EEE4215: Artificial Intelligence

Class Teacher:
Md. Shamim Hossain
Lecturer
Dept. of EEE, PUST
 What is Artificial Intelligence(AI)?
Definition-1:
• Artificial Intelligence (AI) is the study of
computations that make it possible to
perceive, reason and act.
• Latest Perception of AI :-

©A. K. M. Akhtar Hossain, Dept of CSE,

2
University of Rajshahi
 Goals of AI:
• Engineering Goal: The engineering goal of
artificial intelligence is to solve real-world
problems using artificial intelligence as an
armamentarium of ideas about representing
knowledge, using knowledge, and assembling
systems.
• Scientific Goal: The scientific goal of artificial
intelligence is to determine which ideas about
representing knowledge, using knowledge, and
assembling systems explain various types of
intelligence.

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 What is Intelligence(বুদ্ধিমত্তা)?
• Intelligence is a property of mind that
encompasses many related mental abilities,
such as the capabilities to
– reason
– plan
– solve problems
– think abstractly
– comprehend ideas and language and
– learn.

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 Sub-areas of AI (Importance)

• Sub areas of AI are:

– Knowledge representation
– Theorem proving
– Game playing
– reasoning dealing with uncertainty and decision
making
– Inference techniques, pattern recognition, search and
matching etc.
– Logic (fuzzy, temporal, modal) in AI
– Planning and scheduling
– Robotics
– Expert problem solving
– Neural Networks, AI tools etc

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 Applications
• Business : Financial strategies, give advice
• Engineering: check design, offer suggestions to
create new product
• Manufacturing: Assembly, inspection &
maintenance
• Mining: used when conditions are dangerous
• Hospital : monitoring, diagnosing & prescribing
• Education : In teaching
• Household : Advice on cooking, shopping etc.
• Farming : prune trees & selectively harvest mixed
crops.

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 Knowledge
• Knowledge can be defined as the body of facts and
principles accumulated by human-kind or the fact, or
state of knowing.
• In biological organisms, knowledge is likely stored as
complex structures of interconnected neurons.
• In Computer Science, knowledge is also stored as
complex structures, but in the form of collections of
magnetic spots and voltage states.

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 Types of Knowledge
• Procedural knowledge is compiled knowledge
related to the performance of some task.
• Example: To solve the algebraic equations.

• Declarative knowledge is the passive

knowledge expressed as statements of facts
about the world.
• Example: Personnel data in a database.
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 Explanation about Knowledge
• Knowledge should not be confused with data.
• Belief: We define belief as essentially any meaningful
and coherent expression that can be represented.
Thus a belief may be true or false.
• Hypothesis: We define a hypothesis as a justified
belief that is not known to be true. Thus , a
hypothesis is a belief which is backed up with some
supporting evidence, but it may still be false.
• Finally, we define knowledge as true justified belief.

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• END TODAY

THANKS

13
Knowledge Representation

Md. Shamim Hossain

Lecturer
Dept. of EEE, PUST
 Knowledge Representation
● Knowledge representation (KR) is an important issue
in both cognitive(জ্ঞানীয়) science and artificial
intelligence.
❑In cognitive science, it is concerned with the way
people store and process information.
❑In artificial intelligence (AI), main focus is to store
knowledge so that programs can process it and
achieve human intelligence.

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 Knowledge Representation
• A knowledge representation is most
fundamentally a substitute for the thing itself,
used to enable an entity to determine
consequences by reasoning about the world.
• Reasoning is the use of symbolic
representations of some statements in order
to derive new ones.

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 Predicate logic (PL):
• Predicate logic is the generic term for
symbolic formal systems like first-order logic,
second-order logic, many-sorted logic, or
infinitary logic.

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 Predicate Logic (PL):
● It has three more logical notions as compared to PL.
❖ Terms,
❖ Predicates
❖ Quantifiers
● Term
− a constant (single individual or concept i.e.,5, john etc.),
− a variable that stands for different individuals
− n-place function f(t1, …, tn) where t1, …, tn are terms. A function is a
mapping that maps n terms to a term.
● Predicate
− a relation that maps n terms to a truth value true (T) or false (F).
● Quantifiers
− Universal () or existential() quantifiers i.e.  and  used in
conjunction with variables.

