Elements of Mechanical Engineering 2025 - 26

Module 2: MACHINE TOOL OPERATIONS

3.1 Manufacturing Process

A Manufacturing processes refer to the systematic methods used to convert raw materials into finished
products, using a combination of machinery, tools, and labor. A manufacturing process requires infrastructure,
equipment, time, energy and labour to convert raw material to finished part (ref. Fig 1).

Figure 1. Flow chart of manufacturing process

3.1.1 Classification of Manufacturing Processes

The manufacturing processes are often classified into two main categories: primary processes and secondary
processes. These categories differentiate the stages of production based on the type of transformation involved.

i. Primary Manufacturing Processes

Primary processes are those that directly transform raw materials into basic forms or shapes suitable for further
processing. These processes are typically involved in the initial stages of manufacturing, where large quantities
of raw materials are converted into intermediate products. Primary processes typically involve significant
material transformation and are key to creating basic components or semi-finished products. Some key
examples include

 Casting: In casting, a liquid material (usually molten metal) is poured into a pre-shaped mold and allowed
to cool and solidify. Once solidified, the part is removed from the mold. It's ideal for creating complex
shapes, large components, or parts that are difficult to machine. Common types include sand casting, die
casting, and investment casting.

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 Forging: Forging involves deforming metal under high pressure, typically using a hammer or press. This
can be done hot (heated metal) or cold (at room temperature). Forged parts are generally stronger and more
durable due to improved grain structure. It's widely used in the automotive and aerospace industries for
parts like gears, crankshafts, and axles.
 Rolling: Rolling reduces the thickness or changes the cross-section of a metal by passing it between
rotating rolls. It can be done hot (above recrystallization temperature) or cold (below it). Hot rolling is
used for large-scale shaping, while cold rolling provides better surface finish and dimensional accuracy.
 Drawing: Drawing is a process where metal is pulled (rather than pushed) through a die to create wires,
rods, or tubes with smaller cross-sections. It can be done at room temperature (cold drawing) to improve
strength and surface finish.
 Sintering: Sintering involves compressing metal powders into a desired shape and then heating them in a
furnace below their melting point. The heat bonds the particles together, resulting in a solid, dense object.
It's common in powder metallurgy for making parts like bearings, gears, and filters.
 Extrusion: In extrusion, material is forced through a shaped die to create long pieces with a uniform
cross-section, such as rods, tubes, or channels. It’s used for metals, plastics, and ceramics. Extrusion can
be done hot or cold, depending on the material.
 Bending: Bending changes the shape of metal without cutting, typically done on sheet metal to create
angles or curves. It can be performed using press brakes, rollers, or bending machines. It’s widely used in
structural and fabrication industries.

ii. Secondary Manufacturing Processes:

Secondary processes are those that further refine, finish, or assemble products made from primary processes.
These processes are typically applied to intermediate products to enhance their shape, size, finish, or properties.
Secondary processes are crucial for achieving the final shape, size, surface quality, and functionality of the
product before it is delivered to the customer. Following are some key examples:

 Heat Treatment: Heat treatment is a thermal process used to change the mechanical properties of metals
(like hardness, strength, or ductility) without changing their shape. It involves heating and cooling a
material under controlled conditions.

Common heat treatment methods are:

Annealing – Softens metal and improves ductility.

Quenching – Rapid cooling (often in water or oil) to harden metal.

Tempering – Reheating quenched metal to reduce brittleness.

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Normalizing – Improves toughness and grain structure.

Case Hardening – Hardens the outer surface while keeping the core soft.

 Machining: Machining is a material removal process where unwanted material is cut away from a
workpiece to achieve a desired shape or surface finish. Machining is often used to add fine features, holes,
threads, or improve dimensional accuracy after a primary process. Common methods include Turning
(lathe), Milling, Drilling, Grinding and CNC machining.

 Surface Finishing: Surface finishing includes processes that improve the appearance, surface texture,
corrosion resistance, or wear resistance of a part.

Examples:

Polishing – Makes the surface smooth and shiny.

Grinding – Improves surface finish and dimensional accuracy.

Plating (e.g., chrome or zinc) – Adds a protective or decorative coating.

Anodizing – Enhances corrosion resistance (common with aluminum).

Painting/Coating – For protection and aesthetics.

 Joining: Joining refers to processes that connect two or more parts permanently or semi-permanently.

Common joining methods are:

Welding – Fuses metals using heat (with or without filler).

Brazing and Soldering – Use lower temperature filler metals.

