296 (5-40) Chapter 5 Exponents and Polynomials

where a2 is the area of the square base, b 2 is the area of the 88. Egyptian pyramid formula. Rewrite the formula of the
square top, and H is the distance from the base to the top. previous exercise so that the denominator contains the
Find the volume of a truncated pyramid that has a base of number 3 only.
900 square meters, a top of 400 square meters, and a height H(a2  ab  b2)
H of 10 meters. V  
3
6,333.3 cubic meters
GET TING MORE INVOLVED
b b 89. Discussion. On a test a student divided
3x3  5x2  3x  7 by x  3 and got a quotient of
3x2  4x and remainder 9x  7. Verify that the divisor
H times the quotient plus the remainder is equal to the divi-
dend. Why was the student’s answer incorrect?
90. Exploration. Use synthetic division to find the quotient
when x 5  1 is divided by x  1 and the quotient when
a x 6  1 is divided by x  1. Observe the pattern in the first
a
two quotients and then write the quotient for x 9  1
FIGURE FOR EXERCISE 87 divided by x  1 without dividing.

5.6 FACTORING POLYNOMIALS

In Section 5.5 you learned that a polynomial could be factored by using division:
In this If we know one factor of a polynomial, then we can use it as a divisor to obtain the
section other factor, the quotient. However, this technique is not very practical because the
division process can be somewhat tedious, and it is not easy to obtain a factor to
● Factoring Out the Greatest use as the divisor. In this section and the next two sections we will develop better
Common Factor (GCF)
techniques for factoring polynomials. These techniques will be used for solving
● Factoring Out the Opposite equations and problems in the last section of this chapter.
of the GCF
● Factoring the Difference of Factoring Out the Greatest Common Factor (GCF)
Two Squares
● Factoring Perfect Square
A natural number larger than 1 that has no factors other than itself and 1 is called a
Trinomials prime number. The numbers
● Factoring a Difference or 2, 3, 5, 7, 11, 13, 17, 19, 23
Sum of Two Cubes are the first nine prime numbers. There are infinitely many prime numbers.
● Factoring a Polynomial To factor a natural number completely means to write it as a product of prime
Completely numbers. In factoring 12 we might write 12  4  3. However, 12 is not factored
● Factoring by Substitution completely as 4  3 because 4 is not a prime. To factor 12 completely, we write
12  2  2  3 (or 22  3).
We use the distributive property to multiply a monomial and a binomial:
6x(2x  1)  12x 2  6x
If we start with 12x 2  6x, we can use the distributive property to get
12x 2  6x  6x(2x  1).
We have factored out 6x, which is a common factor of 12x 2 and 6x. We could
have factored out just 3 to get
12x 2  6x  3(4x 2  2x),
but this would not be factoring out the greatest common factor. The greatest com-
mon factor (GCF) is a monomial that includes every number or variable that is a
factor of all of the terms of the polynomial.
 5.6 Factoring Polynomials (5-41) 297

We can use the following strategy for finding the greatest common factor of a
group of terms.

Strategy for Finding the Greatest Common Factor (GCF)

1. Factor each term completely.

2. Write a product using each factor that is common to all of the terms.
3. On each of these factors, use an exponent equal to the smallest exponent
that appears on that factor in any of the terms.

E X A M P L E 1 The greatest common factor

Find the greatest common factor (GCF) for each group of terms.
a) 8x 2y, 20xy 3 b) 30a2, 45a3b2, 75a4b
Solution
a) First factor each term completely:
8x 2y  23x 2y
20xy3  22  5xy3
The factors common to both terms are 2, x, and y. In the GCF we use the smallest
exponent that appears on each factor in either of the terms. So the GCF is 22xy
or 4xy.
b) First factor each term completely:
30a2  2  3  5a2
45a3b2  32  5a3b2
75a4b  3  52a4b
The GCF is 3  5a 2 or 15a 2. ■

To factor out the GCF from a polynomial, find the GCF for the terms, then use
the distributive property to factor it out.