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 Examples
● “x loves y” is represented as LOVE(x, y) which maps it to
true or false when x and y get instantiated to actual values.
● “john’s father loves john” is represented as
LOVE(father(john), john).
− Here father is a function that maps john to his father.
● x is greater than y is represented in predicate calculus as
GT(x, y).
● It is defined as follows:
GT( x, y) =T , if x  y
=F , otherwise
● Symbols like GT and LOVE are called predicates .
− Predicates two terms and map to T or F depending upon the values
of their terms.
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 Examples – Cont..

● Translate the sentence "Every man is mortal" into

Predicate formula.
● Representation of statement in predicate form
− “x is a man” and “MAN(x),
− x is mortal” by MORTAL(x)
● Every man is mortal :
(x) (MAN(x) → MORTAL(x))
Here, x is read as “for all x” and → is read
as “implies”.

©Professor Dr. A K M Akhtar Hossain

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Dept. of CSE, University of Rajshahi
 Syntax and semantics for Propositional Logic

• Valid statements or sentences in PL(Predicate

Logic) are determined according to the rules
of propositional syntax.
• This syntax governs the combination of basic
building blocks such as propositions and
logical connectives.
• Propositions are elementary atomic
sentences.

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 Propositional Logic
• Propositions are elementary atomic sentences.
• It may be either true or false but may take on no
other value.
• Examples (Simple propositions):
❖ It is raining.
❖Jone and mary have five children.
❖Snow is white.
❖Snow is black.
❖People live on the Earth.
❖ People live on the Moon.

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 Compound Proposition
• Examples (Compound propositions):
❖It is raining and the wind is blowing.
❖If you study hard you will be rewarded.
❖The sum of 10 and 20 is not 40.
❖The sum of 20 and 10 is 40.
• T and F are special symbols having the values
true and false.

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 Conti…
• Logical Connectives:
Symbol Meaning
˜ for not or negation

& for and or conjunction

v For or or disjunction

→ For if … then or implication

For if and only if or double

implication

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 Syntax
• The syntax of PL is defined recursively as follows:
• T and F are formulas.
• IF P and Q are formulas, the following are also formulas:
• (˜P)
• (P&Q)
• (PVQ)
• (P→Q)
• (P Q)

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 Semantics
• The semantics or meaning of a sentence is
just the value true or false: that is, it is as
assignment of a truth value to the sentences.
• An interpretation for a sentence or group of
sentences in an assignment of the truth value
to each propositional symbol.

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 Conti…

• Example: Consider the statement = (P & ~Q)

• Clearly, there are four distinct interpretations
for this sentences.
Interpretation P Q
1 True False
2 True True
3 False True
4 False False

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 Semantic Rules for statements
Consider t and t' denotes true statements, f and f' denotes false
statements, and a is any statement.

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 Example:
• Let I assign true to P , false to Q and false to R in
statement ((P & -Q) →R)VQ.
• What is the meaning of the statement?
Answer:
• Rule 2 gives -Q as true.
• Rule 3 gives (P & -Q) as true.
• Rule 6 gives (P & -Q) →R as false.
• Rule 5 gives the statement ((P & -Q) →R)VQ
value as false.

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 Assignment
• Find the meaning of the statement
(-PVQ)&R→SV(-R&Q)
for each of the interpretations given below.
• (a). I1 : P is true, Q is true, R is false, S is true.
• (b). I2 : P is true, Q is false, R is true, S is true.

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 Example
• Find the meaning of the following statement:
• ~(P V ~Q) & (R → S) for the interpretation given
bellow:
• I: P is true, Q is false, R is true and S is false.
Answer:
• Rule 2 gives -Q as true.
• Rule 4 gives (P V -Q) as true.
• Rule 4 gives ~(P V -Q) as false.
• Rule 6 gives (R → S) as false.
• Rule 3 gives the statement ~(P V ~Q) & (R → S) value
as false.

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 Example
• Represent the following facts in predicate logic:
• (i). All employees earning Tk. 2,50,000/= or more
per year have to pay taxes.
• x ((E(x) & GE(i(x), 250000)) →T(x))
• (ii). People only try to assassinate rulers they are
not loyal to.
• y: x : person(x) Ʌ ruler(y) Ʌ tryassassinate(x, y)
→ ¬loyalto (x, y)
• (iii). John likes all kinds of food.
• Like (john, all-kinds-of-food)

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•THE END
•THANKS

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Predicate Logic Conti….

