MA24103- Module-IV

Complex Analysis
 Complex Numbers
DEFINITION
Complex Number
A complex number is any number of the z = a + ib
where a and b are real numbers and i is the imaginary
units.
❖z = x + iy, the real number x is called the real part and
y is called the imaginary part:
Re(z) = x, Im(z) = y
 Sets in the Complex Plane
Terminology
z = x + iy, z0 = x0 + iy0
z − z0 = ( x − x0 ) 2 + ( y − y0 ) 2

If z satisfies |z – z0| = , this point lies on a circle of

radius  centered at the point z0.
Examples:
(a) |z| = 1 is the equation of a unit circle centered at the origin.
(b) b) |z – 1 – 2i|= 5 is the equation of a circle of radius 5
centered at 1 + 2i.
❖If z satisfies |z – z0| < , this point lies within (not on)
a circle of radius  centered at the point z0. The set is
called a neighborhood of z0, or an open disk.
❖A point z0 is an interior point of a set S if there exists
some neighborhood of z0 that lies entirely within S.
❖If every point of S is an interior point then S is an
open set.
 Functions of a Complex Variable

❖Complex Functions
Let S be a set of complex numbers z. A function f
defined on S is a rule that assigns to every z in S a
complex number “w” called the value of f at z
w = f(z)= u+iv= u(z) + iv(z) = u(x,y) + iv(x,y) (1)
where u and v are real-valued functions.
Also, w = f(z) can be interpreted as a mapping or
transformation from the z-plane to the w-plane. See
Fig-1.
Fig 1
 DEFINITION
Limit of a Function
Suppose the function f is defined in some neighborhood
of z0, except possibly at z0 itself. Then f is said to
possess a limit at z0, written
lim f ( z ) = L
z → z0

if, for each  > 0, there exists a  > 0 such that

f ( z ) − L   whenever 0  | z − z0 |   .
 DEFINITION
Continuous Function

A function f is continuous at a point z0 if

lim f ( z ) = f ( z0 )
z → z0

❖A function f defined by
f ( z ) = an z n + an−1 z n−1 +  + a2 z 2 + a1 z + a0 , an  0 (2)
where n is a nonnegative integer and ai, i = 0, 1, 2, …,
n, are complex constants, is called a polynomial of
degree n.
 DEFINITION
Derivative
Suppose the complex function f is defined in a
neighborhood of a point z0. The derivative of f at z0 is
f ( z0 + z ) − f ( z0 )
f ( z0 ) = lim
z →0 z (3)
provided this limit exists.
❖If the limit in (3) exists, f is said to be differentiable at
z0. Also,
if f is differentiable at z0, then f is continuous at z0.
Example : Show that f(z) = z2 is differentiable for all z
 Example
2
z
Differentiate (a ) f ( z ) = 3 z −5 z +2 z , (b) f ( z ) =
4 3
.
4z + 1

Solution
(a) f '( z ) = 12 z 3 − 15 z 2 + 2
(4 z + 1)2 z − z 4 4 z + 2 z
2 2
(b) f '( z ) = =
(4 z + 1) 2
(4 z + 1) 2
 Example
Show that f(z) = x + 4iy is nowhere differentiable.
Solution
With z = x + iy, we have
f ( z + z ) − f ( z )
= ( x + x) + 4i ( y + y ) − x − 4iy
And so
f ( z + z ) − f ( z ) x + 4iy
lim = lim (a)
z →0 z z →0 x + iy
 Example Cont…
Now if we let z→0 along a line parallel to the x-axis
then y=0 and the value of (a) is 1.
On the other hand, if we let z→0 along a line parallel
to the y-axis then x=0 and the value of (a) is 4.
Therefore f(z) is not differentiable at any point z.
 DEFINITION
Analyticity at a Point

A complex function w = f(z) is said to be analytic at

a point z0 if f is differentiable at z0 and at every point
in some neighborhood of z0.

DEFINITION Entire Function

A function is analytic at every point z is said to be
an entire function. Polynomial functions are entire
functions.
 Cauchy-Riemann Equations
THEOREM
Cauchy-Riemann Equations
Suppose f(z) = u(x, y) + iv(x, y) is differentiable at a
point z = x + iy. Then at z the first-order partial
derivatives of u and v exists and satisfy the
Cauchy-Riemann equations (C R Equation)
u v u v
= and =− (1)
x y y x
REMARK

If f(z) does not satisfy C R equation then it will not analytic.

