EE 121B:

Principles of
Semiconductor Device Design
Lecture 4:
Semiconductor Fundamentals (continued)
Sam Emaminejad
 Lecture 4

OUTLINE
• Semiconductor Fundamentals (cont’d)
– Scattering Mechanisms
– Carrier actions:
• Drift
• Diffusion
• Generation-Recombination
Reading: Pierret 3.2-3.3; Hu 2.3, 2.5-2.6
 Course Overview
1. Semiconductor Properties
2. P-N Junction
3. Metal-Semiconductor Contacts
4. MOS Devices
5. Bipolar Junction Transistor
Metal-Oxide-Semiconductor (MOS)
Field-Effect Transistor (FET)

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 Mechanisms of Carrier Scattering
Dominant scattering mechanisms:
1. Phonon scattering (lattice scattering)
2. Impurity (dopant) ion scattering

Phonon scattering limited mobility decreases with increasing T:

1 1
 phonon   phonon    T −3 / 2

phonon density  carrier th ermal velocity T  T 1/ 2

 = q / m vth  T
 Impurity Ion Scattering

There is less change in the electron’s direction if the electron

travels by the ion at a higher speed.
Ion scattering limited mobility increases with increasing T:
vth3 T 3/ 2
impurity  
N A + ND N A + ND
 Matthiessen's Rule
• The probability that a carrier will be scattered by mechanism i
dt
within a time period dt is i
i ≡ mean time between scattering events due to mechanism i

→ Probability that a carrier will be scattered by any mechanism

within a time period dt is
𝑞𝜏
 dt 
i i
𝜇= ∗
𝑚
1 1 1 1 1 1
= +  = +
  phonon  impurity   phonon impurity

The dominant scattering mechanism (with the lowest associated 𝜇𝑖 )

determines 𝜇
Mobility Dependence
(𝑇 = 300𝐾)
on Doping
Carrier mobilities in Si at 300K

Ion impurity scattering becomes dominant

Phonon
scattering is
dominant

Screening effect
becomes significant
Mobility Dependence on Temperature
1 1 1
= +
  phonon impurity

300K
 Hole Drift Current Density, Jp,drift

R.F. Pierret, Semiconductor Fundamentals, Figure 3.3

vdp Dt A = volume from which all holes cross plane in time Dt

p vdp Dt A = number of holes crossing plane in time Dt
q p vdp Dt A = hole charge crossing plane in time Dt
q p vdp A = hole charge crossing plane per unit time = hole current
→ Hole drift current per unit area Jp,drift = q p vdp
 Conductivity and Resistivity
• In a semiconductor, both electrons and holes conduct current:
J p ,drift = qp p  )
J n ,drift = −qn(−  n
J drift = J p ,drift +J = qp  + qn 
n , drift p n

J drift = (qp p + qn )   𝜎 =

n
𝐽
𝜀
• The conductivity of a semiconductor is   qp p + qn n
– Unit: mho/cm

1
• The resistivity of a semiconductor is  
– Unit: ohm-cm 
Resistivity Dependence on Doping
R.F. Pierret, Semiconductor Fundamentals, Figure 3.8

For n-type material:

1

qn n

For p-type material:

1

qp p

Note: This plot (for Si) does

not apply to compensated
material (doped with both
acceptors and donors).
 Electrical Resistance
I V
+ _

W
t
uniformly doped semiconductor

V L
Resistance R = [Unit: ohms]
I Wt
where  is the resistivity
 Example: Resistivity Calculation
What is the resistivity of a Si sample doped with 1016/cm3 Boron?
Answer:
𝑁𝐴 = 1016 cm−3 , 𝑁𝐷 = 0
𝑝 = 1016 cm−3 , 𝑛 = 104 𝑐𝑚−3

𝑛1 = 𝑛𝑖2 = 1020 cm−6

1 1
= 
qn n + qp p qp p

= (1.6 10 −19 16
)(10 )(450) 
−1
= 1.4  − cm
 Example: Compensated Doping
Consider the same Si sample doped with 1016/cm3 Boron, and
additionally doped with 1017/cm3 Arsenic. What is its resistivity?
Answer:

𝑁𝐷 = 1017 cm−3 , 𝑁𝐴 = 1016 cm−3

𝑛 = 9 × 1016 𝑐𝑚−3

1 1
= 
qn n + qp p qn n

= (1.6 10 −19
)(9 10 )(750)
16
−1
= 0.93  − cm
 Example: T Dependence of 
Consider a Si sample doped with 1017 As atoms/cm3. How will its
resistivity change when T is increased from 300K to 400K?
Answer:
The temperature dependent factor in  (and therefore ) is n.
From the mobility vs. temperature curve for 1017 cm-3, we find that
n decreases from 770 at 300K to 400 at 400K.