E X A M P L E 2 Factoring out the greatest common factor

Factor each polynomial by factoring out the GCF.
a) 5x 4  10x 3  15x 2 b) 8xy2  20x 2y c) 60x 5  24x 3  36x 2
Solution
study tip a) First factor each term completely:
Everyone has a different atten-
5x 4  5x 4, 10x 3  2  5x 3, 15x 2  3  5x 2.
tion span. Start by studying The GCF of the three terms is 5x . Now factor 5x 2 out of each term:
2

10 to 15 minutes at a time and 5x 4  10x 3  15x 2  5x 2(x 2  2x  3)

then build up to longer peri-
ods over time. In your senior b) The GCF for 8xy 2 and 20x 2y is 4xy:
year you should be able to 8xy2  20x 2y  4xy(2y  5x)
concentrate on one task for 30 c) First factor each coefficient in 60x 5  24x 3  36x 2 :
to 45 minutes without a break.
Be realistic. When you cannot 60  22  3  5, 24  23  3, 36  22  32.
remember what you have The GCF of the three terms is 22  3x 2 or 12x 2 :
read and can no longer con-
60x 5  24x 3  36x 2  12x 2(5x 3  2x  3) ■
centrate, take a break.
In the next example the common factor in each term is a binomial.
298 (5-42) Chapter 5 Exponents and Polynomials

E X A M P L E 3 Factoring out a binomial

Factor.
a) (x  3)w  (x  3)a b) x(x  9)  4(x  9)
Solution
a) We treat x  3 like a common monomial when factoring:
(x  3)w  (x  3)a  (x  3)(w  a)
b) Factor out the common binomial x  9:
x(x  9)  4(x  9)  (x  4)(x  9) ■

Factoring Out the Opposite of the GCF

The GCF, the greatest common factor, for 6x 2  4x is 2x, but we can factor out
either 2x or its opposite, 2x:
6x 2  4x  2x(3x  2)
 2x(3x  2)
In Example 8 of this section it will be necessary to factor out the opposite of
the GCF.

E X A M P L E 4 Factoring out the opposite of the GCF

Factor out the GCF, then factor out the opposite of the GCF.
a) 5x  5y b) x 2  3 c) x 3  3x 2  5x
Solution
a) 5x  5y  5(x  y) Factor out 5.
 5(x  y) Factor out 5.
b) x  3  1(x 2  3) The GCF is 1.
2

 1(x 2  3) Factor out 1.

c) x  3x 2  5x  x(x 2  3x  5)
3
Factor out x.
 x(x 2  3x  5) Factor out x. ■

Factoring the Difference of Two Squares

A first-degree polynomial in one variable, such as 3x  5, is called a linear poly-
nomial. (The equation 3x  5  0 is a linear equation.)

Linear Polynomial
If a and b are real numbers with a  0, then ax  b is called a linear
helpful hint polynomial.
The prefix “quad” means four.
So why is a polynomial of A second-degree polynomial such as x 2  5x  6 is called a quadratic polynomial.
three terms called quadratic?
Perhaps it is because a qua-
Quadratic Polynomial
dratic polynomial can often
be factored into a product of If a, b, and c are real numbers with a  0, then ax 2  bx  c is called a
two binomials. quadratic polynomial.
 5.6 Factoring Polynomials (5-43) 299

One of the main goals of this chapter is to write a quadratic polynomial (when
possible) as a product of linear factors.
Consider the quadratic polynomial x 2  25. We recognize that x 2  25 is a dif-
ference of two squares, x 2  52. We recall that the product of a sum and a difference
is a difference of two squares: (a  b)(a  b)  a 2  b 2. If we reverse this special
product rule, we get a rule for factoring the difference of two squares.

Factoring the Difference of Two Squares

a 2  b2  (a  b)(a  b)

The difference of two squares factors as the product of a sum and a difference. To
factor x 2  25, we replace a by x and b by 5 to get

x 2  25  (x  5)(x  5).

This equation expresses a quadratic polynomial as a product of two linear factors.

E X A M P L E 5 Factoring the difference of two squares

Factor each polynomial.
a) y2  36 b) 9x 2  1 c) 4x 2  y2

Solution
Each of these binomials is a difference of two squares. Each binomial factors into a
helpful hint product of a sum and a difference.
Using the power of a power a) y2  36  ( y  6)( y  6) We could also write ( y  6)(y  6) because
rule, we can see that any even the factors can be written in any order.
power is a perfect square: b) 9x  1  (3x  1)(3x  1)
2

x 2n  (x n )2 c) 4x 2  y2  (2x  y)(2x  y) ■

Factoring Perfect Square Trinomials

The trinomial that results from squaring a binomial is called a perfect square
trinomial. We can reverse the rules from Section 5.4 for the square of a sum or a
difference to get rules for factoring.