 Example
❖The polynomial f(z) = z2 + z is analytic for all z and
f(z) = x2 − y2 + x + i(2xy + y). Thus u = x2 − y2 + x, v
= 2xy + y. We can see that
u v
= 2x + 1 =
x y
u v
= −2 y = −
y x
 Example
Show that f(z) = (2x2 + y) + i(y2 – x) is not analytic at
any point.
Solution u v
= 4 x and = 2y
x y
u v
= 1 and = −1
y x
We see that u/y = −v/x but u/x = v/y is
satisfied only on the line y = 2x. However, for any z on
this line, there is no neighborhood or open disk about z
in which f is differentiable. We conclude that f is
nowhere analytic.
 THEOREM
Criterion for Analyticity
Suppose the real-valued function u(x, y) and v(x, y) are
continuous and have continuous first-order partial
derivatives in a domain D. If u and v satisfy the
Cauchy-Riemann equations at all points of D, then the
complex function f(z) = u(x, y) + iv(x, y) is analytic in D.
 Example
x y
For the equation f ( z ) = 2 −i 2 , we have
x +y 2
x +y 2

u y 2 − x2 v
= 2 =
x ( x + y ) 2 2
y
u 2 xy v
=− 2 =−
y (x + y ) 2 2
x
That is, the Cauchy-Riemann equations are satisfied
except at the point x2 + y2 = 0, that is z = 0. We
conclude that f is analytic in any domain not containing
the point z = 0.
❖ we can calculate f '(z) by,
u v v u
f ( z ) = + i = − i
x x y y
This is a formula to compute f '(z) if f(z) is
differentiable at the point z.
Example
𝐴𝑙𝑜𝑛𝑔 the line y = x
𝑥𝑦 2 𝑥3
𝑓(𝑧) − 𝑓(0) 𝑥2 + 𝑦2 2 1
lim = lim = lim 2𝑥 =
𝑧→0 𝑧−0 𝑧→0 𝑥 + 𝑦𝑖 𝑥→0 𝑥 + 𝑥𝑖 2(1 + 𝑖)
𝑦=𝑥 𝑦=𝑥
ℎ𝑜𝑤𝑒𝑣𝑒𝑟 along y = 0
𝑥𝑦 2
𝑓(𝑧) − 𝑓(0) 𝑥2 + 𝑦2 0
lim = lim = lim = 0
𝑧→0 𝑧−0 𝑧→0 𝑥 + 𝑦𝑖 𝑥→0 𝑥
𝑦=0 𝑦=0
Remark
 DEFINITION
Harmonic Functions
A real-valued function (x, y) that has continuous
second-order partial derivatives in a domain D and
satisfies Laplace’s equation is said to be harmonic in D.

THEOREM
A Source of Harmonic Functions
Suppose f(z) = u(x, y) + iv(x, y) is analytic in a domain D.
Then the functions u(x, y) and v(x, y) are harmonic
functions.
 THEOREM Proof:
Proof we assume u and v have continuous second order derivative
u v u v
= , = − , then
x y y x
 2u  2 v  2u  2v
= and =−
x 2
xy y 2
yx
 2u  2u
Thus + 2 =0
x y
2

Similarly we have

 2v  2v
+ 2 =0
x y
2
 Harmonic Conjugate Functions
❖

❖If u and v are harmonic in D, and f(z)=u(x,y)+iv(x,y)

is an analytic function in D, then u and v are called
the conjugate harmonic function of each other.
Example
 Example
(a) Verify u(x, y) = x3 – 3xy2 – 5y is harmonic in the
entire complex plane.
(b) Find the conjugate harmonic function of u.
Solution
u  2
u u  2
u
(a) = 3 x − 3 y , 2 = 6 x,
2 2
= −6 xy − 5, 2 = −6 x
x x y y
 2u  2u
+ 2 = 6x − 6x = 0
x y
2
 Example Cont…
v u v u
(b) = = 3 x − 3 y and
2 2
=− = 6xy + 5
y x x y
Integrating the first one, v( x, y ) = 3 x 2 y − y 3 + h( x)
v
and = 6 xy + h' ( x), h' ( x) = 5, h( x) = 5 x + C
x
Thus v( x,y ) = 3 x 2 y − y 3 + 5 x + C
DEFINITION
Exponential Functions