Thus,  increases by 770

= 1.93
400
 Diffusion
Particles diffuse from regions of higher concentration to regions
of lower concentration region, due to random thermal motion.

Most of particles, under sufficient long time:

motion from high concentration to low
concentration side
Single particle

Brownian motion
“random” C. C. Hu, Modern Semiconductor Devices for Integrated Circuits, Figure 2-9
 Diffusion Current
A C cm−3
= cm
dn cm2 s ∙ cm2 C dp
J n, diff = qDn J p,diff = −qDp
dx dx

e- motion
h+ motion

J J 𝑑𝑝
𝑑𝑛 𝑑𝑥
Slope ~ 𝑑𝑥

cm2
D is the diffusion constant, or diffusivity. Unit:
s
 Total Current

J = Jn + J p
𝑑𝑛
Electron: 𝐽𝑛 = 𝐽𝑛,𝑑𝑟𝑖𝑓𝑡 + 𝐽𝑛,𝑑𝑖𝑓𝑓 = 𝑞𝑛𝜇𝑛 E + 𝑞𝐷𝑛
𝑑𝑥
Drift current always along E-field

𝑑𝑝
Hole: 𝐽𝑝 = 𝐽𝑝,𝑑𝑟𝑖𝑓𝑡 + 𝐽𝑝,𝑑𝑖𝑓𝑓 = 𝑞𝑝𝜇𝑝 E − 𝑞𝐷𝑝
𝑑𝑥
Non-Uniformly-Doped Semiconductor
• The position of EF relative to the band edges is determined by
the carrier concentrations, which is determined by the net
dopant concentration.
• In equilibrium EF is constant; therefore, the band-edge energies
vary with position in a non-uniformly doped semiconductor:
e- diffusion Lightly doped
e- drift n-side
Heavily doped
n-side E Ec(x)

EF EF is flat, constant vs. x,

𝐸𝑖 : equilibrium
: no current flow
2
Ev(x)

1 𝑉1 − 𝑉2
Potential Difference due to n(x), p(x)
• The ratio of carrier densities at two points depends exponentially
on the potential difference between these points:
𝐸𝐹 − 𝐸𝑖
𝑛 = 𝑛𝑖 ∙ exp
𝑘𝑇
 n1   n1 
EF − Ei1 = kT ln   = Ei1 = EF − kT ln  
 ni   ni 
 n2 
Similarly, Ei2 = EF − kT ln  
 ni 
  n2   n1   n2 
Therefore Ei1 − Ei2 = kT ln   − ln   = kT ln  
  ni   ni   n1 
kT  n2 
V2 − V1 = (Ei1 − Ei2 ) =
1 Potential difference only depends
ln   on doping concentration at the 2
q q  n1  ends, regardless of the doping
distribution
 Ev(x)

Built-In Electric Field due to n(x), p(x)Ef

Ec(x)
Consider a piece of a non-uniformly doped semiconductor:
− ( Ec − E F ) / kT
n = Nce
n-type semiconductor
dn N dE
= − c e −( Ec − EF ) / kT c
Decreasing donor concentration dx kT dx
E(𝑥) Ec(x)
n dEc
=−
EF kT dx 1 𝑑𝐸𝑐
E= ∙
𝑞 𝑑𝑥
n
=− qε
Ev(x) kT
“Built-in” Field kT 1 𝜕𝑛 𝑥
E=− ∙ ∙
𝑞 𝑛 𝑥 𝜕𝑥
 Einstein Relationship between D, 
• In equilibrium there is no net flow of electrons or holes
Jn = 0 and Jp = 0
➔ The drift and diffusion current components must balance
each other exactly. (A built-in electric field exists, such that
the drift current exactly cancels out the diffusion current due
to the concentration gradient.)
𝑑𝑛 𝑑𝑝
𝐽𝑛 = 𝑞𝑛𝜇𝑛 E + 𝑞𝐷𝑛 =0 𝐽𝑝 = 𝑞𝑝𝜇𝑝 E − 𝑞𝐷𝑝 =0
𝑑𝑥 𝑑𝑥
𝑘𝑇 1 𝑑𝑛 𝑑𝑛
𝑞𝑛𝜇𝑛 E = 𝑞𝑛𝜇𝑛 − ∙ ∙ = −𝑞𝐷𝑛
𝑞 𝑛 𝑑𝑥 𝑑𝑥
𝑘𝑇 𝑘𝑇
𝐷𝑛 = 𝜇 , 𝐷𝑝 = 𝜇
𝑞 𝑛 𝑞 𝑝
The Einstein relationship is valid for a non-degenerate semiconductor, even under non-equilibrium conditions.
 Example: Diffusion Constant
What is the hole diffusion constant in a sample of silicon with
p = 410 cm2 / V s ?