Md. Shamim Hossain

Lecturer
Dept. of EEE, PUST
 Properties of Statements:
• Satisfiable: A statement is satisfiable if there is
some interpretation for which it is true.
• Contradiction: A sentence is contradictory
(unsatisfiable) if there is no interpretation for
which, it is true.
• Valid: A sentence is valid if there is every
interpretation for which it is true.
• Equivalence: Two sentences are equivalent if
they have the same truth value under every
interpretations.
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 Logical Consequence
• Logical Consequences: A sentence is a logical
consequence of another if it is satisfied by all
interpretations which satisfy the first.

• P is a logical consequence of (P & Q) since any

interpretation for which (P & Q) is true, P is
also true.

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Example: On The above definitions:
• A valid statement is satisfiable, and a contradictory
statement is invalid, but the converse is not necessarily true.
• P is satisfiable but not valid since an interpretation that
assigns false to P assigns false to the sentence P.
• P V ~P is valid since every interpretation results in a value of
true for (P V ~P ).
• P & ~P is a contradiction since every interpretation results in
a value of false for (P & ~P).
• P and ~(~P) are equivalent since each has the same truth
values under every interpretation.
• P is a logical consequence of (P & Q) since any interpretation
for which (P & Q) is true, P is also true.
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 Theorem
• Theorem 4.1: The sentence s is a logical
consequence of s1 , s2 , ...... , sn if and only if s1 & s2
& s3 . . . . & sn → s is valid.
• Proof: Theorem 4.1 can be seen by first noting that
if s is a logical consequence of s1 , s2 , .......... , sn ,
then for any interpretation I in which s1 & s2 & s3 ,
..... . &sn → s is true.
• on the other hand, if s1 & s2 & s3 , .... & sn →s is valid,
then for any interpretation I if s1 & s2 & s3 , ..... . &sn
is true, s is also true.
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 Theorem
• Theorem 4.2: The sentence s is a logical
consequence of s1 , s2 , ...... , sn if and only if s1 & s2
& s3 , .... & sn & ~s is inconsistent.

• Proof: The proof of theorem 4.2 follows directly from

theorem 4.1 since s is a logical consequence of s1 , s2
, ...... , sn if and only if s1 & s2 & s3 , ..... . &sn → s is
valid, that is, if and only if ~(s1 & s2 & s3 , ..... . &sn →
s ) is inconsistent.

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 Conti …..
• But
~(s1 & s2 & s3 , ..... . &sn → s ) = ~(~(s1 & s2 & s3 , ..... . &sn ) V s)
[By Conditional Elimination]
= ~~(s1 & s2 & s3 , ..... . &sn ) & ~s)
[ By De Morgan’s Law]
= s1 & s2 & s3 , ..... . &sn & ~s
❑ When s is a logical consequence of s1 , s2 , ...... , sn , the formula
s1 & s2 & s3 , ..... . &sn → s is called a theorem, with s is the
conclusion.
❑ When s is a logical consequence of the set S = {s1 , s2 , ...... , sn }
we will also set S logically implies s , written Sⱶs .

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Table 4.2 lists some of the important laws of PL
(Some Equivalence Laws)

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 Example
• Show that P→Q is equivalent to ~PVQ and
that P Q is equivalent to the expression
(P→Q)&(Q→P).

• The truth table 4.3 is given bellow.

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TABLE 4.3 : Truth table for equitant
sentences

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 Inference Rules
• The inference rules of PL provide the means
to perform logical proofs or deductions.

• Few Such Rules are as follows:

❑Modus ponens
❑Chain Rule

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 Modus Ponens:
• From P and P → Q infer Q. This sometimes
written as
• P
• P →Q
• Q

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 Example For Modus Ponens:

• Given: (Joe is a father)

• And: (Joe is a father) → ( Joe has a child)
• Conclude: (Joe has a child)

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 Chain Rule
• Form P → Q and Q→ R, infer P→R.
• Or
• P→Q
• Q→R
• P→R

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 Example for Chain Rule
• Given: (programmer likes LISP)→ (programmer hates COBOL)
• and : (programmer hates COBOL) → (programmer likes recursion)
• Conclude: (programmer likes LISP)→ (programmer likes recursion)

• LISP → List Processing

• COBOL → Common Business Oriented Language
• Prolog → Programming in Logic

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 Assignment-2
Construct a truth Table for the expression
(A & (A V B)).