x + iy
e =e
z
= e (cos y + i sin y )
x
 DEFINITION
Trigonometric Sine and Cosine
For any complex number z = x + iy,
eiz − e −iz eiz + e −iz
sin z = cos z =
2i 2
❖Four additional trigonometric functions:
sin z 1
tan z = , cot z = ,
cos z tan z
1 1
sec z = , csc z =
cos z sin z
 DEFINITION
Hyperbolic Sine and Cosine
For any complex number z = x + iy,
e z − e− z e z + e− z
sinh z = cosh z =
2 2
❖Additional functions are defined as
sinh z 1
tanh z = coth z =
cosh z tanh z
1 1
sec h z = csc h z =
cosh z sinh z
Integration in the Complex Plane
❖ Contour Integrals
❖ Cauchy-Goursat Theorem
❖ Independence of Path
❖ Cauchy’s Integral Formulas
 Simple, simple closed, smooth, piecewise smooth curves

A curve C in the complex plane is:

i) Simple if it does not cross itself;
ii) Simple closed if z(a) = z(b) (C is anticlockwise);
iii) Smooth if it has a unique tangent at each point;
iv) Piecewise smooth if it consists of a finite number of smooth
curves joined end to end.

A region R is connected if every two points of R can be connected

by a curve in R.
A connected region R in the complex plane is simply-connected if
every simple closed curve in R encloses only points of R. Otherwise
the region is multiply-connected.
 THEOREM
Evaluation of a Contour Integral
If f is continuous on a smooth curve C given by
z (t ) = x(t ) + iy (t ), a  t  b , then
b
C f ( z ) d z = a f ( z (t )) z(t ) d t
 Example
Evaluate  zdz
C

where C is given by x = 3t , y = t 2 ,−1  t  4.

Solution
z (t ) = 3t + it 2 , z ' (t ) = 3 + 2it
f ( z (t )) = 3t + it 2 = 3t − it 2
4
Czdz = −1 (3t − it )(3 + 2it )dt
2
Thus,
4 4
=  (2t + 9t )dt + i  3t 2 dt = 195 + 65i
3
−1 −1
 Example
1
Evaluate  dz
Cz

where C is the circle x = cos t, y = sin t, 0  t  2.

Solution
z (t ) = cos t + i sin t = eit , z ' (t ) = ieit
1
f ( z ) = = e −it
z
1 2 −it it
Thus,  dz =  e ie dt = 2i
C
z 0
 Example
Evaluate C +
2 2
( x iy )dz
where C is the contour in Fig 1.
Solution
Fig-1
 Example Cont…
We have

C ( x + iy )dz =  ( x + iy )dz +  ( x + iy )dz

2 2 2 2 2 2
C1 C2

Since C1 is defined by y = x, then z(x) = x + ix, z’(x) = 1

+ i, f(z(x)) = x2 + ix2 , and
1
C ( x + iy )dz =  ( x 2 + ix 2 )(1 + i )dx
2 2
1 0

2 1 2 2
= (1 + i )  x dx = i
0 3
 Example Cont…

The curve C2 is defined by x = 1, 1  y  2. Then z(y)

= 1 + iy, z’(y) = i, f(z(y)) = 1 + iy2. Thus
2
C ( x + iy )dz =  (1 + iy 2 )idy
2 2
2 1

2 27
= −  y dy + i  dy = − + i
2
1 1 3
2 7 7 5
Finally,  ( x + iy )dz = i + (− + i ) = − + i
2 2
C 3 3 3 3
 THEOREM
A Bounding Theorem
If f is continuous on a smooth curve C and if f ( z )  M

for all z on C, then f ( z )dz  ML, where L is the length
c
of C.

❖This theorem is sometimes called the ML-inequality

 Cauchy-Goursat Theorem
❖Cauchy’s Theorem
Suppose that a function f is analytic in a simply
connected domain D and that f is continuous in D.
Then for every simple closed contour C in D,
 f ( z )dz = 0
C

THEOREM
Cauchy-Goursat Theorem

Suppose a function f is a analytic in a simply connected

domain D. Then for every simple closed C in D,
 f ( z) d z = 0
C
 Example
Evaluate C ezd z

where C is shown in Fig -2.

