graph is bipartite if it is possible to
divide all its vertices into two disjoint
subsets such that every edge in the
graph connects a vertex in one subset
to a vertex in the other subset.
 Mathematics in the Modern World

Are the graphs below equivalent? This means that the degree of a vertex
indicates the number edges connected
to that vertex.

Eulerian Graph Theorem

A connected graph is Eulerian if and
only if every vertex of the graph is of
A path in a graph is a sequence of even degree. Furthermore, the graph is
edges which joins a sequence of distinct Eulerian if it has an Euler circuit.
vertices.
Which of the following graphs is
Eulerian?

A circuit is a closed path/cycle where a

path ends at the same vertex at which it
Is it possible to plan a journey that
started.
traverses the tracks and returns to the
starting point without traveling through
any portion of a track more than once?

Euler Path — It is a path where each

edge in a graph is traversed once and
starts and ends at a different vertex.
Euler Path Theorem
Euler Circuit — It is a circuit/cycle A connected graph contains an Euler
where each edge in a graph is path if and only if the graph has two
traversed once and starts vertices of odd degree with all other
and ends at the same vertex. vertices of even degree.

Vertex Degree — It refers to the

number of edges that is incident at a
vertex.
 Mathematics in the Modern World

Which of the following has an Euler The floor plan of an art gallery is
path? pictured below. Draw a graph that
represents the floor plan, where vertices
correspond to rooms and edges
correspond to doorways. Is it possible to
take a stroll that passes through every
doorway without going through the
same doorway twice? If so, does it
Is it possible for the photographer to
matter whether we return to the starting
design a trip that traverses all the roads
point?
exactly once?

Is it possible for the cyclist to traverse all

of the trails without repeating any
portions of the trip?
 Mathematics in the Modern World

Chapter 8B: Hamiltonian and Historical Background

Weighted Graphs
William Rowan Hamilton (1805-1865)
1. (Transportation) Draw a graph that — Irish mathematician who studied
represents the information below in “Hamiltonian” circuits.
which the vertices represent the cities
and the edge connect the train route Hamiltonian Circuit — It is a cycle
between cities. where the vertices are traversed exactly
once that starts and ends at the same
vertex.

Remarks:
In a graph, each vertex of a Hamiltonian
circuit is incident to 2 edges.
2. (Baseball) The local Little League
baseball teams are represented by the
graph at the left. An edge connecting
two teams means that those teams
played a game against each other this
season.
Dirac’s Theorem — A simple graph
with n vertices (n ≥ 3) is Hamiltonian if
every vertex has degree n/2 or greater.

Hamilton Circuit — It is a cycle where

each vertex is traversed exactly once
and starts and ends at the same vertex.
The HC represents a sequence of flights
Hamiltonian Path — It is a path where that visits each city and returns to the
each vertex is traversed exactly once starting city without visiting any city
and starts and ends at the different twice.
vertices.

Hamiltonian — A graph is Hamiltonian

if and only if it has a Hamiltonian circuit.
 Mathematics in the Modern World

Weighted Graphs The Edge-Picking Algorithm

It is a graph where each edge is 1. Mark the edge of the smallest
associated with a value called weight. weight in the graph. (If two or
● Each edge's weight represents more edges have the same
the cost to travel along that edge. weight, pick any one.)
● The cost could be distance, 2. Mark the edge of the next
length, time, money, or some smallest weight in the graph, as
other measure. long as it does not complete a
● The cost depends on the circuit and does not add a third
underlying problem. marked edge to a single vertex.
3. Continue this process until you
Algorithms in Complete Graphs can no longer mark any edges.
Then mark the final edge that
The Greedy Algorithm completes the Hamiltonian circuit.
It is an algorithm that finds a solution to
problems in the shortest time
possible.

It makes us choose the cheapest

option at every chance we get.

The Greedy Algorithm

1. Choose a vertex to start at, then
travel along the connected edge
that has the smallest weight. (If
two or more edges have the
same weight, pick any one.)
2. After arriving at the next vertex,
travel along the edge of the
smallest weight that connects to
a vertex not yet visited. Continue
this process until you have visited
all vertices.
3. Return to the starting vertex.
 Mathematics in the Modern World

Chapter 8C: Planar Graph and Graph

Coloring

Three Utilities Problem

Three utility companies each need to
run pipes to three houses. Can they do
so without crossing over each other's Coloring Maps
pipes at any point? In the mid-1800s, Francis Guthrie was
trying to color a map of the counties of
England. So that it would be easy to
distinguish the counties, he wanted
counties sharing a common border to
have different colors. After several
attempts, he noticed that four colors
were required to color the map, but not
more. This observation became known
as the four-color problem. (It was not
proved until over 100 years later; see
the Math Matters on page 272.)