Adhesive bonding – Glues or epoxies.

Mechanical fasteners – Bolts, nuts, rivets.

 Assembly: Assembly is the final stage where all individual parts and components are put together to make
the complete product. Assembly process can be Manual or automated fitting, use of fasteners or
adhesives.

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Figure 2. Classification of manufacturing processes

3.2 Machine tools

Machine tools are power driven cutting tools or machines which enable the removal of excess stock of material
from the work piece. Machine tools are critical in making parts for cars, airplanes, machinery, electronics, and
almost every manufactured product.
Key Characteristics:
 They remove material from a workpiece to achieve the desired shape, size, or surface finish.
 They provide controlled movement between the tool and the workpiece.
 They are essential in manufacturing and metalworking industries.

3.2.1 LATHE
 Lathe is one of the most widely used machine tools in metal cutting work.
 Lathe is usually used for machining (metal removal) the job which is rotated and a cutting tool is fed to
cause the cutting action against the rotating work piece.
 Lathe is generally used for machining cylindrical jobs.
 A lathe removes unwanted material from a rotating workpiece using cutting tools, creating parts that
are typically symmetrical around a central axis.

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3.2.1.1 Working principle of lathe

The working principle of a lathe is based on the concept of
rotating a workpiece around a fixed axis while a stationary cutting
tool is fed against it to remove material and shape the part. The
workpiece is mounted on the spindle, held by a chuck or faceplate,
and is rotated at a controlled speed by an electric motor. As it
spins, the cutting tool—mounted on the tool post—is moved in
either a longitudinal (parallel to the axis) or cross (perpendicular
to the axis) direction. This interaction between the rotating workpiece and the stationary tool removes excess
material in the form of chips, enabling operations such as turning, facing, grooving, and threading.

3.2.1.2 Specifications of lathe

The specifications of a lathe describe its capacity, size, and functional features. These parameters help users
choose the right lathe for a particular job based on the size and type of workpiece.

a. Swing Over Bed: The maximum diameter of the workpiece that can rotate without touching the bed of the
lathe. It indicates the largest part diameter that can be safely turned. Measured from the center of the spindle to
the bed, and then doubled.
b. Swing Over Gap in Bed: The maximum diameter of the workpiece that can rotate over the gap section in the
lathe bed. Some lathes have a removable gap near the headstock to allow turning of larger diameter parts near
the chuck. Larger than swing over bed, but only usable in a limited area.
c. Swing Over Cross Slide:The maximum diameter of the workpiece that can rotate above the cross slide,
which is higher than the bed. This limits the turning diameter when the tool post is in place. Always smaller
than swing over bed.

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d. Distance Between Centers: The maximum length of a workpiece that can be mounted between the headstock
and tailstock centers. It defines how long a part can be turned. Important for turning long shafts or rods.
e. Length of Bed: The total length of the lathe bed, which supports the carriage and tailstock. Though it doesn't
directly affect workpiece size, it reflects the machine's overall size and capacity.

3.2.1.3 Operations performed on a center lathe

a. Plain turning
Cylindrical (or plain) turning is a fundamental lathe
operation used to remove excess material from a
rotating workpiece to produce a smooth, cylindrical
surface of the desired diameter and length. The
process begins by setting the cutting tool to the
required depth of cut using the cross-slide. Once the
workpiece is securely mounted and rotating on the
spindle, the cutting tool is fed longitudinally—that is,
in a direction parallel to the axis of rotation—to gradually reduce the diameter. This operation can be carried
out in two stages: rough turning, which involves deeper and faster cuts to quickly remove bulk material, and
finish turning, which uses lighter cuts to achieve the final dimensions and surface finish.

b. Facing operation
Facing is a lathe operation used to produce a flat surface at
the end of a workpiece, as shown in the figure. During the
facing process, the carriage is locked to the lathe bed to
prevent unwanted movement, ensuring precision. The
cutting tool is mounted on the cross-slide, and it is fed
perpendicularly (at a right angle) to the axis of the lathe,
which allows it to remove material from the end of the workpiece. This action results in a flat, smooth surface.
In addition to creating a flat surface, facing can also be used to reduce the length of the workpiece, often as a
preparatory step before further operations.

c. Knurling
Knurling is the process of embossing a diamond-shaped
pattern onto the surface of a workpiece using revolving
hardened steel wheels that are pressed against the material.
A knurling tool, held in the tool post as shown in the figure,