Factoring Perfect Square Trinomials

a2  2ab  b2  (a  b)2
a2  2ab  b2  (a  b)2

Consider the polynomial x 2  6x  9. If we recognize that

x 2  6x  9  x 2  2  x  3  32,

then we can see that it is a perfect square trinomial. It fits the rule if a  x and b  3:

x 2  6x  9  (x  3)2
Perfect square trinomials can be identified by using the following strategy.
300 (5-44) Chapter 5 Exponents and Polynomials

Strategy for Identifying Perfect Square Trinomials

A trinomial is a perfect square trinomial if

1. the first and last terms are of the form a2 and b2,
2. the middle term is 2 or 2 times the product of a and b.

We use this strategy in the next example.

E X A M P L E 6 Factoring perfect square trinomials

Factor each polynomial.
a) x 2  8x  16 b) a2  14a  49 c) 4x 2  12x  9
Solution
a) Because the first term is x2, the last is 42, and 2(x)(4) is equal to the middle term
8x, the trinomial x2  8x  16 is a perfect square trinomial:
x 2  8x  16  (x  4)2
b) Because 49  72 and 14a  2(a)(7), we have a perfect square trinomial:
a2  14a  49  (a  7)2
c) Because 4x  (2x) , 9  32, and the middle term 12x is equal to 2(2x)(3), the
2 2

trinomial 4x 2  12x  9 is a perfect square trinomial:

4x 2  12x  9  (2x  3)2 ■

Factoring a Difference or a Sum of Two Cubes

In Example 6 of Section 5.5 we divided a3  b3 by a  b to get the quotient
a2  ab  b2 and no remainder. So a  b is a factor of a3  b3, a difference of
two cubes. If you divide a3  b3 by a  b, you will get the quotient
a2  ab  b2 and no remainder. Try it. So a  b is a factor of a3  b3, a sum of
two cubes. These results give us two more factoring rules.

Factoring a Difference or a Sum of Two Cubes

a3  b3  (a  b)(a2  ab  b2)
a3  b3  (a  b)(a2  ab  b2)

E X A M P L E 7 Factoring a difference or a sum of two cubes

Factor each polynomial.
a) x 3  8 b) y3  1 c) 8z3  27
Solution
a) Because 8  23, we can use the formula for factoring the difference of two
cubes. In the formula a3  b3  (a  b)(a2  ab  b2), let a  x and b  2:
x 3  8  (x  2)(x 2  2x  4)
b) y3  1  y3  13 Recognize a sum of two cubes.
 ( y  1)(y  y  1) Let a  y and b  1 in the formula
2
for the sum of two cubes.
 5.6 Factoring Polynomials (5-45) 301

c) 8z3  27  (2z)3  33 Recognize a difference of two cubes.

 (2z  3)(4z2  6z  9) Let a  2z and b  3 in the formula
for a difference of two cubes. ■

Factoring a Polynomial Completely

Polynomials that cannot be factored are called prime polynomials. Because bino-
mials such as x  5, a  6, and 3x  1 cannot be factored, they are prime polyno-
mials. A polynomial is factored completely when it is written as a product of prime
polynomials. To factor completely, always factor out the GCF (or its opposite) first.
Then continue to factor until all of the factors are prime.

E X A M P L E 8 Factoring completely
Factor each polynomial completely.
a) 5x 2  20 b) 3a3  30a2  75a c) 2b4  16b
Solution
a) 5x 2  20  5(x 2  4) Greatest common factor
 5(x  2)(x  2) Difference of two squares
b) 3a3  30a2  75a  3a(a2  10a  25) Greatest common factor
 3a(a  5)2 Perfect square trinomial
c) 2b  16b  2b(b  8)
4 3
Factor out 2b to make
the next step easier.
 2b(b  2)(b  2b  4)
2
Difference of two cubes ■

Factoring by Substitution
So far, the polynomials that we have factored, without common factors, have all
been of degree 2 or 3. Some polynomials of higher degree can be factored by sub-
stituting a single variable for a variable with a higher power. After factoring, we
replace the single variable by the higher-power variable. This method is called
substitution.