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•Thanks

17
Syntax and Semantics
for FOPL
Md. Shamim Hossain
Lecturer
Dept. of EEE , PUST
 FOPL (Fist Order Predicate Logic)
• FOPL was developed by logicians to extend
the expressiveness of PL.
• The semantics of FOPL are determined by
interpretations assigned to predicates, rather
than propositions.

2
 Syntax of FOPL
• The symbols and rules of combination
permitted in FOPL are defined as follows:
• Connectives: There are five connective
symbols:
• ~(not or negation)
• & (and or conjunction)
• V (or or inclusive disjunction)
• → (implication)
• (equivalence or if and only if).

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 Syntax of FOPL
• Quantifiers: The two quantifier symbols are  (
existential quantification) and  (universal
quantification).
• Where (x) means for some x or there is an x .
and (x) means for all x.
• When more than one variable is being quantified
by the same quantifier, such as, (x) (y) (z),
we abbreviate with a single quantifier and drop
the parentheses to get xyz.
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 Syntax of FOPL
• Constants: Constants are terms that can fixed-
values over a given domain.
• They are denoted by numbers, words, and
small letters near the beginning of the
alphabet.
• Examples: a , b , c , 5.256, -67, -75.65 , flight-
305, john, , Marina, etc.

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 Syntax of FOPL
• Variables: Variables are terms that can
assume different values over a given domain.
• They are denoted by words and small letters
near the end of the alphabet.
• Examples: aircraft-type, individuals, x, y, and z.

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 Syntax of FOPL
• Functions: Function symbols denote relations
defined on a domain D. They map n elements
(n≥0) to a single element of the domain.
• Symbols f , g, & h, and words such as father-of
, or age-of, represent functions.
• An n place (n-ary) function is written as f(t1, t2,
t3, .. .. .. tn) where the ti are terms (constants,
variables, or functions) defined over some
domain. A 0-ary function is a constant.
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 Syntax of FOPL
• Predicates: Predicate symbols denote
relations or functional mappings from the
elements of a domain D to the values true or
false.
• Capital letters and capitalized words such as P,
Q, R, EQUAL, and MARRIED are used to
represent predicates.

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 Syntax of FOPL
• Like functions, predicates may have n (n ≥ 0)
terms for arguments written as P(t1, t2, t3, .. ..
.., tn)
• Where the terms ti , i =1 , 2, 3, .. .. .. , n are
defined over some domain.
• A 0-ary predicate is a proposition, that is, a
constant predicate.

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 Syntax of FOPL
• Constants, variables, and functions are
referred to as terms, and predicates are
referred to as atomic formulas or atoms for
short.

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 Syntax of FOPL
• Examples:
• E1: All employees earning $ 1400 or more
per year pay taxes.
• E2: Some employees are sick today.
• E3: No employee earns more than the
president.

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 Syntax of FOPL
• To represent such expressions FOPL, we must define
abbreviations for the predicates and functions.
• E(x) for x is an employee.
• P(x) for x is president.
• i(x) for the income of x (lower case denotes a
function).
• GE(u,v) for u is greater than or equal to v.
• S(x) for x is sick today.
• T(x) for x pays taxes.
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 Syntax of FOPL
• Using the above abbreviations, we represent
E1, E2, and E3 as:
• E1: x ((E(x) & GE(i(x),1400)) →T(x))
• E2: y (E(y) →S(y))
• E3: xy ((E(x) & P(y)) → ~GE(i(x),i(y)))
• (we can read “for all x and for all y if x is an
employee and y is president, the income of x
is not greater than or equal to the income of
y)
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 Syntax of FOPL
• An atomic formula is a wffs (well-formed
formulas) .
• If P and Q are wffs, then P ,~P, P & Q, P V Q,
P Q, x P(x), and x P(x) are wffs.
• Wffs are formed only by applying the above rules a
finite number of times.
• The above rules state that all wffs are formed from
atomic formulas and the proper application of
quantifiers and logical connections.
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 Syntax of FOPL
• Some examples of valid wffs are
• MAN(john)
• PILOT(father-of(bill))
•  xyz((FATHER(x,y)&FATHER(y,z))
→GRANDFATHER(x,z))
• x NUMBER(x) →(y GREATER-THAN(y,x))