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is used to perform this operation. The workpiece is rotated at a slow speed, and the knurling tool is gradually
pressed against the rotating surface. Pressure is increased slowly until the tool forms the desired pattern, as
illustrated in the figure. Knurling is typically performed to provide a better grip on handles, screw heads, and
other cylindrical parts that are meant to be held or operated by hand.

d. Thread cutting
The principle of thread cutting on a lathe is to produce a
helical groove on a revolving cylindrical surface by
feeding the tool longitudinally as shown in the figure. A
single point cutting tool of the desired profile is mounted
on the tool post. To make a cut, the carriage is connected
to the rotating lead screw. Since the lead screw is geared
to the spindle, the carriage will move a predetermined
distance per revolution of the workpiece. The workpiece
is made to revolve at very slow speed. The depth of cut is selected and the tool is made to move parallel to the
lathe axis by means automatic arrangement. Successive cuts are continued until the thread reaches its correct
depth. V threads and Square threads are commonly generated which are used for fastening and power
transmission applications respectively.

e.Taper turning
A taper is a uniform increase or decrease in the diameter of the
work piece along its length. Taper turning is the process of
generating a conical surface.
Angle of taper is given by

Where, = Half taper angle, D1 = Larger diameter, D2 = Smaller diameter & L = Length of the taper.
i. Taper turning using form tool
Taper turning using a form tool is a simple method
used on a lathe to produce short and steep tapers on
a cylindrical workpiece. In this process, a specially
shaped cutting tool—called a form tool—is ground
to match the desired taper angle. The workpiece is
securely mounted in the chuck and rotated at a

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suitable speed. The form tool is held in the tool post and aligned accurately with the taper angle. During the
operation, the tool is fed perpendicularly into the rotating workpiece using the cross-slide. As the tool
penetrates the surface, it cuts the taper in a single pass or in multiple shallow passes, depending on the
material and required finish. This method is best suited for short tapers due to its simplicity and speed, but it is
not ideal for producing long or gradual tapers due to limitations in accuracy. Common applications include
chamfers, short taper pins, and conical ends of components like valve seats.

ii.Taper turning by swiveling of compound rest

Taper turning on a lathe is done by feeding the
cutting tool at an angle to the axis of rotation the
workpiece.
A taper can be produced with the use of compound
rest as shown in the figure. The tool mounted on
the compound rest is attached to a circular base
graduated in degrees, which may be swivelled and
clamped at any desired angle. This angle must be
one half the taper angle, required on the
component. The tool is fed by hand by rotating the
compound slide screw.
The use of the compound slide permits movement of the tool at an angle to the centre line of the lathe, thus
producing the taper. Since the linear movement of a compound rest slide is limited, this method is suitable
only for producing large tapers on short length work pieces. The movement of the tool in this method is being
purely controlled by hand, thus giving a low production capacity and poor surface finish.

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3.2.2 Milling machine

A milling machine is a machine tool used to remove material from a workpiece by feeding it against a rotating
multi-point cutting tool called a milling cutter. It performs various machining operations such as flat surface
cutting, slotting, gear cutting, drilling, and contouring, making it one of the most versatile machines in a
workshop.
In milling, unlike a lathe where the workpiece rotates, the cutting tool rotates while the workpiece remains
stationary or moves linearly. The milling cutter removes material as it advances across the surface, producing
the desired shape and finish.

3.2.2.1 Working principle of Milling machine

Milling is a process of removing excess metal from a
workpiece with a rotating multipoint cutter by moving the
workpiece against it. In this process the work piece is rigidly
clamped on the table of the machine, or held between centers
and the rotating multi-teeth cutter is mounted either on a
spindle or an arbor. The cutter is made to rotate at a fairly
high speed and the work piece is fed slowly past the cutter.
As the work piece advances, the cutter-teeth remove the metal from the work surface to produce the desired
shape. Based on the requirement, the table (work) is moved against the rotating cutter and the desired
machining surface is obtained in a single pass of the work piece.

3.2.2.2 Types of milling

Up milling and down milling are two fundamental types of milling operations based on the direction of cutter
rotation relative to the feed of the workpiece.

a. Up milling b. Down milling

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a. Up milling, also known as conventional milling, is a machining process in which the cutter rotates against
the direction of the feed of the workpiece. In this method, the cutting action starts with a small chip thickness
that gradually increases, which can lead to more friction and tool wear. It also tends to produce a rougher
surface finish and more vibration. However, up milling is preferred for hard or scaled surfaces and offers better
control of the workpiece, making it safer and more stable for older machines or roughing operations.

b. Down milling, or climb milling, is a process where the cutter rotates in the same direction as the feed of the
workpiece. Here, the chip thickness is maximum at the start and decreases toward the end of the cut, resulting
in less heat generation, smoother surface finish, and longer tool life. It offers better cutting efficiency and is
ideal for finishing operations. However, it requires a rigid machine setup, as the cutter tends to pull the
workpiece along, which could lead to inaccuracies or safety hazards if the setup is not secure.

