CA Lesson 1 – Introduction to Computer Application

Computer applications
Computer applications is the knowledge, skills and attitudes that enable a computer user to operate
and use different computer application programs (software) or packages to accomplish various tasks.
Computer software
Software is a set of instructions that enables a computer to operate. It is also known as a
program. A program is a set of instructions given to a computer to enable it perform or accomplish
a specific task. Computer hardware is only as effective as the instructions given to it by the end users
and those instructions are contained in software.
Software not only directs the computer to manage its internal resources, but also enables the user to
tailor a computer system to provide specific business value. Software instructs the computer on what
to do and how to do it. It follows therefore, that without software the computer can do nothing.
Note: Modern computers use the stored program concept, in which stored software programs are
accessed and their instructions executed (followed) in the computer’s Central Processing Unit
(CPU). Once the program has finished executing, a new program is loaded into main memory and
the computer hardware addresses another task.
Software concept
Software consists of computer programs, the process of writing these programs is known as
programming or coding and individuals who perform this task are called programmers.
Programmers write programs in a language that is like broken English called the programming
language or source language, e.g. Vb.net, HTML, C++ etc.
The source language produces a sequence of instructions (script) for the computer known as the
source code, using a special sequence or order of writing characters usually referred to as syntax.
The computer understands only one language which is the machine language, a series of 0s and 1s.
Since it cannot understand the source language, the source code is translated into a machine
language script known as the object code by special translation programs called translators, e.g.
compliers, interpreters and assemblers. A compiler also checks for errors or bugs within the
program and reports them to the programmer for removal, fixing or debugging.
Programming language translators
Programming language translators are system software which transform the instructions prepared by
programmers in a programming language, into a form which can be interpreted and executed by a
computer system. They include:

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Compliers
These are language processors which translate the entire source code into object code all at once.
Functions of a complier
A complier performs the following functions during source code compilation;
 Convert a source code written using high level programming.
 Generates executable (.exe) object code file.
 Detects errors during translation and gives suggestions on how to correct them.
 Links the subroutines used in program instructions.
Advantages of using a complier
 Source code is not included, therefore complied code is more secure than interpreted code.
 Tends to produce faster code than interpreting source code.
 Produces an executable file and therefore the program can run without need of the source
code.
Disadvantages of using a complier
 Object code needs to be produced before a final executable file, this can be a slow process.
 The source code must be 100% correct for the executable file to be produced.
Interpreters
These are language processors that translate the source code into object code line by line.
Advantages of using interpreters
 Easier to debug (check errors) than a complier.
 Easier to create multiplatform code, as each different platform would have an interpreter to
run the same code.
 Useful for prototyping software and testing basic program logic
Disadvantages of using interpreters
 Source code is required for the program to be executed and this source code can be read
making it insecure.
 Interpreters are generally slower than complied programs due to the pre line translation
method.

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Comparison between a complier and interpreter
Complier Interpreter
Translates the whole source code first before Translates the next line and so on until the
execution starts. whole conversion is complete.
Produce and store objects code after Produce but does not store object code after
compilation. interpretation.
Occupies large memory to store complied Occupies less memory because it does not store
executable (exe) object code. executable object code.
Compliers are faster because they translate Interpreters are generally slower than complied
the entire source code at once and store the programs due to the per line translation method.
object code.

Differences between an interpreted and a complied program

Complied program Interpreted program
Fast Slow
Occupies more space Occupies more space
Low likelihood of errors as most are High likelihood of errors as they are only
arrested at the compiling stage encountered when the line is translated.
Assemblers
These are language processors that translate a source code written in assembly language into object
code.
Advantages of using an assembler
 Very fast in translating assembly language to machine code as one to one relationship.
 Assembly code is often very efficient (and therefore fast) because it is a low level language.
 Assembly code is fairly easy to understand due to the use of English like mnemonics.
Disadvantages of using an assembler
 Assembler language is written for a certain instruction set and or processor.
 Assembler tends to be optimized for the hardware it is designed for, meaning it is often
incompatible with different hardware.
 Lots of assembly code is needed to do relatively simple tasks, and complex programs require
lots of programming time.
Relationship between hardware and software
In order for a computer to produce useful output, its hardware and software must work together.
Nothing useful can be done with the computer hardware on its own and software cannot be utilized
without supporting hardware. Although computer system hardware is, by design, general purpose,

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software enables the user to instruct a computer system to perform specific functions. The
relationship between hardware and software is as follows

 Both hardware and software are necessary for a computer to accomplish tasks. Both
complement each other.
 The same hardware can be loaded with different software to make a computer system
perform different types of tasks.

Program documentation
Computer programs include documentation, which is a written description of the functions of the
program. It is a written report or manual which explains how the program was developed and
instructions on how to install and use the program.
Importance of program documentation
 Documentation aids the users on how to operate the program such as entering data, obtaining
outputs and error handling.
 It helps other technical user like programmers or system analysts to understand how the
program was designed and coded so that in the event that the program needs to be modified, it
can be done in the absence of the developer.
 The document can be a source of evaluating the performance and objectives of the program.
Types of program documentation
There are three main types of program documentation namely:
 User oriented documentation: This documentation is written to give users instructions on
how to use the program to input data, process, and output results and perform minor trouble
shooting.
 Operator or technical oriented documentation: This documentation is written for computer
operator such as the technical staff. It helps them to install and maintain the program.
 Programmer oriented documentation: This is a detailed documentation written for skilled
programmers or system analysts explaining technical aspects on how the program works and
how it was developed so as to aid in the future modification of the program. In this type of
documentation, all stages of the program development should be documented because:
i. There may come a need to revise or modify the program.
ii. Other programmers may think of ways of improving the existing program.

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Classification of computer software
Computer software can be classified in several ways but the three main ones include:
 Purpose
 Acquisition
 End User License (EUL)
Classification according to purpose
Computer software may be primarily be designed to manage the hardware resources or to help the end
user accomplish specific tasks. Therefore, under this category computer software can be classified into
two broad categories namely:
 System software
 Application software
System software
System software performs a variety of fundamental functions that avail computer resources to the
user. These functions include:
 Booting the computer and making sure that all the hardware elements are working properly.
 Performing a variety of system utility functions.
 Supports the development of other application software.
 Supports the execution of other application software.
 Monitors the effective use of various hardware resources such as CPU, memory, peripherals
etc.
 Communicates with and controls the operation of peripheral devices, such as printers, disk,
tape etc.
Hence, it is correct to say that system software makes the operation of a computer system more
effective and efficient. It helps the hardware components work together and provides support for the
development and execution of application software (programs). The programs included in a system
software package are called system programs and programmers who develop system software are
referred to as system programmers.
Examples of system software include:
 Operating system
 Firmware
 Utility software

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 Networking/communication software
 Programming language translators
Operating system
An operating system is a mandatory software that manages all computer systems resources, acts as
an intermediary between the computer users and computer hardware as well as controls and provides
a basis or platform for the execution of application software. Some popular Operating Systems include
Linux Operating System, Microsoft Windows family Operating System, VMS, OS/400, AIX, z/OS,
UNIX and Macintosh (MacOS) etc.
Firmware
Firmware, also referred to as stored logic is a combination of both the software and hardware recorded
permanently on electronic chips. Usually, a firmware is a read only memory chip that is mounted or
plugged into the motherboard. Firmware may hold an operating system, utility programs, language
processors etc.
Utility software
Utility software, also known as utilities or housekeeping software is a special program that performs
commonly used services that make certain aspects of computing go on smoothly. Such services
include:
 Disk formatting: This is the process of preparing a data device such as a hard disk, solid
state disk, for initial use. In some cases, disk formatting, may also create one or more new
file systems.
 Disk partitioning: This is the process of creating two or more regions on a hard disk/
secondary storage device so that the operating system can manage information in each region
separately. In other words, partitioning is the process of splitting memory into different
drives.
 Scanning disk: This is the process of checking for errors in a disk drive and repairing them.
The operating system uses scanned disk utility which is a diagnostic tool for checking and
repairing file system errors on a disk drive. An antivirus e.g. Kaspersky is also used to scan
and eliminate viruses on the computer system.
 Disk compression: This is the process of increasing the amount of storage space by
compressing files to occupy minimum disk space.
 Disk defragmentation: This is increasing computer access speed by rearranging files stored
on a disk to occupy contiguous storage locations.