E X A M P L E 9 Factoring by substitution
Factor each polynomial.
a) x 4  9 b) y8  14y4  49
Solution
a) We recognize x4  9 as a difference of two squares in which x 4  (x 2)2 and
9  32. If we let w  x 2, then w 2  x 4. So we can replace x 4 by w 2 and factor:
x4  9  w2  9 Replace x 4 by w 2.
 (w  3)(w  3) Difference of two squares
helpful hint
 (x 2  3)(x 2  3) Replace w by x 2.
It is not actually necessary to
b) We recognize y8  14y4  49 as a perfect square trinomial in which y8  ( y 4)2
perform the substitution step.
If you can recognize that
and 49  72. We let w  y4 and w2  y8:
x4  9  (x 2  3)(x 2  3) y8  14y4  49  w2  14w  49 Replace y4 by w and y8 by w 2.
then skip the substitution.  (w  7)2 Perfect square trinomial
 ( y  7)
4 2
Replace w by y4. ■
302 (5-46) Chapter 5 Exponents and Polynomials

CAUTION The polynomials that we factor by substitution must contain

just the right powers of the variable. We can factor y8  14y4  49 because
( y4)2  y8, but we cannot factor y7  14y4  49 by substitution.

In the next example we use substitution to factor polynomials that have

variables as exponents.

E X A M P L E 1 0 Polynomials with variable exponents

Factor completely. The variables used in the exponents represent positive integers.
a) x 2m  y2 b) z 2n1  6z n1  9z
Solution
a) Notice that x 2m  (x m)2. So if we let w  x m, then w 2  x 2m:
x 2m  y 2  w 2  y 2 Substitution
 (w  y)(w  y) Difference of two squares
 (x  y)(x  y) Replace w by x m.
m m

b) First factor out the common factor z:

z 2n1  6z n1  9z  z(z2n  6z n  9)
 z (a 2  6a  9) Let a  z n.
 z (a  3)2 Perfect square trinomial
 z (z  3)
n 2
Replace a by z n. ■

WARM-UPS
True or false? Explain your answer.
1. For the polynomial 3x 2y  6xy2 we can factor out either 3xy or 3xy. True
2. The greatest common factor for the polynomial 8a3  15b2 is 1. True
3. 2x  4  2(2  x) for any value of x. True
4. x 2  16  (x  4)(x  4) for any value of x. True
5. The polynomial x 2  6x  36 is a perfect square trinomial. False
6. The polynomial y 2  16 is a perfect square trinomial. False
7. 9x 2  21x  49  (3x  7)2 for any value of x. False
8. The polynomial x  1 is a factor of x 3  1. True
9. x 3  27  (x  3)(x 2  6x  9) for any value of x. False
10. x 3  8  (x  2)3 for any value of x. False

5.6 EXERCISES
Reading and Writing After reading this section, write out the 3. What is the greatest common factor for the terms of a
answers to these questions. Use complete sentences. polynomial?
The greatest common factor for the terms of a polynomial
1. What is a prime number?
is a monomial that includes every number or variable that is
A prime number is a natural number greater than 1 that has
a factor of all of the terms of the polynomial.
no factors other than itself and 1.
4. What are the two ways to factor out the greatest common
2. When is a natural number factored completely? factor?
A natural number is factored completely when it is The greatest common factor can be factored out with a
expressed as a product of prime numbers. positive coefficient or a negative coefficient.
 5.6 Factoring Polynomials (5-47) 303