3.2.2.3 Horizontal milling machine

A horizontal milling machine is a type of
milling machine where the spindle is
horizontally oriented, and the cutting tool is
mounted on an arbor that extends from the
spindle. It is primarily used for heavy-duty
tasks and can perform operations on large and
hard materials with high precision. Horizontal
milling machines are known for rigidity, power,
and high material removal rates, making them
ideal for heavy-duty production work.
Parts of horizontal milling machine
Base – The foundation of the machine, supporting all components.
Column – A vertical structure that houses the spindle motor and supports the overarm.
Knee – Mounted on the base; it can move vertically to adjust the depth of the cut.
Table – A flat surface where the workpiece is clamped; it can move longitudinally (X) and crosswise (Y).
Saddle – Supports the table and allows cross movement.
Overarm – A horizontal beam that extends above the table and supports the arbor.
Arbor – A long shaft that holds the cutting tool and is supported by the overarm.
Spindle – Drives the arbor and cutting tool.
Motor – Powers the spindle and other machine movements.
Feed Mechanism – Provides controlled movement of the table for cutting.

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Working Principle:
In a horizontal milling machine, the workpiece is fixed on the table, and the cutting tool (mounted on the arbor)
rotates horizontally. As the tool spins, the table is fed against it either manually or automatically, depending on
the operation. The cutter removes material from the workpiece as it advances, forming the desired shape.
Few important operations performed by a horizontal milling machine are Slab Milling, Side Milling, Straddle
Milling, Slot Milling and Gear Cutting.

3.2.2.4 Vertical milling machine

A vertical milling machine is a type of milling
machine where the spindle is vertically oriented,
and the cutting tool is mounted directly into the
spindle. It is commonly used for precision work
and complex surface machining, including
operations like facing, slotting, and drilling.
Vertical milling machines are valued for their
versatility, ease of operation, and ability to
handle a wide range of tasks, making them
popular in tool rooms and general-purpose
workshops.

Parts of Vertical Milling Machine

Base – The bottom part of the machine that supports the entire structure and absorbs vibrations.
Column – The vertical support that houses the spindle motor and guides for the knee.
Knee – A movable casting that supports the saddle and table; it moves vertically to control depth.
Table – A flat surface where the workpiece is mounted; it moves longitudinally (X) and crosswise (Y).
Saddle – Mounted on the knee, it provides cross movement of the table.
Spindle – The vertically positioned rotating shaft that holds and drives the cutting tool.
Quill – A sleeve containing the spindle; it allows vertical movement of the cutting tool.
Motor – Powers the spindle and other mechanisms.
Overarm/Head – Houses the spindle and quill; can be fixed or adjustable depending on the machine.
Feed Mechanism – Controls the movement of the table and spindle for precise machining.

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Working Principle:
In a vertical milling machine, the workpiece is secured to the table, and the cutting tool rotates vertically on the
spindle. The cutter is fed into the workpiece either by lowering the spindle (using the quill) or by moving the
table upward. The table can also move in X and Y directions to perform complex machining. Material is
removed as the rotating cutter advances across the surface, shaping the workpiece as required.
Few important operations performed by a vertical milling machine are face milling, end milling, slot milling,
drilling and boring.

3.2.2.5 Milling operations

i. Slab milling: Slab milling or plain milling is a method
of producing flat surfaces parallel to the cutter axis as
shown in the figure. The cutter used in this operation is
called plain milling cutter or slab milling cutter. It has
straight or helical teeth cut on the periphery of a
cylindrical surface. Helical tooth cutter removes greater
amount of material and produces a smooth surface when
compared to the straight tooth cutters. This operation is performed on a horizontal milling machine.

ii. Slot Milling: It is process to produce desired slots,

grooves and key ways using suitable cutters. Figure
illustrates groove milling operation using a side milling
cutter, which has teeth on its periphery and also on one
or both of its sides. Similarly open slots and closed slots
can be cut by using plain milling cutters and end milling
cutters respectively. T-slots and dove tail slots are cut by
using special cutters.

iii. End Milling: It is an operation of producing narrow slots,

grooves and key ways or finishing the edges of the work piece by
means of a tool called end mill. The end milling cutter may be
attached to the vertical spindle for milling the slot as shown in the
figure. The depth of cut is given by raising the machine table.