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 Disk backup: This is the process of creating copies of data and program on a separate
storage device to avoid losing important data or programs in case the storage device fails.
The two basic types of utility software are:
 System level utility: These software helps the end user to work with the operating system and
its functions, e.g. a utility software tells the user when he or she enters a wrong command and
gives suggestions on how the error can be corrected.
 Application level utility: These software makes application programs run more smoothly and
efficiently. Such utility programs are commonly purchased separately or may be part of an
operating system.
Some of the common utility programs include:
 Text editors: These are programs used to create and subsequently modify textual
information using the computer. The text editor operations are controlled by an interactive
operating system that provides “dialogue” between the computer user and itself.
 Linker: This is a program in a language processor used to link/join the source code with
other files that are needed for the execution of the program.
 Loader: This is a program that transfers the linker output, into computer memory ready for it
to be executed by the computer hardware.
 Sort utility: These are programs used to alter the sequence of the records maintained in a
file. They are used to arrange records within a file according to some predetermined
sequence. The arrangement can either be in ascending order or descending orders of
alphabetic or numerals.
 Merge utility: This is a program used to influence the combining of the contents of two or
more input files to produce one output file.
 Copy utility: This is a program used to influence the duplication process i.e. copying the
content of one file to another.
 Dump utility: This is a program used to influence dumping i.e. the transfer (copying) of the
computer’s internal memory into a storage media.
 Diagnostic tools: These are tools used to detect and correct system faults both hardware and
software. E.g. Dr Watson, a diagnostic tool from Microsoft that takes a snapshot of the
system whenever a system fault occurs, Norton Utilities, PC Tools, QAPlus etc.

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Networking/communication software
Networking software also known as communication software is mostly used to establish
communication between two or more computers by linking them using a communication channel like
cables to create a computer network. Networking software enables the exchange of data in a network
as well as providing data security. Network software may come as independent software or integrated
in an operating system. An example of networking software is novel netware.
Programming language translators
Programming language translators are system software which transform the instructions prepared by
programmers in a programming language, into a form which can be interpreted and executed by a
computer system, e.g.
 Compliers: These are language processors which translate the entire source code into object
code all at once.
 Interpreters: These are language processors that translate the source code into object code
line by line.
 Assemblers: These are language processors that translate a source code written in assembly
language into object code.
Note: Source code is a program code typed in the text editor or integrated Development Environment
(IDE) while object code refers to a program code that is in machine readable form (Binary) or a series
of 0s and 1s.
Application software
Application software, also known as application packages are programs that are designed to help the
user accomplish specific tasks or set of tasks. Programs included in an application software package
are called application programs and the programmers and the programmers who prepare
application software are referred to as application programmers.
Application software may consist of a single program, such as an image viewer, a small collection of
programs (often called a software package) that work closely together to accomplish a task, such as
a spread sheet or text processing system.
A larger collection (often called a software suite) of related but independent programs and packages
that have a common user interface or shared data format, such as Microsoft Office, which consists of
closely integrated word processor, spreadsheet, database etc., or a software system, such as a
database management system, which is a collection of fundamental programs that may provide some
service to a variety of other independent applications.

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There are literally millions of application software available for a wide range of applications,
ranging from such applications, such as word processing, inventory management, preparation of tax
returns, banking, hospital administration, insurance, publishing, to complex scientific and
engineering applications such as weather forecasting, space shuttle launching, oil and natural gas
exploration, design of complex structures like aircrafts, ships, bridges, sky rise building etc.
Application areas of various application software
Some of the most commonly known application software are:
 Word processing applications: A word processing software enables end users to make use
of a computer system for the purposes of creating, editing, viewing, formatting, storing,
retrieving and printing documents, e.g. Microsoft word, lotus WordPro, open office writer
etc.
 Spreadsheet applications: A spreadsheet software is a numeric data analysis tool, which
allows end users to create a kind of computerized ledger and manipulate numeric data. A
manual ledger is a book having rows and columns that accountants use for keeping a record
of financial transactions and for preparing financial statements, e.g. Microsoft excel, Lotus 1-
2-3 etc.
 Database applications: A database is a collection of related data stored and treated as a unit
for information retrieval purposes. A database application is a set of one or more programs,
which enables the end user to create a database, maintain it (add, delete and update its
records), organize its data and to selectively retrieve useful information from it, e.g.
Microsoft Access, MySQL, FoxBASE, Paradox etc.
 Graphics applications: A graphics application enables the end users to use a computer
system for the purposes of creating and manipulating graphics such as flyers, posters, cards
and newsletters because of the ease of using graphics and text together, e.g. corel draw,
Photoshop etc. They can also be used to design publications such as newspapers and books,
example of desktop publishing software include, Adobe PageMaker, Microsoft publisher.
Adobe InDesign etc.
 Computer aided design applications: A graphics application enables the end users to use a
computer system for the purposes of technical drawing, or create and visualize three-
dimensional objects, e.g. AutoCAD, ArchiCAD etc.
 Personal assistance applications: A personal assistance application enable the end users to
use personal computers for the purposes storing and retrieving of personal information and

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planning and managing schedules, contacts, financial and inventory of important items, e.g.
24me, Assistant.ai, Cortana, Dragon mobile assistant, Easilydo, Google Now, Hound etc.
 Education applications: Education applications allow a computer system to be used as a
teaching and learning tool. A few examples of such applications are those that teach young
children to do mathematics, recognize alphabets and read whole words and sentences.
 Entertainment applications: Entertainment applications allow a computer to be used as an
entertainment tool. A good example of such application is computer video games, Video and
Audio players etc.
 Presentation applications: Presentation applications allow sophisticated presentations to be
created for use as overhead projections, 35mm slides, Web pages or as an on-screen display
with the option of incorporating special effects, audio and video clips.
 Web browsing applications: Allow users to access the information on the Internet; to search
for, view and download text and images from the vast collection of data, which comprises the
World Wide Web.
Logical system architecture
The logical architecture of a computer system below, depicts the relationship among the hardware,
system software, application software and users of a computer system. At the center of any computer
system is the hardware, which comprises of the physical devices/components of the computer system.
Surrounding the hardware is the system software layer, which constitutes the operating and
programming environment of the computer system.