Solution
The function ez is entire and C is a simple closed
contour. Thus, the integral is zero.
 Example
dz
Evaluate  z
Cz

where C is the ellipse (x – 2)2 + (y – 5)2/4 = 1.

Solution
We find that 1/z2 is analytic except at z = 0 and z = 0 is
not a point interior to or on C. Thus the integral is zero.
 THEOREM
Analyticity Implies Path Independence
If f is an analytic function in a simply connected
domain D, thenC f ( z ) d z is independent of the path
C.
 Example
Evaluate C 2 z d z
where C is shown in the given below Figure.
 Example Cont…
Solution
Since f(z) = 2z is entire, we choose the path C1 to
replace C (see Figure). C1 is a straight line segment x =
− 1, 0  y 1 . Thus z = −1 + iy, dz = idy.

C2 zdz = C2 zdz

1
1 1
= −2 ydy − 2i  dy = −1 − 2i
0 0
 Cauchy Integral Formulas
THEOREM
Cauchy’s Integral Formula
Let f be analytic in a simply connected domain D, and
let C be a simple closed contour lying entirely within D.
If z0 is any point within C, then
1 f ( z)
2 i C z − z0
f ( z0 ) = d z (1)
❖A more practical restatement of Theorem is :

If f is analytic at all points within and on a simple

closed contour C, and z0 is any point interior to C,
then 1 f ( z)
f ( z0 ) = 
2 i C z − z0
dz
 Example
z2 − 4z + 4
Evaluate  dz
C z+i
where C is the circle |z| = 2.
Solution
First f = z2 – 4z + 4 is analytic and z0 = −i is within C.
Thus
z2 − 4z + 4
C z + i d z = 2 i f (−i) = 2 i(3 + 4i) = 2 (−4 + 3i)
 Example
z
Evaluate
C z 2 + 9 d z
where C is the circle |z – 2i | = 4.
Solution
See Fig 6. Only z = 3i is within C, and
z
z
= z + 3i
z 2 + 9 z − 3i
Fig 6
 Example Cont…
z
Let f ( z ) = , then
z + 3i
z
z + 3i
C z 2 + 9 d z = C z − 3i d z = 2 i f (3i) = 2 i 6i =  i
z 3i
 THEOREM
Cauchy’s Integral Formula
For Derivative
Let f be analytic in a simply connected domain D, and
let C be a simple closed contour lying entirely within D.
If z0 is any point within C, then
n! f ( z) (#)
( z0 ) = 
(n)
f +
dz
2 i C ( z − z0 ) n 1
 Example
z +1
Evaluate
C z 4 + 4 z 3 d z
where C is the circle |z| = 1.
Solution
This integrand is not analytic at z = 0, −4 but only z = 0
lies within C. Since z +1
z +1 z+4
=
z 4 + 4z3 z3
We get z0 = 0, n = 2, f(z) = (z + 1)/(z + 4), f (z) = −6/(z
+ 4)3. By the formula (#):
z +1 2 i 3
C z 4 + 4 z 3 d z = 2! f (0) = − 32 i

 Example
z 3
+3
Evaluate
C z ( z − i)2 d z
where C is shown in the given Figure.
 Example Cont…
Solution
Though C is not simple, we can think of it is as the
union of two simple closed contours C1 and C2 in Figure.

z3 + 3 z3 + 3 z+3
C z ( z − i)2 d z = C1 z ( z − i)2 d z + C2 z ( z − i)2 d z
z3 + 3 z +3
3

z ( z − i)2
=−  dz + C2 z ( z − i)2 d z
z
C1 z
= − I1 + I 2
 Example Cont…
For I1 : z0 = 0 , f(z) = (z3 + 3)/(z – i)2 :
z3 + 3
z ( z − i)2
I1 =  d z = 2 i f (0) = −6 i
C1 z
For I2 : z0 3= i, n = 1, f(z) = (z3 + 3)/z, f ’(z) = (2z3 –3 )/z2:
z +3
2 i
I2 =  z dz = f (i ) = −2 i(3 + 2i ) = 2 (−2 + 3i )
C2 ( z − i ) 2
1!
We get
z3 + 3
C z ( z − i)2 d z = − I1 + I 2 = 6 i + 2 (−2 + 3i) = 4 (−1 + 3i)
 THEOREM
Liouville’s Theorem

The only bounded entire functions are constants.