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iv. Angular milling:

Angular milling is a machining process where the cutting tool is set at an
angle to the workpiece. It is used to create angled surfaces like chamfers,
grooves, and V-shaped slots. In this process, single-angle or double-angle
cutters are used. Single-angle cutters are used for beveling, while double-
angle cutters are used for V-grooves. The workpiece is held on the milling
machine, and the cutter is positioned at the desired angle to remove material
and shape the surface. This operation is commonly used in industries for
producing parts with precise angled surfaces.

3.3 Computer Numerically Controlled(CNC) machine

A CNC (Computer Numerical Control) machine is a highly automated machine tool that uses computer
programming to control its operations. Unlike manual machines, which require direct human intervention to
control movements, CNC machines follow a program that defines the machine's movements, cutting tools, and
speeds. This allows for precision, reliability, and repeatability in producing parts, often with minimal human
input.

CNC machines can be used for a variety of operations such as milling, drilling, turning, grinding, and 3D
printing. The ability to produce complex shapes with high accuracy makes CNC machines essential in
industries such as aerospace, automotive, electronics, and medical device manufacturing. CNC machines can
be programmed using specialized software, and the design data is translated into commands that direct the
machine to execute precise cutting, shaping, or assembly processes.
Overall, CNC technology significantly improves efficiency, reduces human error, and allows for high-quality
mass production of parts.

Advantages of CNC machines

 Increased productivity.
 High accuracy and repeatability.
 Reduced production costs.
 Facilitation of complex machining operations.
 Greater flexibility.
 Improved production planning and control.
 Lower operator skill requirement.
 Facilitation of flexible automation.

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Limitations of CNC machines

 High initial cost.
 High maintenance cost.
 Not cost-effective for low production cost.
 Required trained personnel.
 It leads to unemployment

3.3.1 Types of CNC machines

i. NC machine
In Numerical controlled machine tools various functions of machine tools are controlled by letters, numbers
and symbols which are encoded on a punched paper tape. In other words “a process controlled by numbers “.
The basic elements of NC systems are as shown in fig. An NC system consists of three basic components.
a. Program of instructions
b. Machine Control Unit (MCU)
c. Machine Tool

Figure. Schematic of NC machine

a. Program of instructions
The programs or sets of instructions—including programming languages, punched cards, magnetic tapes,
punched paper tapes, and other such information-processing items—are referred to as software. This software
controls the sequence of operations performed by a Numerical Control (NC) machine. The step-by-step
instructions required to carry out the desired machining operations on a job are called the "Part Program." The
part program consists of commands that define the positions and movements of the cutting tool relative to the
workpiece. These instructions also include details such as tool selection, cutting speed, feed rate, spindle
orientation, and other relevant machining parameters.

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b. Machine Control Unit (MCU)

An NC (Numerical Control) machine tool has a main unit known as the Machine Control Unit (MCU). The set
of instructions are punched onto a control tape. A tape reader reads these codes and sends them to the MCU,
which interprets the instructions and converts them into the mechanical movements of the machine tool.
A typical Machine Control Unit consists of the following components, which read and interpret the program
instructions and convert them into precise actions of the machine tool:
 Input or Reader Unit – Reads the punched tape or other input media.
 Processor – Interprets the instructions and generates control signals.
 d) Control Panel – Allows the operator to interact with and control the machine

c. Machine Tool
Machine tool is the main components of a numerical control system, which executes the operations. The
Machine Tool is designed to perform machining operations such as drilling, milling, boring, etc. It may
consist of worktable, cutting tools, jigs and fixtures, motors for driving spindle and coolant and lubricating
system.

ii. CNC machine

Computer Numerical Control
(CNC) is an advanced form of the
NC system where the machine
control unit is a dedicated
microcomputer instead of a hard-
wired controller, as in
conventional NC.