Answer:

𝑘𝑇
𝐷𝑝 = 𝜇𝑝 = 26mV ∙ 410cm2 / V ∙ s = 11cm2 /s
𝑞

Remember: kT/q = 26 mV at room temperature.

 Quasi-Neutrality Approximation
• If the dopant concentration profile varies gradually with position,
then the majority-carrier concentration distribution does not
differ much from the dopant concentration distribution.
Strict charge N D ( x ) + p ( x ) = N A ( x ) + n( x ) Concentration
neutrality: 𝑛 𝑥 : slightly shift
due to diffusion
– n-type material: n( x )  N D ( x ) − N A ( x) Yet: most held
𝑁𝐷 𝑥
by E field
– p-type material: p ( x)  N A ( x) − N D ( x)
x

𝑘𝑇 1 𝑑𝑛 𝑘𝑇 1 𝑑𝑁D
→ E=− =− in n-type material
𝑞 𝑛 𝑑𝑥 𝑞 𝑁D 𝑑𝑥
 Generation and Recombination Happens in electron-hole pair

• Generation: 𝐸𝑐

– A process by which
electrons & holes are 𝐸𝑣

created in pairs. 𝐸𝑐

• Recombination:
– A process by which x 𝐸𝑣

electrons and holes

Disturbance, causing ∆𝐽
are annihilated in pairs.
𝜕𝑛
𝐽𝑛 = 𝐽drift 𝑛 + 𝐽diffusion
𝜕𝑥
• Generation and recombination processes act to change the
carrier concentrations, and thereby indirectly affect current flow
 Generation Processes
R.F. Pierret, Semiconductor Fundamentals, Figure 3.15

Band-to-Band R-G Center Impact Ionization

“Trap-assisted” Under high E-field

≥ 1.5𝐸𝑔

Collisions
Traps: Au, Cu, Pt,
defects in Si

Dominant in Si, Ge 𝐸𝑔
 Recombination Processes
R.F. Pierret, Semiconductor Fundamentals, Figure 3.15
Occurs in heavily
doped semiconductor
Direct R-G Center Auger
GaAs, InP…(III-V) Si, Ge (Ⅳ) Heat

Electron 1 Electron 2

Hole

“3-particle” process

Recombination in Si is primarily via R-G centers

Direct vs. Indirect Band Gap Materials
Energy (E) vs. momentum (p=ħk) Diagrams
E
Direct: Indirect: Need to convert both
Ec momentum (phonon)
Ⅲ-V Si, Ge and energy (photon)
Ev
x
1
Lacks the info
of momentum
2 1’
Photon: large ΔE, Phonon: large Δk,
small Δk 2’ small ΔE

Little change in momentum Large change in momentum

is required for recombination is required for recombination
→ momentum is conserved by → momentum is conserved by
photon emission phonon + photon emission
 Excess Carrier Concentrations
Net (total) values equilibrium values

Dn  n − n0
Dp  p − p0
Excess carriers (off equilibrium)

Charge neutrality condition:

Dn = Dp
Electrons and holes R-G in pairs
 “Low-Level Injection”
• Often the disturbance from equilibrium is small, such that the
majority-carrier concentration is not affected significantly:

– For an n-type material:

| Dn |=| Dp | n0 so n  n0

– For a p-type material:

| Dn |=| Dp | p0 so p  p0

However, the minority carrier concentration can be

significantly affected.
 Summary
• Electrons and holes can be considered as quasi-classical
particles with effective mass m*
• In the presence of an electric field E, carriers move with
average drift velocity vd = E ,  is the carrier mobility
– Mobility decreases w/ increasing total concentration of ionized dopants
– Mobility is dependent on temperature
• decreases w/ increasing T if lattice scattering is dominant
• decreases w/ decreasing T if impurity scattering is dominant

• The conductivity () hence the resistivity () of a

semiconductor is dependent on its mobile charge carrier
concentrations and mobilities
  qp p + qn n   1
 Summary
• Electron/hole concentration gradient → diffusion
dn dp
J n, diff = qDn J p,diff = −qDp
dx dx
• Current flowing in a semiconductor is comprised of drift and
diffusion components for electrons and holes
J = Jn,drift + Jn,diff + Jp,drift + Jp,diff
In equilibrium Jn = Jn,drift + Jn,diff = 0 and Jp = Jp,drift + Jp,diff = 0

• The characteristic constants of drift and diffusion are related:

D kT
=
 q
 Acknowledgement
• Modern Semiconductor Devices for Integrated Circuits
by C. Hu (Prentice Hall, 2009)
• Semiconductor Device Fundamentals by R. F. Pierret
(Addison Wesley, 1996)
• Professor Tsu-Jae King Liu EE130/230A notes