Figure 1: Relationship between hardware, system software, application software and end users

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The software at this layer is designed to hide the hardware details of the system form application
programmers, end users and to coordinate the operations of the various hardware devices for
optimizing the performance of all the devices. Surrounding the system software is the application
software layer, which consists of a wide range of software, which are designed to do a specific task,
or solve a specific problem.
The final layer of users who normally interact with the system via the user interface provided by the
application software. Different application software usually provides different user interfaces.
Hence, how a particular user interacts with the computer system, depends on which application
he/she is using.
Classification according to acquisition
Software can be classified according to the method used to obtain it. A desired software may be
obtained today in several ways, developing, buying pre developed software and downloading public
domain software. According to acquisition, computer software can be classified into three broad
categories namely
 In-house developed, bespoke/custom-built/Tailor made/special purpose
 Vendor off the self/ generic/general purpose
 Freeware

In-house developed, bespoke/custom-built/Tailor made/special purpose

These are programs that are uniquely designed and tailored to meet a particular user’s needs. For
example, a bank may decide to manage its banking operations using a unique program developed by
hired programmers. These programs are not available in the shops and once developed for one
company or user they may not address the needs of other users. Examples of bespoke software
include all the Management Information Systems (MIS)
Advantages
 The users get exactly the software they need.
 The software will work exactly the way it is needed to.
 The software will have specifically needed features.
Disadvantages
 It takes a long time to develop such software, between a few months or years
 It is expensive to develop such software

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 Experts such as business analysts and programmers may need to be employed at an extra
cost.
 This kind of software has little terms of support online.

Vendor off the self/ generic/general purpose

These are programs developed by software engineers, packaged and then made available for
purchase through a vendor, a distributor or directly from the developer. A developer may bundle
more than one but closely related software into one package to form a suite or integrated software,
e.g. Lotus Suites, Microsoft-Office and Corel Word perfect, as opposed to single purpose software,
e.g. QuickBooks and Sage Pastel.
They are developed to be sold to a range of different customers. They provide many features that the
majority of users would want e.g. formatting text, creating charts, organizing tables, but also have a
vast number of features that a user many never use. Examples for generic software include, excel,
word processor, access etc.
Advantage
 They are relatively cheap than in house developed software
 They are readily available in computer shops
 They can easily be installed and run
 They have minor or no errors since they are thoroughly tested.
Disadvantages
 They may have some features not needed by the user which may take extra storage
 They may require the user to change processes and hardware for compatibility which may in
turn be expensive.
 They may lack some features required by the user
Free ware /shareware/ public domain software
These are programs which are available free or for a minimal charge, on the internet. Creator of this
software obtain distribution for their products supplying free copies to bulletins boards and user group
libraries online. Their basic objective is to popularize the software. Users are encouraged to copy these
software, try them out and freely share with others. Hence, the name public domain software, shareware
or user supported software, e.g. Firefox, OpenOffice, Zimbra, VLC etc.

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Advantages
 Available at minimal cost
 Free software works in open standards
 It promotes social solidarity and represents society as a whole through sharing and
cooperation.
 It is easier and cheaper to switch from one free software to another compared to switching
proprietary software. Free software does not tie one down to any corporation
Disadvantages
 There is an increased potential for the computer to become infected with spyware.
 It is not always user-friendly.
 Personalized support is rarely available.
Classification according to End User License (EUL)
Software may also be classified according to End User License (EUL) as
 Open source or freeware.
 Proprietary
Open source or non-proprietary
Also known as freeware, shareware public domain software, this refers to software whose source
code (programmed set of instructions) is freely made available to users. The users are encouraged to
use, modify and distribute the modified product. Most distribution of Linux operating systems and
Open Office are open source software which are made available to users under General Public
License (GPL).
Advantages

 Open source software is free

 Licensing is not complex
 Contributions from many people potentially make for robust code
 Researchers can look at code to make it more secure
Disadvantages

 Support for open source software is not free

 Users might not be used familiar with open source software
 There is no guarantees that the software will continue to be supported once the becomes
unpopular.

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 Source code is easily accessible and visible to hackers who can easily identify weaknesses
and take advantage.
 Open source software is not always up to date in terms of features and compatibility with
peripherals
Proprietary software
This is software whose source code is hidden from users. Modifications are only made by the
software manufacture. Proprietary software may be licensed to users at a fee or applied freely.
Windows Microsoft operating systems and office are examples of proprietary.
Advantages
 Predictable releases
 Entity to hold responsible for bugs, errors and updates
 Consistent feature development
 Easier access to support
 More consistent training options
Disadvantages
 Higher startup costs
 A single company releasing patches or updates
 Vendor owns software
 There is licensing fee i.e. access to product is charged
Factors to consider when selecting software/ software consideration
Although one may have a good computer with the best hardware, the actual determinant of a
computer’s value to the user is the software in it. The following factors should be considered while
selecting software:
 Authenticity: This refers to genuineness, validity and or legitimacy of the software. When
one acquires a software from the vendor, make sure it is an original copy that is
accomplished by the developer’s license and certificate of authenticity. This is because some
people illegally produce pirated copies which is an offence.
 Documentation: This refers to the manuals prepared by the developers having details on
how to install, use and maintain the software. These include installation guide, maintenance
guide and a user guide. This documentation enables the user to work with the software with
minimum guidance.

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 User needs: User needs dictates the type of operating system and application programs that,
should be considered for acquisition. For example, if the user needs to type documents most
often he/she would go for a word processor. People with special disability will require
software that recognizes other forms of input like voice and natural sound. A good example
is a software used in mobile phones to store voice and allow the user to make a call by just
calling a name instead of keying in the number.
 Reliability and security: Data security is paramount. A good software especially the
operating system should have security mechanisms that protect data and information from
illegal access.
 User friendliness: One of the most important features normally considered when using a
computer program is its user friendliness. This is a measure how easily the users can be able
to use and understand the software. Some programs are more user friendly than others. The
ease to use and understand a program will most likely influence whether the user will prefer
it or not.
 Cost: Software tend to be more expensive than hardware. The cost of acquiring software
product must be carefully considered before acquiring them against the benefits that it is
likely to bring. It is also not advisable to always go for freeware because some of them may
be malicious programs.
 Compatibility and system configuration: A software product should be compatible with
the existing hardware, operating system or application programs and should be readily
upgrade.
 Portability: Portability in this aspect refers to whether a program can be copied or installed
in more than one computer. Although most software in the market today are portable, some
developers produce software which can be installed on one machine only. This means that if
one has twenty computers, one should buy a license for each.
The operating system
As mentioned earlier, an operating system is a mandatory software that manages all computer
systems resources, acts as an intermediary between the computer users and computer hardware as
well as controls and provides a basis or platform for the execution of application software

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Figure 2: The positioning of OS in the overall computer system

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Objectives/ goals of the operating systems
The Operating System can be thought of as having three objectives
 Convenience: An operating system makes the computer more convenient to use by hiding
the complexity or lower level details of the hardware and providing a pleasant and effective
user interface.

 Efficiency: An operating system allows the computer system resources to be used in an

efficient manner by undertaking its responsibilities with minimal effort and with no wastage
of time or resources.

 Scalability: An operating system evolves over time by permitting the effective development,
testing and introduction of new system functions without interfering with service
Functions of the operating system
The main functions of the operating system are as follows:
 Process Management: As a process manager, the operating system handles the creation and
deletion of processes, suspension and resumption of processes, and scheduling and
synchronization of processes.