 Series and Residues

Contents
❖ 1 Series
❖ 2 Taylor Series
❖ 3 Laurent Series
❖ 4 Zeros and Poles
❖ 5 Residues and Residue Theorem
❖ 6 Evaluation of Real Integrals
 Series
❖An infinite series of complex numbers

 zk = z1 + z2 + ... + zn + ... (1)
k =1

is convergent if the sequence of partial sum {Sn},

where
S n = z1 + z2 + ... + zn
converges.
 Geometric Series
❖For the geometric Series

 az k −1
= a + az + az 2
+  + az n −1
+ (2)
k =1

the nth term of the sequence of partial sums is

S n = a + az + az 2 + ... + az n−1 (3)

and
a (1 − z n )
Sn = (4)
1− z
Since zn → 0 as n →  whenever |z| < 1, we conclude
that (2) converges to a/(1 – z) when |z| < 1 ; the series
diverges when |z|  1.
The special series
1
= 1 + z + z 2 + z3 +  (5)
1− z
1
= 1− z + z − z +
2 3
(6)
1+ z
valid for |z| < 1.
 THEOREM 4
Ratio Test
Suppose k =1 zk is a series of nonzero complex


terms such that

zn+1
lim =L (9)
n→ z
n
(i) If L < 1, then the series converges absolutely.
(ii) If L > 1 or L = , then the series diverges.
(iii) If L = 1, the test is inconclusive.
 THEOREM 5
Root Test
Suppose k =1 zk is a series of complex terms such that


lim n | zn | = L (10)
n→

(i) If L < 1, then the series converges absolutely.

(ii) If L > 1 or L = , then the series diverges.
(iii) If L = 1, the test is inconclusive.
 Power Series
❖An infinite series of the form

 ak ( z − z0 ) k
= a0 + a1 ( z − z0 ) + a2 ( z − z0 ) + ... , (11)
2

k =0

where ak are complex constants is called a power

series in z – z0. (11) is said to be centered at z0 and z0
is referred to the center of the series.
 Circle of Convergence


❖Every complex power series  k − k

a ( z z 0 ) has radius of
k =0
convergence R and has a circle of convergence
defined by |z – z0| = R, 0 < R < . See Fig 3.
❖The radius R can be
(i) zero (converges at only z = z0).
(ii) a finite number (converges at all interior points of
the circle |z − z0| = R).
(iii)  (converges for all z).

A power series may converge at some, all, or none of

the points on the circle of convergence.
 Taylor’s Theorem
THEOREM 9

Let f be analytic within a domain D and let z0 be a point

in D. Then f has the series representation

f ( k ) ( z0 )
f (z ) =  ( z − z0 ) k
k =0 k! (8)
valid for the largest circle C with center at z0 and radius
R that lies entirely within D.
❖Some important Maclurin series
2  k
z z z
e = 1+ + + = 
z (12)
1! 2! k =0 k!
 2 k +1
z3 z5 z
sin z = z − + −  =  (−1) k (13)
3! 5! k =0 (2k + 1)!

z2 z4 z 2k
cos z = 1 − + −  =  (−1) k (14)
2! 4! k =0 (2k )!
 3 Laurent Series
❖Isolated Singularities
Suppose z = z0 is a singularity of a complex function f.
z
For example, 2i and -2i are sigularities of f ( z ) =2
z +4
The point z0 is said to be an isolated singularity, if
there exists some deleted neighborhood or punctured
open disk 0 < |z – z0| < R throughout which is analytic.
 A New Kind of Series
❖About an isolated singularity, it is possible to
represent f by a new kind of series involving both
negative and nonnegative integer powers of z – z0;
that is
a−2 a−1
f ( z ) = ... + + + a0 +
( z − z0 ) 2
z − z0
a1 ( z − z0 ) + a2 ( z − z0 ) + ...
2
Using summation notation, we have
 