Here is a map of the contiguous states

of the United States colored similarly.
Note that the map has only four colors
and that no two states that share a
common border have the same color.

One way to solve the puzzle is to draw

an equivalent graph in which no edges
cross over each other.

Planar Graph
A planar graph is a graph that can be In graph theory, it is an assignment of
drawn so that no edges intersect each labels traditionally called "colors" to
other except at vertices. Moreover, a elements of a graph subject to certain
graph is planar if it has a planar constraints.
drawing. By planar duality (vertices are faces of a
graph), it became coloring the vertices,
and this form, it generalizes to all
graphs.
 Mathematics in the Modern World

Four-Color Theorem
Every planar graph is 4-colorable.

The four-color theorem guarantees that

we need only four colors to color a
planar graph.

● Nonplanar graph may need more

than four colors.

It is the minimum number of colors

needed to color a graph so
that no edge connects vertices of the
same color.

In general, there is no efficient method

of finding the chromatic number of a
graph.

2-Colorable Graph Theorem

A graph is 2-colorable if and only if has
no circuits that consist of an odd number
of vertices.
 Mathematics in the Modern World

Chapter 9A: Introduction to Modular Days of the Week

Arithmetic Consider a day-of-the-week arithmetic.
Suppose each day is associated with a
Modular Arithmetic — is also called as number as shown below.
"clock arithmetic".
Monday = 1
In real life, this idea can also be used to Tuesday = 2
deal with "time" in terms of a 12-hour Wednesday = 3
clock. Thursday = 4
Friday = 5
Addition on a 12-hour clock Saturday = 6
1. What is 8 hours after 3 o'clock? Sunday = 7

Practice:

1. What is 6 days after Friday?

2. What is 16 days after Monday?
3. If July 4, 2010 was a Sunday,
2. What is 8 hours after 9 o'clock? what day of the week is July 4,
2015?
4. If today is Friday, what day is it 16
days from now?

Arithmetic Operations
Evaluate the following:
1. (23 + 38) mod 1. (51 + 72) mod 3
12
Subtraction on a 12-hour clock
1.If the time now is 3 o'clock, what is the
Moreover, adding the modulus to a
time 7 hours ago?
number does not change the value and
can generate another congruence.

Calculating Times
1. Disregarding A.M. or P.M., if it is
5 o'clock now, what time was it 57
hours ago?
2. What is 7 hours before 10 o'clock? 2. If today is Tuesday, what day of
the week will it be 93 days from
now?
 Mathematics in the Modern World

3. Disregarding A.M or P.M., if it is Practice:

10 o'clock now, what time will it
be 500 hours after? Show your computations for the
4. If today is Thursday, what day of following.
the week will it be 100 days from
now and before? 1. Determine the day of the week on
which you were born.
Computing the Day of the Week 2. Determine the day of the week on
which Abraham Lincoln's birthday
The floor function is related to the (February 12) will fall in 2155.
modulo function. 3. Determine the day of the week on
which April 1, 2024, will fall.
In a floor function, we determine the 4. Determine the day of the week on
quotient of two numbers and ignore the which Valentine's Day (February
remainder. 14) 1950 fell.

Note: When taking the floor function,

DO NOT round off.

Zeller’s Congruence
— a formula that gives the day of
the week for any date on the Gregorian
calendar.

Zeller’s Formula

where
● d — day of the month
● m — month using 1 for March, 2
for April and so on.
● y — last two digits of the if the
month is March through
December; if the month is
January or February, y is the last
two digits of the year minus 1
● c — first two digits of the year
● x — is the day of the week using
0 for sunday, 1 for monday and
so on.
 Mathematics in the Modern World

Chapter 9B: Applications of Modular transposed the 8 and 2 in the five

Arithmetic numbers that identify the book.

The ISBN Correct ISBN: 978-0-395-82517-4

International Standard Book Number Incorrect ISBN: 978-0-395-28517-4
(ISBN)
● Every book that is cataloged in Practice:
the National Library has an Determine the ISBN check digit for the
International Standard Book book The Equation that Couldn't Be
Number (ISBN). Solved by Mario Livio. The first 12 digits
● It consists of 13 digits. of the ISBN are 978-0-7432-5820-?.

d1, d2, d3, - first digit - composed of

978

d4 - next digit - indicates the country in

which the publisher is incorporated
(either 0 or 1)

(3 vertical dots) - next two to seven

digits - indicate publisher
- next group of digits - indicates the
title of the book

d13 - last digit (13th digit) - is called

check digit

It is this check digit that is used to

ensure accuracy.

Example:
The ISBN for the fourth edition of the
American Heritage Dictionary is
978-0-395-82517-4. Suppose, how-ever,
that a bookstore clerk sends an order for
the American Heritage Dictionary and
inadvertently enters the number
978-0-395-28517-4, where the clerk