 Memory Management: As a memory manager, the operating system handles allocation and
deallocation of memory space as required by various programs.
 File Management: The operating system is responsible for creation and deletion of files and
directories. It also takes care of other file-related activities such as organizing, storing,
retrieving, naming, and protecting the files. It also keeps track of the information, its
location, use, status etc. It achieves this through a facility called the file system. A file
system is concerned with the logical organization of the information and provides a means
for starting, retrieving and sharing of files.
 Device Management: Operating system provides input/output subsystem between process
and device driver. It handles the device caches, buffers, and interrupts. Operating system also
detects device failures and notifies the same to the user.
 User Interface: Operating system provides the interface between the user and the hardware.
The user interface is the layer that actually interacts with the computer operator. The
interface consists of a set of commands or menus through which a user communicates with a
program.

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 Resource management and allocation: Operating Systems allocates computer resources
such as CPU time, main memory, secondary storage, and input and output devices for use.
Each resource is given a unique identification number called an interrupt number for
recognition hence when two tasks request to use a resource at the same time the higher
priority interrupt is granted control.
 Error handling: The operating system has many ways of alerting the user of errors that may
rise out of illegal operations, hardware or software failure. Most operating systems express
what the error is and where possible make suggestions on how to correct the error. The
operating system does this by monitoring the status of the computer system and performing
audit checks on users, hardware and software and produces dumps, traces, error messages,
and other debugging and error detecting aids.
 Logging and accounting: The operating system keeps track of computer system time and
resources used by various jobs and users. A log of the tasks carried out by the computer is
kept. It also keeps internal logs on the CPU time, memory usage, peripherals being used etc.
as well as a complete record of all that happens during processing. Recording delays between
request for a service and response from the system.
 Security Management: The operating system protects system resources and information
against destruction and unauthorized use.
 Coordination between other software and users: Coordination and assignment of
compilers, interpreters, assemblers and other software to the various users of the computer
systems
Classification of operating systems/Types of operating systems
Operating systems can be classified into three major categories namely
 Based on number of tasks handled at the same time.
 Based on number of users handled at the same time.
 Based on Human Computer Interface (HCI).
Based on number of tasks handled at the same time
Based on the number of tasks handled, the operating system is classified into two categories namely:
 Single tasking: This operating system allows only one task or program to be executed or
processed in the main memory at a time, e.g. MS-DOS.
 Multitasking: This is operating system allows several tasks or programs to be processed in
the main memory at a time. This is achieved by allocating time slice for each task thus the

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tasks are processed apparently at the same time, e.g. Windows (95,98, NT,2000, XP, Vista,7
and 8), UNIX, Novell or Macintosh.
Based on number of users handled at the same time
Based on the number of users handled, the operating system is classified into two categories namely:
 Single user: This operating system allows only one person to interact with the computer at
time, e.g. MS DOS.
 Multiuser: This operating system allows two or more users to actively interact with the
computer at a time, e.g. Windows ((95,98, NT,2000, XP, VISTA,7 and 8), UNIX, Novell or
Macintosh.
Based on Human Computer Interface (HCI)/ User interface
According to the type of human computer interface or user interface, the operating system is
classified into three categories namely:
 Command line interface: This operating system allows the user to interact with the
computer by providing a command prompt interface where the user types the commands to
execute the command. The user must memorize the commands hence; it is not user friendly,
e.g. MS DOS.
 Menu driven interface: This operating system provides the user with a set of list of options
called menu, where the user can choose from. The user does not have to memorize the
commands, e.g. DOS shell or DOS editor.
 Graphical User Interface (GUI): Graphical User Interfaces (GUI) is the latest effort to
make the user interface more user friendly. It implements the WIMP concept which stands
for Windows, the rectangular works areas, Icons, graphical objects or small pictures that
represent commands, files or windows or programs, which act as a shortcut to an action the
computer performs (e.g. execute a program or task), Menus, text or icon-based selection
systems that select and execute programs or tasks and Pointer, an on screen symbol that
appears on the display screen and that a user moves to select objects and commands. This
operating system allows the user to enter commands by pointing and clicking on the icons
displayed on the screen. The end user will choose the command needed for a task by clicking
on the appropriate icon using a mouse or touching with a finger for touch screens, e.g.
Windows (95,98, NT, 2000, XP, Vista, 7 and 8), UNIX, Novell or Macintosh.

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Ways of acquiring an operating system
 Purchasing it from software vendors or the internet
 Downloading it freely from the internet
 Outsourcing
Factors to consider when choosing an operating system
 User interface or user friendliness.
 Availability of both the user and technical documentation.
 System or hardware configuration e.g. RAM, hard disk capacity, processor speed etc.
 Applications intended for the computer.
 Basic computer design e.g. IBM computer, Apple Macintosh or HP.
 Availability in the market
 Reliability and security provision
 Number of users required to use.
The operating system environment
Though modern operating systems differ in terms of “look and feel”, they basically apply the same
concepts and handle information the same way.
How an operating system organizes information
Most operating systems organize information in a three tier hierarchy which includes:
 Drives.
 Folders.
 File.

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Figure 3: Information organization tree (the file system)

Drives
The operating system recognizes storage media or devices as drives. Drives may be given labels
such as A-Z to identify them. The table below gives a summary of how Microsoft operating systems
identify drives.

Storage location Drive Remarks

Floppy drive A and B If a computer has two floppy drives, one will be assigned letter A and
the other B.
Hard disk C,D,E,F If a computer has 4 hard drives, they will be assigned letters C-F.
Optical disks D,E,F,G If a computer has one hard disk and three or more CD/DVD drives,
they will take up any number between D and Z.
Other removable D,E,......Z If a computer does not have an optical drive any removable drive
attached to the computer can take any letter between D and Z.
Network drive Logical Network drives takes D-Z depending on the number of physical
drives installed or attached
Table 1: Various computer drives

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Folders
A folder, also known as a directory is a container or a named storage area where related files can be
stored. All folders or directories originate from a special directory called the root directory or
folder. The root directory is represented by a letter and a back slash (\). A folder or directory may be
created inside another folder; such a folder or directory is called a sub folder or sub directory.
Files
A file is a collection of related data items that is given a unique name for ease of access,
manipulation by the operating system and storage on a backing storage. Every file has the following
details:
 A unique name and an optional extension. The name and extension are separated by a period
(.) e.g. JUNE.DOCX. In this case the file name is JUNE and the extension is DOCX.
Extensions are used to identify the type of file, for example, docx is a word processor file.txt
is a plain text file, sys is a system file etc.
 The size, date and time the file was created or modified.
Types of files
There are three types of files, system files, application files, data files. Systems files, contain
information that is critical for the operation of the computer. Application files, hold programs and
are executable. Data files, contain user specific data. The table below show some file extensions and
whether it is a system, application or data file.
Extension File type Description
.docx Data files Microsoft word document file
.txt Data files A plain text file created using note pad or DOS editor.
.tif Data files A graphic file created using note pad or DOS editor.
.exe Application The file that launches a particular application, e.g. winzip.exe.
files
.bat System files File containing a series of commands loaded during the boot up
process.
.sys System files System files that perform fundamental operations in a
computer.
Table 2: Different file extensions

Path
A file is identified by its path through the file system, beginning from the root directory, e.g. File
4 is described by the following notation C:\Folder 2\Sub folder 1\File 4. The character used to

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separate the directory names also known as the delimiter is specific to the file system, Microsoft
Windows uses the backslash slash (\).