f ( z ) =  a− k ( z − z 0 ) − k +  a k ( z − z 0 ) k (1)
k =1 k =0

The part with negative powers is called the principal

part of (1) and will converge for |1/(z – z0)| < r* or
|z – z0| > 1/r* = r. The part with nonnegative powers
is called the analytic part of (1) and will converge for
|z – z0| < R. Hence the sum of these parts converges
when r < |z – z0| < R.
 THEOREM 10
Laurent’s Theorem
Let f be analytic within the annular domain D defined
by r  | z − z 0 |  R . Then f has the series representation


f ( z) = a (z − z )
k 0
k (3)
k = −
valid for r  | z − z0 |  R . The coefficients ak are given
by 1 f (s)
ak = 
2 i C ( s − z0 ) k +1
ds , k = 0 ,  1,  2 , ,
(4)
where C is a simple closed curve that lies entirely within
D and has z0 in its interior. (see Figure 6)
Fig 6
Example
Example
 Example
8z + 1
Expand f ( z) = in a Laurent series valid
z (1 − z )
for 0 < |z| < 1.
Solution
(a) We can write

f ( z) =
8z + 1 8z + 1 1
z (1 − z )
=
z 1− z
1
 
= (8 + ) 1 + z + z + ...
z
2

1
= + 9 + 9 z + 9 z + ...
2
z
 Example
1
Expand f ( z ) = z ( z − 1) in a Laurent series valid
for 1 < |z – 2| < 2.
Solution
(a) See Fig 9
 Example Cont…
The center z = 2 is a point of analyticity of f . We want
to find two series involving integer powers of z – 2; one
converging for 1 < |z – 2| and the other converging for
|z – 2| < 2.
1 1
f ( z) = − + = f1 ( z ) + f 2 ( z )
z z −1
1 1 1 1
f1 ( z ) = − = − =−
z 2+ z−2 21 + z − 2
2
 Example Cont…

1  z − 2  z − 2  z − 2 
2 3
= − 1 − +  −  + ...
2 2  2   2  
1 z − 2 ( z − 2) 2 ( z − 2 ) 3
=− + 2 − 3
+ 4
− ...
2 2 2 2
This series converges for |(z – 2)/2| < 1 or |z – 2| < 2.
 Example Cont…
1 1 1 1
f2 ( z) = = =
z − 1 1 + z − 2 z − 21 + 1
z−2
1  1 
2
1   1 
3

= 1 − +  −  + ...
z − 2 z − 2  z − 2  z − 2 
1 1 1
= − + − ...
z − 2 ( z − 2) ( z − 2)
2 3

This series converges for |1/(z – 2)| < 1 or 1 < |z – 2|.

Singularities
 Isolated Singularity
❖Introduction
Suppose that z = z0 is an isolated singularity of f and
  
a
f ( z ) =  ak ( z − z0 ) k =  −k
+  a ( z − z ) k
(1)
k =1 ( z − z0 )
k k 0
k = − k =0

is the Laurent series of f valid for 0 < |z – z0| < R. The

principal part of (1) is
 
a−k
 a−k ( z − z0 ) −k
=
( z − z ) k
(2)
k =1 k =1 0
 Classification
(i) If the principal part is zero, z = z0 is called a
removable singularity.
(ii) If the principal part contains a finite number of
terms, then z = z0 is called a pole. If the last
nonzero coefficient is a-n, n  1, then we say it is a
pole of order n. A pole of order 1 is commonly
called a simple pole.
(iii) If the principal part contains infinitely many
nonzero terms, z = z0 is called an essential
singularity.
Overview:
Overview: Removable Singulrity
Overview: Pole
Overview: Essential Singularity
 Example 1
We form
sin z z2 z4
= 1− + − (2)
z 3! 5!
that z = 0 is a removable singularity.
 Example 2
(a) From
sin z 1 z z 3
2
= − + − ...
z z 3! 5!
0 < |z|. Thus z = 0 is a simple pole.
Moreover, (sin z)/z3 has a pole of order 2.
Zeros
 Example 3
❖The analytic function f(z) = z sin z2 has a zero at z = 0,
because f(0)=0.
6 10
z z
sin z = z − +
2 2
− ...
3! 5!
 z
4
z
8

f ( z ) = z sin z = z 1 − + − ...
2 3

 3! 5! 
hence z = 0 is a zero of order 3, because f (0) = 0, f (0) = 0,

f (0) = 0 but f (0)  0 .
(3)
 THEOREM 11
Pole of Order n
If the functions f and g are analytic at z = z0 and f has a
zero of order n at z = z0 and g(z0)  0, then the function
F(z) = g(z)/f(z) has a pole of order n at z = z0.
 Example 4
(a) Inspection of the rational function
2z + 5
F ( z) =
( z − 1)( z + 5)( z − 2) 4
shows that the denominator has zeros of order 1 at z =
1 and z = −5, and a zero of order 4 at z = 2. Since the
numerator is not zero at these points, F(z) has simple
poles at z = 1 and z = −5 and a pole of order 4 at z = 2.
 5 Residues and Residue Theorem