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 Syntax of FOPL
• Some examples of statements that are not wffs are:
• P P(x)→Q(x)
• /* Universal quantification is applied to the predicate P(x).
This is invalid in FOPL. */
• MAN(~john)
• /*The expression is invalid since the term John, a constant, is
negated. */
• father-of(Q(x))
• /* The expression is invalid due to it is function with a
predicate argument. */
• MARRIED(MAN,WOMAN)
• /* The expression fails since it is predicate with two predicate
arguments.*/
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 Semantics for FOPL
• When considering specific wffs, we always
have in mind some domain D. If not stated
explicitly, D will be understood from the
context.
• The arguments predicates must be terms
(constant, variables or functions). Therefore,
the domain of each n-place predicate is also
defined over D.

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 Semantics for FOPL
• For Example, our domain might be all entities
that make up the Computer Science &
Engineering Department at the University of
Rajshahi.
• In this case, constants would be Professors
(Dell, Cooke, Gelfond, and so on), Staff
(Martha, Pat, Linda and so on), books, labs,
offices and so forth.

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 Semantics for FOPL
• The functions we may choose might be
advisor-of(x), lab-capacity(y), dept-grade-
average(z), and the predicates MARRIED(x),
TENURED(y), COLLABORATE(x,y) to name a
few.
• When an assignment of values is given to
each term and to each predicate symbol in a
wff, we say an interpretation is given to the
wff.
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 Semantics for FOPL
• If the truth values for two different wffs are
the same under every interpretation, they are
said to be equivalent.
• A predicate (or wff) that has no variables is
called a ground atom.

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 Semantics for FOPL
• For example, the predicate P(x) in x P(x), is
true only if it is true for every value of x in the
domain D.
• Likewise, the P(x) in x P(x) is true only if it is
true for at least one value of x in the domain.
• If the above conditions are not satisfied, the
predicate evaluates to false.

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 Semantics for FOPL
• For example, we want to evaluate the truth
value of the expression E, where
• E: x ((A(a,x) V B(f(x))) & C(x))→D(x)
• In this expression, there are four predicates:
A, B, C, and D.
• The predicate A is a two-place predicate, the
first argument being the constant a, and the
second argument, a variable x.

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 Semantics for FOPL
• The predicates B, C and D are all unary
predicates where the argument of B is a
function f(x), and the argument of C and D is
the variable x.
• Since the whole expression E is quantified
with the universal quantifier x, it will
evaluate to true only if it evaluates to true for
all x in the domain D.

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 Semantics for FOPL
• Thus, to complete our example, suppose E is
interpreted as follows: Define the domain D = {1, 2}
and from D let the interpretation I assign the
following values:
• a=2
• f(1) = 2, f(2) = 1
• A(2,1) = true, A(2,2) = false
• B(1) = true, B(2) = false
• C(1) = true, C(2) = false
• D(1) = false, D(2) = true
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 Semantics for FOPL
• Using a table such as Table 4.3 we can
evaluates E as follows:
a) . If x = 1, A(2,1) evaluates to true, B(2)
evaluates to false, and (A(2,1) V B(2))
evaluates to true. C(1) evaluates to true.
Therefore, the expression in the outer
parentheses evaluates to true. Hence, since
D(1) evaluates to false, the expression E
evaluates to false.
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 Semantics for FOPL
(b) In a similar way, if x =2, the expression can
be shown to evaluate to true.
Consequently, since E is not true for all x, the
expression evaluates to false.

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 Properties of WFFS (well-formed formulas)

• As in the case of PL, the evaluation of

complex formulas in FOPL can often be
facilitated through the substitution of
equivalent formulas.
• Table 4.3 lists a number of equivalent
expressions.
• Table 4.4 and Table 4.3 are similar, but there
are some notable differences, particularly in
the wffs containing quantifiers.
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TABLE 4.3 : Truth table for equitant
sentences

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Table 4.4 Equivalent Logical Expressions

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Table 4.4 Equivalent Logical Expressions Cont..