Types of paths
A path is either relative or absolute. An absolute path always contains the root element and the
complete directory list required to locate the file, e.g. C:\Folder 2\Sub folder 1\File 4 is an absolute
path since all of the information needed to locate the file is contained in the path string.
A relative path needs to be combined with another path in order to access a file, e.g., CA/File 2 is a
relative path. Without more information, a program cannot reliably locate the CA/File 2 directory in
the file system.
Disk operating system
Disk Operating System most often abbreviated as DOS, refer to operating system software used in
most computers that manage secondary storage devices and the information on them (e.g., file
systems for organizing files of all sorts). Such software is referred to as a disk operating system
when the storage devices it manages are made of rotating platters (such as hard disks or floppy
disks).
Dos commands
Computers are told what to do by instructions issued by users. Users instructions are usually called
commands.
Dos command line
The DOS command line is where users “type” and “enter” dos commands. The command line is
indicated by a DOS prompt, that is: A\> or C :\> and a blinking cursor. The letter “A”, “B” and “C”
refers to disk drives.
Dos prompt
The symbol C > or C :\> with blinking cursor after it is called the DOS prompt.
To start a Command Prompt
1. From the Start Menu, select Programs or Programs and Features.
2. Scroll down to Accessories or Windows systems.
3. Choose Command Prompt
Or
1. Click the Start button, type cmd in the search box, and click on Run or Press Enter.

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When one sees the DOS prompt, it means that DOS is waiting for one to enter a DOS command or
the name of the program to run.
Types/ categories of Dos commands
DOS has a several commands which are divided into two main categories namely:
 Internal commands
 External commands
Internal commands
These disk operating system commands that are used to perform basic operations on files and
directories and they do not need any external file support. They automatic loaded into the memory
when the operating system is loaded into the memory and hence they are also known as memory-
resident commands. These commands are programmed or stored into the command.com file and do
not require other files in order to work. These internal commands are divided grouped according to their
properties as follows
 General purpose
 File related commands
 Directory related commands
General purpose DOS commands
DIR (Directory)
This command is used for listing files and directories present in the current disk.
Syntax: C :\> DIR [/switches]
Example: C :\> DIR /P
Switches:-
 /P Page wise
 /W Widths wise
 /S List all files and directory of subdirectories
 /AH Display directory with hidden files
 /AS Display directory with system files
 /AD Display only directories present in current drive
CLS (Clear the screen)
This command is used to clear the screen or wipe out everything written on the screen.
Syntax: C :\> CLS and press Enter
VER (Version)

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This commands the MS DOS Version or edition that is in use.
Syntax: C :\> VER press enter
Sample output: Microsoft Windows [Version 10.0.16299.431]
Note: Version numbers indicates the version of DOS being used in this case 10.0.16299.431
VOL (Volume)
This command displays the disk volume label and serial number, if it exist.
Syntax: C :\> VOL press enter
Sample output: Volume in drive C is JAI or has no Label
Volume Serial Number is 3E42-1907 or 7496 - 1358
DATE
This command displays the current date
Syntax: C :\> DATE
Sample output: Current date is 08-09-2018
Enter new date (mm-dd-yy):
Note: Type DATE without parameters to display the current date setting and a prompt for a new one.
Press ENTER to keep the same date. Enter new date in the format of MM-DD-YY.
TIME
This command displays the current system time
Syntax: C :\> TIME
Sample output: Current time is 23:18:35.65
Enter new time:
Note: Type TIME with no parameters to display the current time setting and a prompt for a new one.
Press ENTER to keep the same time. Enter new time in the format of 24 hour clock.
File related commands
COPY CON
This command creates a new text file.
Syntax: C :\> COPY CON <Filename>
Sample: C:\>COPY CON Rose.txt
A clock in an office can never get stolen
Too many employees watch it all the time
^Z
1 file(s) copied

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After copy con one must specify a suitable file name and press enter. After pressing enter, start
typing the file information and then press ^Z (CTRL+Z) button or F6 button to save the file. After
saving the file press the enter key, the computer will display a message like 1 file(s) copied. This
means that the file has been stored in the disk.
Suppose one does not want to save the file or one wants just to abort the file creation process, then
one simply presses ^C (CTRL+C) button to abort the process without saving the file.
Note:
 One should never forget to give a suitable filename
 One can use extension as .TXT for denoting the file as Text file.

TYPE
This command is used to display the contents or text of any file.
Syntax: C :\> TYPE <Filename>
Sample output: C:\>TYPE Rose.txt
A clock in an office can never get stolen
Too many employees watch it all the time
COPY
This command is used to create a duplicate of the original file in another location (disk) or directory.
It is also used to change the give a file a different file name.
This command may also be used to copy any file with a different file name another location or
directory. When one uses the copy command, one must include two parameters. The first is the
location and name of the file you want to copy, or the source. The second is the location to which
you want to copy the file, or the destination. One separate the source and destination with a space.
To copy a file from one location to a different location
Syntax: C :\> COPY <Source> <Destination >
Sample: C :\> COPY C:\Windows\Notepad.exe C:\Fruit
1 file(s) copied
To copy a file from one location to a different location with a different file name.
Syntax: C :\> COPY <Source filename> <Target file name>
Sample: C:\>COPY ROSE.TXT ROSE.MSG
1 file(s) copied

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REN :( Rename)
This command is used to change the name of any file or directory.
Syntax: C :\> REN <Source filename> <Target filename>
Sample: C:\>REN ROSE.TXT GULBAL.TXT
Note: If file renaming is successful then a success message is displayed otherwise an error message
is displayed.
DEL (Delete)
This command is used to delete, or remove, a file that is no longer wanted on disk.
Syntax: C :\> DEL <Filename>
Sample: C:\>DEL ROSE.MSG
Note:
 If the file deletion is successful then the C :\> prompt is displayed otherwise an error message
is displayed.
 The /P switch is used to ask for permission before deleting the file.
UNDELETE
This command is used to recover all deleted files in the current directory one at a time
Syntax: C :\> UNDELETE <Filename>
Sample: C :\> UNDELETE C:\*.bat /all
All deleted files with the .BAT extension in the root directory of drive C, are recovered without
prompting for confirmation on each file:
Directory related commands
MD/ MKDIR (Make Directory)
This command is used to create a new directory.
Syntax: C :\> MD <Dirname>
Sample: C :\> MD REPORT
This directory can be used to store different types of reports. Under this directory a sub directory can
also be created.
CD/ CHDIR (Change Directory)
This command is used to enter or exit from any directory.
To access any directory
Syntax: C :\> CD <Directory name>
Sample: C :\> CD REPORT