CNC refers to a computer that is

joined to the NC machine to make
the machine versatile. Information
can be stored in a memory bank.
The programme is read from a
storage medium such as the
punched tape, magnetic medium (tape or disk) for storing programs and retrieved to the memory of the CNC
computer. This gives more flexibility for editing or saving CNC programs.
A CNC system consists of following basic elements,

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a. Part Program: The part program is written by observing the part drawing and decides the cutting process
parameters like feed, speed, depth of cut, etc.
b. Input/ output devices (Reader): The written part program is entered into the micro-computer by using
input devices like keyboard, CD, DVD, etc.
c. Memory Storage Devices: The entered program is stored in computer memory which can be recalled
whenever required. Also the program can be easily edited and modified as per the requirements.
d. MCU: The entered part program is read by the micro-computer which is the machine control unit of CNC
system. It controls all the movements of machine tool, actuation of all the drives, coolant supply, etc., of the
machine tool.
e. CNC Machine Tool: It is the place where manufacturing is done. It receives information from MCU to
perform the operation. Machine receives raw materials and performs various operations such as drilling,
milling, boring, etc. which are needed. In CNC system, all the operations like spindle start and stop, tool
positioning, tool changing, speed control, etc, are fully automatic.
f. Feedback devices: A feedback device receives signals from the machine tool and send to MCU. By using
feedback devices, the error can be easily detected and rectified.

Difference between NC and CNC machine/system

No. NC system CNC system

1 Tape reader acts as the MCU (Machine Microcomputer acts as the MCU
Control Unit)
2 Does not have memory storage. The program is stored in the memory of the
computer
3 The program is entered on the program The program of instructions is fed directly
tape in the form of punch holes. into the computer using input devices like
key board, mouse, CD.
4 Punched tape (or Magnetic tapes) needs The program once stored can be recalled
to be recycled for each product of that any number of times.
batch.
5 Tool Monitoring is not possible Tool Monitoring is possible
6 Productivity of the system is less Productivity of the system is high
7 Less flexibility Greater flexibility and computational
capability
8 Initial cost is moderate Initial cost is high.

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iii. DNC machine

A DNC (Direct Numerical Control)
machine is an advanced type of CNC
system where multiple machines are
connected to a central computer, which
directly controls their operations. Unlike
traditional CNC machines that rely on
individual part programs stored in each
machine, a DNC system allows the central
computer to send instructions directly to each machine tool in real-time.
DNC eliminates the need for punched tapes or manual program loading. The part program is stored
and managed centrally, and it can be edited, monitored, or transferred to any machine in the network. This
setup is especially useful in large-scale manufacturing environments, where it improves productivity,
consistency, and program management. DNC offers better centralized control, easier program management,
and improved efficiency compared to standalone CNC machines.

3.3.2 Applications of CNC machines

CNC (Computer Numerical Control) machines are widely used across many industries due to
their precision, repeatability, and automation capabilities. Below are some key application
areas:
a. Automotive Industry
˗ Manufacturing of engine components, transmission parts, and custom car body parts
˗ Machining of molds and dies for plastic and metal components

b. Aerospace Industry
˗ High-precision parts like turbine blades, fuselage components, and structural elements
˗ Machining of lightweight materials such as aluminum and titanium

c. Medical Industry
˗ Production of surgical instruments, implants (like knee/hip joints), and dental
components
˗ High-precision machining required for safe and reliable performance
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d. Tool and Die Making

˗ CNC is essential for making precision dies, molds, punches, and injection mold
components

e. Electronics Industry
˗ PCB (Printed Circuit Board) milling and manufacturing of small electronic parts
˗ Enclosures and connectors for electronic devices

f. Construction and Heavy Equipment

˗ Large components such as hydraulic cylinders, frames, and brackets
˗ Fabrication of custom structural elements

g. General Manufacturing
˗ Batch production of parts, mass customization, and prototyping
˗ CNC lathes, mills, and routers used for a wide variety of materials

h. Furniture and Woodworking

˗ CNC routers are used for carving, cutting, and engraving wood
˗ Production of customized furniture, cabinetry, and decorative items

i. Jewelry and Craft Industry

˗ Precision engraving and shaping of metals for rings, pendants, and custom designs
˗ Micro-machining for intricate patterns

j.Textile and Leather Industries

˗ CNC laser cutters used for precise cutting of fabrics, leather, and synthetic materials

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3.4 ROBOTICS
Robot is an automatically controlled material handling devices that are programmed to move parts, or to do
work with a tool and are widely used in manufacturing industries. Robotics is a multidisciplinary
engineering field dedicated to the development of autonomous devices, including manipulators and mobile
vehicles. Robots are generally used in high volume production systems.
The term robot was derived from Czech language in1920 which means forced labour.

Definitionof a robot: An industrial robot is a reprogrammable, multi-functional manipulator designed to move

materials, parts, tools, or special devices through variable programmed motions for the performance of a variety of
tasks.