© Prof. Dr. A. K. M. Akhtar Hossain, Dept. of

30
CSE, University of Rajshahi
 Properties of WFFS
• For example, In Table 4.4 attention is called to
the last four expressions which govern
substitutions involving negated quantifiers
and the movement of quantifiers across
conjunctive and disjunctive connections.

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 Properties of WFFS
• A wff is said to be valid if it is true under
every interpretation.
• A wff is said to be inconsistent if it is false
under every interpretation.
• A wff that is not valid is invalid.
• Likewise, a wff that is not inconsistent is
satisfiable.
• Again, this means that a valid wff is satisfiable
and an inconsistent wff is invalid, but the
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respective converse statements do not hold.
 Properties of WFFS
• Finally, we say that a wff Q is a logical
consequence of the wffs P1, P2, P3, .. .. .. , Pn if
and only if whenever P1 & P2 & P3 & .. .. .. &
Pn is true under an interpretation.
• Then, Q is also true.

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 Properties of WFFS
• Example :
(a). P &~P is inconsistent and P V ~P is valid
since the first is false under every
interpretation and the second is true under
every interpretation.
(b). From the two wffs
CLEVER(bill) and
x CLEVER(x) → SUCCEED(x)
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 Properties of WFFS
• We can show that SUCCEED(bill) is a logical
consequence. Thus, assume that both
CLEVER(bill) and
x CLEVER(x) → SUCCEED(x)
are true under an interpretation.
• Then
CLEVER(bill) → SUCCEED(bill)
Is certainly true since the wff was assumed to be
true for all x, including x= bill.
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 Properties of WFFS
• But,
CLEVER(bill) → SUCCEED(bill) = ~ CLEVER(bill) V SUCCEED(bill)
are equivalent and, since CLEVER(bill) is true,
~CLEVER(bill) is false and, therefore,
SUCCEED(bill) must be true. Thus, we
conclude SUCCEED(bill) is a logical
consequence of
CLEVER(bill) and x CLEVER(x) → SUCCEED(x)

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 CONVERSION TO CLAUSAL FORM
• As noted earlier, we are interested in mechanical
inference by programs using symbolic FOPL expressions.
• One method we shall examine is called resolution.
• It requires that all statements be converted into a
normalized clausal form.
• We define a clause as the disjunction of a number of
literals.
• A ground clause is one in which no variables occur in
the expression.
• A Horn clause is a clause with at most one positive
literal.

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 CONVERSION TO CLAUSAL FORM
• Clausal Conversion Procedure:
• Step 1: Eliminate all implication and
equivalency connectives (Use ~P V Q in place
of P → Q and (~P V Q) & (~Q V P) in place of
P Q).
• Step 2: Move all negations in to immediately
precede an atom (use P in place of ~(~P), and
DeMorgran’s laws, x ~F[x] in place of ~(x)
F[x] and x ~F[x] in place of ~(x) F[x] ).

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 CONVERSION TO CLAUSAL FORM
• Step 3: Rename variables, if necessary, so that
all quantifiers have variable assignments; that
is, rename variables so that variables bound
by a different quantifier.
• For example, in the expression
• x (P(x) → (x Q(x)))
rename the second “dummy” variable x which is
bound by the existential quantifier to be a
different variable, say y, to give
x (P(x) → (y Q(y))).
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 CONVERSION TO CLAUSAL FORM
• Step 4: Skolemize by replacing all existentially
quantified variables with Skolem functions as
described above, and deleting the
corresponding existential quantifiers.
• Step 5: Move all universal quantifiers to left of
the expression and put the expression on the
right into CNF (Clausal Normal Form).
•

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 CONVERSION TO CLAUSAL FORM

• Step 6: Eliminate all universal quantifiers and

conjunctions since they are retained implicitly.
The resulting expressions are clauses and the
set of such expressions is said to be in clausal
form.

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 Assignment-3
• Determine whether each of the following
sentences is (i) satisfiable, (ii) contradictory
(iii) valid.
• S1: (P & Q) V ~(P & Q)
• S2: (P V Q) → (P &Q)
• S3: (P & Q) → R V ~Q
• S4: (P V Q) & (P V ~Q) V P
• S5: P → Q → ~P
• S6: P V Q & ~P V ~Q & P

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•THANKS
•THE END

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