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Output: C:\REPORT>
Prompt will change to accommodate the file name. If two dots are used after the CD command then
the directory is exited and entry is only on the root directory.
Syntax: C :\> CD..
Sample: C:\REPORT> CD..
Output: C :\>
RD (Remove directory)
This command is used to remove or delete any unwanted directory from the
Syntax: C :\> RD <Directory name>
Sample: C :\> RD REPORT
TREE
This command is used to display the names of all the subdirectories on the disk in the current drive.
Syntax: C :\> tree <drive> \
Sample: C :\> tree c:\ /f | more
The files in all the directories on drive C, are displayed, one screen at a time,
PATH
This command is used to display or set directories for executable files.
Syntax: C :\> PATH
This command display current path settings.
C :\> PATH=C: \WINDOWS\COMMAND;C:\WINDOWS\;C:\TC
This command will set the directories windows, the command subfolder of windows and TC folder
for executable files. Operating system will look for executable files in these directories.
Wildcards
Wildcard are used when working with multiple files at a time. Wildcards are symbols like '?' and '*'
Suppose one wants to list down all the files and directories which have a primary file name made of
four characters and secondary file name made of 3 characters, then one has to use the DIR command
with following switches
C :\> DIR????.???
Here a '?' symbol represent any character.
Suppose one wants to list down all the files whose primary field name is made up of 4 characters and
the first character starts with 'C' and secondary name is 'EXE'. Then one has to use
C :\> DIR C???.EXE

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The '*' wildcard character
If one wants to list all the files with the extension .EXE then one uses the ‘*’ character as shown
C :\> DIR *.EXE
External commands
These are disk operating system commands used to perform advanced tasks and they are also known
as disk residence commands stored in a secondary storage device, such as disks.
MORE
Using TYPE command one can see the content of any file. But if the length of file is greater than 25
lines then the remaining lines will scroll up without proper view. Thus to overcome this challenge,
the MORE command is used. The MORE command is used to pause the display after each 25 lines.
Syntax: C :\> TYPE <File name> | MORE
Sample: C :\> TYPE ROSE.TXT | MORE or C :\> DIR | MORE.
MEM
This command displays the amount of free and used of computer memory.
Syntax: C :\> MEM
SYS
This command is used to copy system files to any disk. The disk having system files is known as a
bootable disk, which is used for booting the computer.
Syntax: C :\> SYS [Drive name]
Sample: C :\> SYS A:
System files transferred
This command will transfer the three main system files COMMAND.COM, IO.SYS, MSDOS.SYS
to the floppy disk.
XCOPY
This command is used to copy files and directory trees (multiple files) from one disk to another disk
a file from one location to another. This command is much faster than copy command.
Syntax: C :\> XCOPY < Source> <Destination>
Sample: C :\> XCOPY TC TURBOC
MOVE
This command is used to move one file or multiple files from one location to another location or
from one disk to another disk.
Syntax: C :\> MOVE <file name> <path name>

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Sample: C:\SONGS> MOVE *.MP3 C:\ SONGS\OLD SONGS\
C :\>
FC (File Compare)
This command is used to compare two sets of files and display the differences between two files.
Syntax: C :\> FC <First set of file> <Second set of file>
Sample: C :\> FC ROSE.TXT GULAB.TXT
CHKDSK (Check disk)
This command is used to check the status of a disk and display status report.
Syntax: C :\> CHKDSK
Sample: C:\>CHKDSK
Sample output: CHKDSK has NOT checked this drive for errors. One must use SCANDISK to
detect and fix errors on this drive. Volume JAI created 10-19-2001 7:14p Volume Serial Number is
3E42-1907 4,203,073,536 bytes total disk space 381,988,864 bytes available on disk 4,096 bytes in
each allocation unit 1,026,141 total allocation units on disk 93,259 available allocation units on disk
651,264 total bytes memory 610,784 bytes free Instead of using CHKDSK, try using SCANDISK.
SCANDISK can reliably detect and fix a much wider range of disk problems.
SORT
This command is useful when we want to sort a file. When we run this command the result can be
get to display device or file.
Syntax: C :\> SORT /R < Input file name> <output file name>
Suppose one has a file Player.txt which has a list of cricket team players and which needs to be
sorted, then the following command is used
C :\> SORT Player.txt
If the output file name is not specified then the results will be displayed on the screen.
/R- switch is used for sorting the file in descending order like from Z to A or from 9 to 0.
FIND
This command is used to search a file for a text string.
Syntax: C :\> FIND "String to search" <File name> C:\TEST>find "office" gulab.txt ----------
gulab.txt a clock in an office can never get stolen
DISKCOPY
DISKCOPY copies the contents of a floppy disk to another.
Syntax: C :\> DISKCOPY <Drive1> <Drive2> C:\> DISKCOPY A: B:

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This command will be copy all contents of A drive to B drive.
ATTRIB
This command sets the various type of attribute to a file. Like Read only, Archive, Hidden and
System attribute.
Syntax: C :\> ATTRIB [± r] [± a] [± h] [± s] <File name> here r - for read only, a- for archive, h -
for hidden, s - for hidden attribute.
Sample: C :\> ATTRIB +r Gulab.txt This command will change the attribute of file gulab.txt to read
only mode.
Note: To remove the read only attribute we will follow this command.
C :\> ATTRIB -r Gulab.txt
LABEL
This command is used to change the volume label of hard disk
Syntax: C :\> LABEL C:\>LABEL Volume in drive C is JAI Volume Serial Number is 3E42-1907
Volume label (11 characters, ENTER for none)? INFOWAY.
FORMAT
This command creates new tracks and sectors in a disk.
Syntax: C :\> FORMAT [drive name] [/S] C :\> FORMAT A: this command will create new track
and sectors.
Sample: C :\> FORMAT A: /S
This command will transfer system files after formatting the disk.
DOSKEY
This command is used to create macros, which in turn create a short key for long keyword or
command. When the DOSKEY is installed the disk operating system starts to memorize all used
commands. These commands are accessed by using up or down arrow keys.
Key function for Doskey are given as:
 Up, down arrows: Recalls commands.
 Esc: Clears current commands.
 F7: Displays command history.
 Alt + F7: Clears commands history
 F9: Selects a command by number
 Alt + F9: Clears macro definition
Syntax: C :\> DOSKEY

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DOSKey installed
Windows operating system
Windows is an operating system designed by Microsoft. Windows comes preloaded on most new
computers, which helps to make it the most popular operating system in the world. It was developed
as a Graphical User Interface (GUI) on computers running on MS – DOS. Microsoft Windows takes
its name from the on screen window which it uses to display information.
A window is a rectangular portion or area on the screen which texts and graphical images are
displayed. Its graphical capability makes it easier to use since it provides a friendly interface that allows
the users to enter commands by pointing and clicking on objects that appear on the screen using a
pointing device, commonly the mouse.
The mouse
A mouse is a small handheld device, which can comfortably fit in a user’s palm two or three buttons
on the upper side. In addition to the buttons, the traditional mouse also has a small wheel between
the buttons. The wheel is used for up and down movement e.g. scrolling a long a document. This
wheel is replaced by a light ray in modern mouse.
Mouse techniques
The mouse can be used in the following five ways,
 Pointing: This is moving the mouse until the mouse pointer on the screen points to the item
of choice

 Left clicking or clicking: This is positioning the tip of mouse pointer over specified element,
then press the left mouse button once and release it. Clicking is used to select a button, icons,
and files in a list, windows and dialogue box options on the screen.
 Right clicking: This is pressing the right mouse button once and releasing it. Right clicking
often produces a ‘pop menu’ depending upon the object selected, offers options that can lead
the user to open a program, cut or copy, create a short cut or display the properties of the
selected file.
 Double clicking: This is pressing the left mouse button twice successively, without moving
the mouse and then releasing the mouse. It is used to start applications, open a folder and
choosing items from a list.
 Drag and drop: This means pointing an item or object on the screen long pressing the left
mouse button and moving the mouse towards a new location along with the mouse. When