5. What is a linear polynomial? 39. 9x 2  25a 2 (3x  5a)(3x  5a)

A linear polynomial is a polynomial of the form ax  b 40. 121a2  b2 (11a  b)(11a  b)
with a  0.
41. 144w 2z2  1 (12wz  1)(12wz  1)
6. What is a quadratic polynomial?
42. x 2y 2  9c2 (xy  3c)(xy  3c)
A quadratic polynomial is a polynomial of the form
ax2  bx  c with a  0. Factor each polynomial. See Example 6.
7. What is a prime polynomial? 43. x 2  20x  100 (x  10)2
A prime polynomial is a polynomial that cannot be 44. y 2  10y  25 (y  5)2
factored. 45. 4m2  4m  1 (2m  1)2
8. When is a polynomial factored completely? 46. 9t 2  30t  25 (3t  5)2
A polynomial is factored completely when it is expressed 47. w 2  2wt  t 2 (w  t)2
as a product of prime polynomials.
48. 4r 2  20rt  25t 2 (2r  5t)2
Find the greatest common factor for each group of terms. See
Factor. See Example 7.
Example 1.
9. 48, 36x 12 49. a 3  1 (a  1)(a 2  a  1)
10. 42a, 28a2 14a 50. w 3  1 (w  1)(w 2  w  1)
11. 9wx, 21wy, 15xy 3 51. w 3  27 (w  3)(w 2  3w  9)
12. 70x 2, 84x, 42x 3 14x 52. x 3  64 (x  4)(x 2  4x  16)
13. 24x 2y, 42xy2, 66xy3 6xy 53. 8x 3  1 (2x  1)(4x 2  2x  1)
14. 60a2b5, 140a9b2, 40a3b6 20a2b2 54. 27x 3  1 (3x  1)(9x 2  3x  1)
Factor out the greatest common factor in each expression. See 55. a 3  8 (a  2)(a2  2a  4)
Examples 2 and 3. 56. m 3  8 (m  2)(m2  2m  4)
15. x 3  5x x(x 2  5) Factor each polynomial completely. See Example 8.
16. 10x 2  20y3 10(x 2  2y3) 57. 2x 2  8 2(x  2)(x  2)
17. 48wx  36wy 12w(4x  3y) 58. 3x 3  27x 3x(x  3)(x  3)
18. 42wz  28wa 14w(3z  2a) 59. x 3  10x 2  25x x(x  5)2
19. 2x 3  4x 2  6x 2x(x 2  2x  3) 60. 5a 4m  45a 2m 5a2m(a  3)(a  3)
20. 6x 3  12x 2  18x 6x(x 2  2x  3) 61. 4x 2  4x  1 (2x  1)2
21. 36a 3b6  24a4b2  60a 5b3 12a3b2(3b4  2a  5a2b) 62. ax 2  8ax  16a a(x  4)2
22. 44x 8y6z  110x 6y 9z2 22x 6y 6z(2x 2  5y3z) 63. (x  3)x  (x  3)7 (x  3)(x  7)
23. (x  6)a  (x  6)b (x  6)(a  b) 64. (x  2)x  (x  2)5 (x  2)(x  5)
24. (y  4)3  ( y  4)b ( y  4)(3  b) 65. 6y 2  3y 3y(2y  1)
25. (y  1)2 y  ( y  1)2z (y  1)2( y  z) 66. 4y 2  y y(4y  1)
26. (w  2)2  w  (w  2)2  3 (w  2)2(w  3) 67. 4x 2  20x  25 (2x  5)2
Factor out the greatest common factor, then factor out the 68. a 3x 3  6a 2x 2  9ax ax(ax  3)2
opposite of the greatest common factor. See Example 4.
69. 2m 4  2mn 3 2m(m  n)(m2  mn  n2)
27. 2x  2y 2(x  y), 2(x  y)
70. 5x 3y 2  y 5 y 2(5x 3  y 3)
28. 3x  6 3(x  2), 3(x  2)
71. (2x  3)x  (2x  3)2 (2x  3)(x  2)
29. 6x 2  3x 3x(2x  1), 3x(2x  1)
72. (2x  1)x  (2x  1)3 (2x  1)(x  3)
30. 10x 2  5x 5x(2x  1), 5x(2x  1)
73. 9a 3  aw 2 a(3a  w)(3a  w)
31. w3  3w 2 w 2(w  3), w 2(w  3)
74. 2bn 2  4b 2n  2b3 2b(n  b)2
32. 2w4  6w 3 2w 3(w  3), 2w 3(w  3)
75. 5a 2  30a  45 5(a  3)2
33. a 3  a 2  7a a(a 2  a  7), a(a 2  a  7)
76. 2x 2  50 2(x  5)(x  5)
34. 2a 4  4a 3  6a 2
2a2(a2  2a  3), 2a2(a2  2a  3) 77. 16  54x 3 2(2  3x)(4  6x  9x 2)
Factor each polynomial. See Example 5. 78. 27x 2y  64x 2y 4 x 2y(3  4y)(9  12y  16y 2)
35. x 2  100 (x  10)(x  10) 79. 3y 3  18y 2  27y 3y(y  3)2
36. 81  y 2 (9  y)(9  y) 80. 2m 2n  8mn  8n 2n(m  2)2
37. 4y 2  49 (2y  7)(2y  7) 81. 7a 2b 2  7 7(ab  1)(ab  1)
38. 16b2  1 (4b  1)(4b  1) 82. 17a2  17a 17a(a  1)
304 (5-48) Chapter 5 Exponents and Polynomials