Advantages of Industrial Robots

˗ Environmental Safety
˗ Suitable for hazardous conditions
˗ Performs repetitive tasks
˗ Low material usage.
˗ Can operate for longer periods.
˗ Can perform the operations with a very high accuracy.
˗ It can be re-programmable
˗ Reduces inspection time
˗ Reduces human error
˗ Performs multiple tasks
˗ Robotics and automation can, in many situations increase productivity, safety, efficiency, quality
and consistency of product.
˗ Robots and with their sensors can perform the activities beyond that of human.

Disadvantages of Industrial Robots:

˗ Cannot make decisions and cannot learn from experience.
˗ Reduces skilled operator and requires proper maintenance
˗ Leads to unemployment.
˗ Robots may have limited capabilities in Degrees of Freedom , Sensors , Vision system, Real time
response
˗ Robots are costly due to - Initial cost of the equipment, Installation cost, Need for peripherals, Need
for training, Need for programming.

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Applications of Industrial Robots

˗ Hazardous work environments
˗ Repetitive work cycle
˗ Consistency and accuracy
˗ Difficult handling task for humans
˗ Multi-shift operations
˗ Material transfer,
˗ Machine loading,
˗ Spot Welding,
˗ Spray painting,
˗ Processing operation,
˗ Assembly and Inspection
˗ Exploratory robots explore environments that are inhospitable to humans such as space, military
targets or areas of search and rescue operations.
˗ Assistive robots help handicapped individuals by assisting with daily tasks including wheelchair
navigation and feeding.

3.4.2 Robot anatomy

The basic anatomy of a robot consists of several key
components that work together to perform automated
tasks. The manipulator or mechanical arm is the most
visible part, made up of links and joints that provide
movement and flexibility. The end effector, attached at
the end of the arm, interacts with the environment and
can be a gripper, welding torch, or tool, depending on the
application. Robots also include actuators (such as motors or hydraulic systems) that drive the motion of
joints, and sensors that provide feedback on position, force, or vision, enabling precise control. The entire
system is coordinated by the control unit, or controller, which processes input data and sends commands
to the actuators based on programmed instructions. Together, these components form the functional
structure of an industrial robot, allowing it to mimic human tasks with speed, accuracy, and consistency.

3.4.2.1 Joints and links

In robotics, links are the rigid, interconnected segments of a robot, while joints are the movable
connections between those links, allowing for relative motion. Think of links as the individual body parts

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of the robot and joints as the connections between them, enabling bending, twisting, and overall
movement.
Links:
˗ Links are the rigid components of a robot, like the individual pieces of an arm or leg.
˗ They are designed to transmit force and motion without significant deformation.
Joints:
˗ Joints are the movable connections between links.
˗ They allow for relative motion between the connected links.
˗ Joints can be categorized into different types, such as rotational (revolute), linear (prismatic), or
other specialized joints.
˗
3.4.2.2 Types of joints in industrial robot

˗ Collinear Joint (L-Joint): A collinear joint allows linear motion along a single axis, with the input
and output links aligned in parallel. This joint is commonly used in applications requiring
straightforward translational movement, such as in SCARA robots. It provides one degree of freedom
(DOF) and is often referred to as a linear joint.

˗ Orthogonal Joint (O-Joint): An orthogonal joint enables linear motion along an axis perpendicular to
the input link. This configuration is typical in Cartesian robots, where the movement occurs along
orthogonal axes, allowing for precise positioning in three-dimensional space. It also offers one DOF
and is essential for tasks requiring accurate linear displacement. ​

˗ Rotational Joint (R-Joint): A rotational joint permits rotational movement between two links, with
the axis of rotation perpendicular to the axes of the input and output links. This type of joint is
prevalent in robotic arms, facilitating precise angular positioning. It provides one DOF and is crucial
for tasks like assembly and welding. ​

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˗ Twisting Joint (T-Joint): A twisting joint allows rotational motion where the axis of rotation is
parallel to the axes of both the input and output links. This joint is often used in robotic wrists or end-
effectors, enabling fine orientation adjustments. It offers one DOF and is vital for tasks requiring
intricate manipulation. ​

˗ Revolving Joint (V-Joint): A revolving joint facilitates rotational movement where the input link's
axis is parallel to the axis of rotation, and the output link's axis is perpendicular. This configuration is
useful in applications requiring specific rotational orientations, such as in certain robotic arms. It
provides one DOF and is essential for tasks needing controlled rotational positioning