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button is released, the object is dropped at the new location. Drag and drop is used for
moving folders, files, windows and icons to new locations on the screen as well as resizing
windows.
 Triple clicking: This is pressing the left mouse button thrice successively, without moving
the mouse and then releasing the mouse. It is used to select an entire paragraph or a sentence
on a web page or word document.
 Scrolling: This is moving displayed text or graphics up, down, or across on a computer
screen in order to view different parts of them.
The keyboard
A computer keyboard is a computer input device by which data and instructions are typed into the
computer memory. It is used to enter characters, numbers, text and functions into the computer
system by pressing buttons or keys. Each key on a keyboard is simply a switch which when pressed
results into a digital chord being sent into a computer.
The keyboard is the primary device used to enter data. It typically contains keys for individual
letters, numbers and special characters, as well as keys for specific functions. It is connected to a
computer system using a cable or a wireless connection.
Keyboard layout
Most keyboards have a very similar layout. The individual keys for letters, numbers and special
characters are collectively called the character keys. The layout of these keys is derived from the
original layout of keys on a typewriter. The most widely used layout in the English language is
called QWERTY, named after the sequence of the first six letters from the top left.
Below is a typical keyboard layout. Keep in mind that there are many different variations on this
layout, although most manufacturers follow this general pattern:

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Figure 4: Traditional keyboard layout

Sections of the keyboard

Most keyboards have a total of 101 keys which are divided into five different sections or groups:
Alphanumeric keys
This section consists of alphabetic and numeric keys which are mostly used for typing of text. It has
twenty-six alphabetic keys (A-Z) and numeric keys (0-9). Along with these keys are punctuation
marks. At the bottom of the keys is the spacebar used for creating space between character or text.
Function/Command keys
These are keys located along the top of the keyboard marked F1 to F12. They are used to issue
commands into the computer. Each of these keys is used to perform a special function in various
application packages e.g. F1 is used in most applications for help. Function keys are used
differently by different applications i.e. their function vary with different programs and therefore
sometimes called programmable keys.
Numeric keypad
These are keys located on the right most part of the keyboard. It has keys with digits (0-9) marked on
them with rows from the bottom upwards. The numeric keypad also has some mathematical symbols
marked on its keys e.g. division (/), (+), (=), (*), (.) etc. Num lock key is turned on.
Directional /Cursor positioning keys
These keys are used to move the cursor (insertion point) within the window of an application. They
include four directional keys that are arranged in an inverted T formation between the alphanumeric

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keys and the numeric keypad. They allow the user to move the cursor one space at a time in left or
right direction and one line at a time in up or down direction. They include:
 Arrow keys: Pressing the right or left arrow key moves the cursor one character to the right
or left respectively. Pressing the upward or downward arrow key moves the cursor one line
up or down respectively.
 Page up and page down keys: Pressing page up key moves the cursor up one page in case
the document has many pages. Pressing page down key moves the cursor down one page in
case the document has many pages.
 Home and end keys: Pressing home key moves the cursor to the beginning of the current
line. Pressing end key moves the cursor to the end of the current line.
 Editing keys: Editing keys are used to delete or insert characters in a document. They
include: -
 Insert key: This key helps the user to insert or replace a character at the cursor position.
 Delete (Del) key: This key deletes characters at the cursor position from the left to the right.
 The back space key: This key deletes characters from right to left on the same line
Special keys
These keys are used in combination with other keys or on their own to perform special functions or
tasks or to give special instructions to the computer. They include:
 Tab key: This key is used to move the text cursor at set intervals on the same line e.g.
10mm, 20 mm
 CAPS lock: This key is used to switch between uppercase (capital) letters and lowercase
(small) letters. When it is on a light indicator appears at the top right hand of the keyboard.
When on a computer user can type in uppercase. When off a user can type in lowercase.
 Shift key: This key works in combination with other keys e.g. it can be used to get single
capital letter when pressed together with an alphabet key. It is used to get punctuation marks
on number keys or the symbols on top of certain keys in the alphanumeric section.
 Enter key/Return key: Pressing this key forces, the text cursor to move to the beginning of
the next line or allows one to start a new paragraph. A cursor is a blinking underscore (_) or a
vertical beam (I) that shows where the next character to be typed will appear. The enter key
is also used to instruct the computer to execute a command that has been selected on the
screen

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 Escape (ESC) Key: It generates special code for the computer. In some programs it is used
to quit doing some task i.e. escape / cancel a task.
 Control (CTRL) Key: It controls various functions in combination with another keys. This
combination forms the keyboard shortcuts.
Getting Started with Microsoft Windows
Although there are different versions of Microsoft Windows, most of them have almost similar
features, apart from a few variations and enhancements. With knowledge in one, you can easily learn
how to use another
Windows desktop features
Desktop
What is a desktop? After one starts the computer the first thing one sees is the desktop. The desktop
is the work space area on the monitor on which icons and running tasks are placed. Windows lets the
user to customize the desktop background by applying favorite themes and wallpapers.

Figure 5: Parts of Windows 7 desktop

Icons
Icons are graphical objects or small pictures that represent commands, files or windows. Icons are
mostly manipulated using a pointing device e.g. the mouse.

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Figure 6: Desktop icons

The Windows desktop starts with just a single Recycle Bin desktop icon (where to drop any files,
folders, and desktop shortcuts to delete from the system). In addition to the Recycle Bin icon, one
can add the following icons on the Windows desktop:
 Computer: Double clicking this icon opens your Computer window (same as choosing
Start➪ Computer from the taskbar), which shows all the drives and components connected to
your computer (including drives that you’ve mapped onto a drive letter)
 Documents: Double clicking this icon opens your Documents window (same as choosing
Start➪Documents from the taskbar), which shows all the document files on your computer

 Network: Double clicking this icon opens your (same as choosing Start➪Network), which
shows all the computers on your local area network.
After adding a desktop icon to the desktop, you can open its window by double clicking the icon or
right-clicking it and then choosing open from its shortcut menu.
Taskbar
A task is any activity being handled by Windows is known as a task. A running program is an
example of a task and is displayed on the taskbar. The taskbar forms the base of the windows
desktop. Running along the bottom of the complete width of the screen, the taskbar, as shown below
is divided into three sections:

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Figure 7: The taskbar

 The Start button: The left most button on the taskbar that the user clicks to display the start
menu.
 Taskbar/ manager: This is the band where the buttons of the currently running tasks are
displayed. You can switch between various tasks by clicking their respective buttons on the
task manager.
 System tray: Also called the notification area, this is the right part of the taskbar. It has
icons of tasks running in the background but are not displayed on the screen e.g. the time and
calendar, an antivirus program, volume control etc. To display such a task, simply double
click its icon.
The Start menu
The Start button that opens the start menu always appears as the first button on the taskbar. The Start
menu is the most basic menu in windows, giving you access to all the stuff on your computer.