Factor each polynomial completely. See Example 9. c) Use the accompanying graph to estimate the height of a
83. x  9
10
(x  3)(x  3)
5 5 cage for which the volume is 20,000 cubic inches.
a) b  3 b) 4,050 cubic inches (in.3)
84. y8  4 ( y4  2)(y4  2)
c) 30 inches
85. z12  6z6  9 (z6  3)2
86. a  10a  25
6 3
(a 3  5)2
87. 2x7  8x 4  8x 2x(x 3  2)2

(in thousands of cubic inches)

50
88. x13  6x7  9x x(x6  3)2
40
89. 4x 5  4x 3  x x(2x 2  1)2

Volume
90. 18x 6  24x 3  8 2(3x 3  2)2 30
91. x  8
6
(x  2)(x  2x  4)
2 4 2
20
92. y6  27 ( y2  3)(y4  3y2  9)
10
93. 2x 9  16 2(x 3  2)(x6  2x 3  4)
94. x13  x x(x 4  1)(x 8  x 4  1) 0
0 10 20 30 40 50
Factor each polynomial completely. The variables used as Height of cage
exponents represent positive integers. See Example 10. (in inches)

95. a 2n  1 (a n  1)(a n  1) FIGURE FOR EXERCISE 115

96. b  9
4n
(b 2n  3)(b2n  3)
97. a2r  6a r  9 (ar  3)2 116. Pyramid power. A powerful crystal pyramid has a square
98. u  4u  4
6n 3n
(u3n  2)2 base and a volume of 3y 3  12y 2  12y cubic centime-
99. x 3m  8 (x m  2)(x 2m  2x m  4) ters. If its height is y centimeters, then what polynomial
represents the length of a side of the square base? The
100. y  1
3n
(yn  1)( y2n  yn  1)
volume of a pyramid with a square base of area
101. a 3m  b3 (a m  b)(a2m  a mb  b2) ha2
a2 and height h is given by V  .
102. r 3m
 8t 3
(r m  2t)(r 2m  2r mt  4t2) 3y  6 centimeters
3

103. k 2w 1  10k w1  25k k(k w  5)2

104. 4a 2t1
 4a t1
a a(2a t  1)2
105. uv6k  2u2v4k  u3v 2k uv 2k(v 2k  u)2
106. u v  2u v
3m n 2m 2n
u v m 3n
u mv n(u m  v n)2 y
Replace k in each trinomial by a number that makes the
trinomial a perfect square trinomial.
107. x 2  6x  k 9 108. y 2  8y  k 16
109. 4a  ka  25
2
20 110. 9u  kuv  49v 2
2
42
111. km  24m  9
2
16 112. kz 2  40z  16 25 FIGURE FOR EXERCISE 116
113. 81y 2  180y  k 100 114. 36a 2  60a  k 25
Solve each problem. GET TING MORE INVOLVED
115. Volume of a bird cage. A company makes rectangular
117. Cooperative learning. List the perfect square trinomials
shaped bird cages with height b inches and square bottoms.
corresponding to (x  1)2, (x  2)2, (x  3)2, . . .,
The volume of these cages is given by the function
(x  12)2. Use your list to quiz a classmate. Read a per-
V  b3  6b2  9b. fect square trinomial at random from your list and ask
a) What is the length of a side of the square bottom? your classmate to write its factored form. Repeat until
b) Use the function to find the volume of a cage with a both of you have mastered these 12 perfect square
height of 18 inches. trinomials.