3.4.3 Classification based on Physical configurations

Industrial robots come in a variety of shapes and sizes. They are capable of various arm manipulations
and they possess different motion systems.
Possess fourdistinct design configurations:
a. Rectangular (Or Cartesian)
b. Cylindrical (Or Post-Type)
c. Spherical (Or Polar)
d. Jointed Arm (Articulated or Revolute)

a. Cartesian / Rectangular configuration

Notation: [LOO]: Linear, Orthogonal, Orthogonal

Figure illustrates a typical Cartesian configuration
robot. Cartesian configuration is also called as
Rectilinear or Rectangular configuration as the
joints allow only translational or linear relative
motion between the adjacent links of the joint. A
robot using such a configuration is called as X-Y-Z robot. Other names are xyz robot or Rectilinear robot
or Gantry robot. Any point in X, Y and Z coordinate system can be reached using this configuration. By
appropriate movements of these slides, the robot is capable of moving its arm at any point within its three
dimensional rectangular spaced work space.
Advantages:
˗ High degree of mechanical rigidity, accuracy and repeatability.
˗ Easy to visualize motion and easy to program the motions
˗ Can carry Heavy Loads.

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Disadvantages:
˗ The arm Movement is limited to a small rectangular work space.
˗ Occupies large area.
˗ Difficult to protect the sliding axes from contaminants such as dust and moisture as it is
open.
Applications:
˗ Adapted in gantry crane and CNC milling machines.
˗ Used for machine loading and unloading

b. Cylindrical / Post-Type configuration:

Notation: [TLO]: Twisting, Linear and Orthogonal

Position is specified by Y value (height) extension of arm X
axis and angle of rotation of Z axis.
This also has 3 degrees of freedom, 2 prismatic and 1 revolute
joints. It moves linearly along X and Y axes and rotation about
at its base i.e. Z- axis. The robot body is a vertical column that
swivels about a vertical axis. The arm consists of several
orthogonal slides which allow the arm to be moved up or down
and in and out with respect to the body. This is illustrated
schematically in figure.
Advantages:
˗ Large work space than Cartesian configuration.
˗ Operate within a cylindrical work volume
˗ Easy to visualize motion and easy to program the motions

Disadvantages:
˗ Overall Mechanical rigidity is reduced, because rotary axis overcome the inertia of the
object when rotating.
˗ Robot’s repeatability and accuracy is also reduced in the direction of rotary movement.
˗ More sophisticated control system than Cartesian configuration.

Applications:
˗ Recommended for pick and place operation such as machine loading and unloading.
˗ Forging applications.
˗ Coating and assembly operations.

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c. Spherical / Polar configuration:

Notation: [LTR]: Linear, Twisting and

Rotational joint
This configuration also called as Polar

coordinate configuration. It goes by the name

“spherical coordinate” also because the

workspace within which it can move its arm is a

partial sphere as shown in figure. The robot has

a rotary base and a pivot that can be used to

raise and lower a telescoping arm. First motion

is a base rotation, Second motion correspond to an elbow rotation and Third motion is radial or in-out

motion.

Advantages:
˗ Operate within a spherical work volume
˗ Large work space than cylindrical or Cartesian configuration.
˗ Easy to visualize motion and easy to program the motions

Disadvantages:
˗ Overall Mechanical rigidity is reduced, because rotary axis overcome the inertia of the
object when rotating.
˗ More sophisticated control system than cylindrical or Cartesian configuration.
˗ Limited Vertical movement.

Applications:
˗ Recommended for machine tool press loading and unloading.
˗ Forging applications.
˗ Material transfer applications.

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d. Revolute / Articulate / Jointed-arm configuration:

Notation: [TRR]: Twisting, Rotational and

Rotational joint
It is combination of cylindrical and articulated
configurations. This is similar in appearance to
the human arm, as shown in fig. the arm
consists of several straight members connected
by joints which are analogous to the human
shoulder, elbow, and wrist. The robot arm is
mounted to a base which can be rotated to
provide the robot with the capacity to work
within a quasi-spherical space.
Advantages:
˗ Operate within a quasi-spherical l work volume
˗ Large work space.
˗ Versatile configuration.

Disadvantages:
˗ Difficult to calculate angular motion of the axis for a given top or end motion.
˗ Requires complex programming.
˗ Less stable, as the arm approaches maximum reach.

Applications:
˗ Recommended for pick and place operations involving light parts.
˗ Welding and painting applications.
˗ Automatic assembly operations

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