❖Residue
The coefficient a-1 of 1/(z – z0) in the Laurent series is
called the residue of the function f at the isolated
singularity. We use this notation
a-1 = Res(f(z), z0)
 Example 1
(a) z = 1 is a pole of order 2 of f(z) = 1/(z – 1)2(z – 3).
The coefficient of 1/(z – 1) is a-1 = −¼ .
 THEOREM 12
Residue at a Simple Pole
If f has a simple pole at z = z0, then
Res( f ( z ) , z0 ) = lim ( z − z0 ) f ( z )
z → z0 (1)
 THEOREM 12
Proof
Since z = z0 is a simple pole, we have
a−1
f ( z) = + a0 + a1 ( z − z0 ) + a2 ( z − z0 ) 2 + ...
z − z0
lim ( z − z0 ) f ( z )
z → z0

= lim [a−1 + a0 ( z − z0 ) + a1 ( z − z0 ) 2 + ...]

z → z0

= a−1 = Re s( f ( z ), z0 )
 THEOREM 13
Residue at a Pole of Order n
If f has a pole of order n at z = z0, then
1 d n−1
Res( f ( z ) , z0 ) = lim n−1 ( z − z0 ) n f ( z ) (2)
(n − 1)! z → z0 dz
 Example 2
The function f(z) = 1/(z – 1)2(z – 3) has a pole of order 2
at z = 1. Find the residues.
Solution

1 d d 1
Res( f ( z ), 1) = lim ( z − 1) f ( z ) = lim
2

1! z →1 dz z →1 dz z − 3

−1 1
= lim =−
z →1 ( z − 3) 2
4
 Approach for a simple pole
❖If f can be written as f(z)= g(z)/h(z) and has a simple
pole at z0 (note that h(z0) = 0), then
g ( z0 )
Res( f ( z ) , z0 ) = (4)
h( z0 )
because

g ( z) g ( z) g ( z0 )
lim ( z − z0 ) = lim =
z → z0 h ( z ) z → z0 h ( z ) − h ( z 0 ) h ' ( z 0 )
z − z0
 Example 3
❖The polynomial z4 + 1 can be factored as (z – z1)(z –
z2)(z – z3)(z – z4). Thus the function f = 1/(z4 + 1) has
four simple poles. We can show that

z1 = ei / 4 , z2 = e3i / 4 , z3 = e5i / 4 , z4 = e7i / 4

1 1 −3i / 4 1 1
Re s( f ( z ), z1 ) = 3 = e =− − i
4 z1 4 4 2 4 2
 Example 3 (2)

1 1 −9i / 4 1 1
Re s( f ( z ), z2 ) = 3
= e = − i
4 z2 4 4 2 4 2
1 1 −15i / 4 1 1
Re s( f ( z ), z3 ) = 3
= e = + i
4 z3 4 4 2 4 2
1 1 −21i / 4 1 1
Re s( f ( z ), z4 ) = 3
= e =− + i
4 z4 4 4 2 4 2
 THEOREM 15
Cauchy’s Residue Theorem

Let D be a simply connected domain and C a simply

closed contour lying entirely within D. If a function f is
analytic on and within C, except at a finite number of
singular points z1, z2, …, zn within C, then
n
(5)
 f ( z )dz = 2 i Re s( f ( z ) , zk )
C
k =1
Fig 10
 Example 4
1
Evaluate c ( z − 1)2 ( z − 3) d z where the contour C is

the circle |z|= 2

Solution:
Since only the pole z = 1 lies within the circle, then
there is only one singular point z=1 within C, from (5)
1
C ( z − 1)2 ( z − 3) dz = 2 i Res( f ( z ) , 1)
 1 
= 2 i  −  = − i
 4 2
Thank you…