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Figure 8: The start menu

File and folder management in windows

In Windows platform one can organize files and programs to as preferred. These files are stored in
folders and can be moved, copied renamed or even deleted. It is normally a good idea to constantly
check on the information in the computer to ensure that it is always up to date. One must also give
files and folders logical names i.e. names that can enable one to predict what the file or folder
contents are.
 Files: These are units that store collections of data. Almost all information stored in a
computer must be in a file. Different types of files store different types of information, e.g.
program files store programs, text files store text, graphic files store images or pictures etc.
Each file has a name referred to as a filename. Typically file size range from KB to MB.
 Folders: These are used to store collections of files. Typically one organizes his or her work
word processing, spreadsheet and picture files (from a digital camera) in folders. Computer
programs, e.g. Ms Windows, Ms Word, Ms Excel etc. are stored in separate folders. Folders
may also contain other folders (sub folders) in them. Folders sizes may range from KB to
GB.
Folders and files are used in managing data storage to enable easy access and manipulation. Folder
enables one to organize related data and store the data in the same folder. The folders are stored in

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various drives. File management in windows can be done through Windows explorer or My
Computer.
Using Windows Explorer
Windows offer a utility "Windows Explorer" which helps one to work with files and folders on a
computer.
To open Windows Explorer
1. Click on Start.
2. Point to All Programs.
3. Point to Accessories, and then click on Windows Explorer

Figure 9: Opening Windows explorer

Or
1. Click on the folder on the task bar for the latest versions of windows
The left pane of the Explorer window shows a hierarchy of all the drives, folders and desktop items
on a computer. A drive or folder that contains other folders has a plus sign to the left of the icon.

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Click the plus sign to expand it and see the folders inside. It also lists any network drives that have
been mapped to as a drive letters on a computer.

Figure 10: Windows explorer

Windows Explorer can be used to copy, move, rename, and search for files and folders. For
example, to copy a file, one can open a folder that contains the desired file to be copied or moved,
and then just drag and drop the file to target folder or drive.
Opening drives and folders
One drive nearly all computers is the hard drive (drive C :). If one has more than one drive, then they
are named D:, E: and so on. If one has a CD drive or a DVD drive, it is also named with a letter.
To open a hard drive
1. Just double click the icon representing the drive to open.
Files and folders contained in the drive are now shown in the opened window.
To open a folder
1. Double click its icon.

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Creating a folder
Folders help one to organize files. One can create a folder either by using My document window or
through Windows Explorer. One can create a Folder in any existing disk drive or folder or on the
windows desktop.
To create a folder using My document window or through Windows Explorer
1. Click on Start, and then click on My Documents

2. Under File menu click New and select Folder.

3. A new folder is displayed with the default name, New Folder.
4. Type a name for the new folder, and then press ENTER.
5. A new folder can also be created directly on the desktop by right-clicking a blank area on the
desktop, pointing to New, and then clicking Folder
Or
1. Go to the location (such as a folder or the desktop) where to create a new folder.
2. Right-click a blank area on the desktop or in the folder window, point to New, and then
clicks Folder.
3. Type a name for the new folder, and then press Enter.
4. The new folder will appear in the location specified.

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Changing Files and Folders
To change from one folder to another
1. Click or select the folder to change to
Sorting Files and Folders
Sorting: Arranging files and folders in a particular order. i.e. either alphabetically, by size, or date of
last modification or creation.
To sort a file or folder
1. Open the storage location that contains the files/folders you want sorted.

2. Under VIEW menu, point to sort By Icon

3. Choose the method of sort. I.e. by name, Date modified or size etc.
Viewing file or folder details
1. Click on Start, and then click on My Documents.
2. Click the folder or file whose details are to be viewed.
3. On the View menu, click Details.
4. All the details about the files such as Name, Type, size etc.
Or

1. Right click the folder or file whose details are to be viewed and choose properties from the
pop menu that appears.
2. All the details about the files such as Name, Type, size etc.
Renaming a file or folder
1. Click on Start, and then click on My Documents
2. Click on the file or folder you want to rename.
3. Under File menu click on Rename.
4. Type the new name, and then press ENTER key.

Or
1. Right-click the file/folder that to rename, and then click Rename.
2. Type the new name, and then press Enter. If one is prompted for an administrator password
or confirmation, type the password or provide confirmation.
Or

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1. One can also rename an open file using the save as command by clicking on the save as then
in dialogue that opens type the new name and click save as.
Selecting multiple files
To select consecutive or contiguous files
1. Click on the first file in the set of files to select
2. Long press the SHIFT key
3. Click on the last file in the set
To select nonconsecutive or noncontiguous files
1. Click on the first file in the set
2. Long press the CTRL key
3. Click on the file files to select, one at a time.
4. Release the CTRL key

Copying files or folders

1. Click on Start, and then click on My Documents.
2. Click the file or folder to be copied. More than one file or folder can be copied at a time.
3. Under Edit menu, select Copy.
4. Select the target drive or folder to which you want to copy the files
5. Under Edit menu, select Paste to copy the desired file or folder to the target drive.

Or

1. Open the location that contains the folder to copy.

2. Right-click the folder, and then click Copy.
3. Open the location where to store the copy.
4. Right-click an empty space within the location, and then click Paste. The copy of the original
file is now stored in the new location.

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Moving a folder or file
1. Right click on the folder or file to move
2. Long press the right mouse button and move the mouse towards the new location. This drags
the file or folder to its new location
3. Upon reaching the new location release the right mouse button, this drops or places the file or
folder at its intended new location
Or

1. Right click on the file or folder to move

2. On the context menu that appears, click on “move here”

Deleting a file or folder

1. Click on Start, and then click on My Documents
2. Click on the file or folder to delete.
3. Under File menu click on Delete.
Or
1. Right-clicking the file or folder and then clicking Delete.
Note:
 Deleted files or folders are stored in the Recycle Bin, until they are permanently removed
from the Recycle Bin.
 To retrieve a deleted file, double-click the Recycle Bin icon on the desktop. Right-click on
the file to be retrieved, and then click Restore.
 To permanently delete a file, press and hold down SHIFT key and drag it to the Recycle Bin.
 Files or folders deleted from a removable storage media such as flash drive are permanently
deleted and are not sent to the Recycle Bin.
Searching files or folders
One can use the search box on the Start menu to find files, folders, programs, and e-mail messages
stored on a computer. The search is based on the following file properties
 File name
 File type
 File size
 Text in the file
 Date created

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 Date modified
 Tags
 Folder path
To find a file or folder using the Start menu:
1. Click the Start button
2. Type a word or part of a word in the search box. As one types, items that match the typed
text will appear on the Start menu.
To find a file by using search filters
1. In a library or folder, click in the search box
2. Click the appropriate search filter below the search box. (For example, to search the Music
library for songs by a particular artist, click the Artists search filter.)
3. Depending on which search filter clicked, choose a value. For example, if one clicks the
Artists search filter, click an artist from the list.
Note: One can repeat these steps to build complex searches on multiple properties. Each time that
you click a search filter or value, terms are automatically added to the search box.
To expand a search beyond a specific library or folder
If one cannot find what he or she is looking for in a specific library or folder, one can expand the
search to include different locations.
1. Type a word in the search box.
2. Scroll to the bottom of the list of search results. Under Search again in, do one of the
following:
 Click Libraries to search across every library.
 Click Computer to search across your entire computer. This is the way to search
for files that aren't indexed (such as system or program files). However, be aware
that the search will be slower.
 Click Custom to search specific locations.
 Click Internet to search online, using your default web browser and your default
search provider.

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