FST-4107 Research Projects and Scientific Writing (W12)

Mr. Haris Ayub

Lecturer
Department of Food Science & Technology
School of Food and Agricultural Sciences (SFAS)
Email: [email protected] | Office: STD-502/#7
 Week X1
Lecture 24

Research Methodology and Methods

CLO 5: Execute the knowledge to gather literature from different authentic sources
and manage the citations
Contents will be discussed in lecture:
▪ Steps involved in research methodology planning and execution, guidelines on each
step
 Research Design
Research design is the framework of research
methods and techniques chosen by a researcher to
conduct a study
 Types of Research Design
Qualitative research designs- more flexible, adjustable approach
based on what you find throughout the research process, focuses on
obtaining data through open-ended and conversational communication
This method is about “what” people think and “why” they think so
 Types of Research Design
Quantitative research more specific as possible, involve collecting
numerical data to measure variables and their effects

Descriptive and corre

lational designs allow
Experimental designs
to measure variables
allow to test cause-and-
and describe
effect relationships
relationships between
them
 Characteristics of Research Design

Uniformity Neutrality Reliability Validity Generalization

Practical & Ethical Considerations

✓How much time do you have to collect data and write up the
research?
✓Will you be able to gain access to the data you need (e.g., by travelling
to a specific location or contacting specific people)?
✓Do you have the necessary research skills (e.g., statistical analysis or
interview techniques)?
✓Will you need ethical approval?
 Research Population & Sampling
A population is the entire group that you want to draw conclusions about

A population can be made up of anything you want to study plants,

animals, organizations, texts, countries, etc. In the social sciences, it most
often refers to a group of people

Sampling methods
▪It’s rarely possible to collect data from every individual
▪To select a sample, there are two main approaches:
 Instrument for Data Collection
Anything that becomes a means of collecting information for your
study is called a ‘research tool’ or ‘research instrument’

Two major approaches to gathering information

primary data sourcing secondary data sourcing

Participants
Observation
Primary Data Collection

Non-Participants

Structured
Sources

Interview
Unstructured

Mailed Questions
Questionnaire
Collective Questions
 Data Collection Sources
• Observation is a purposeful, systematic and selective way of
watching and listening to an interaction or phenomenon as it takes
place
As a researcher, participate in the
Participants
research activities observed in the
Observation same manner as its members

Non-Participant
Do not get involved in the activities
of the group but remain a passive
observer

Observations can be made under two conditions

Natural Conditions: Observing a

Controlled: Introducing a stimulus to
group in its natural operation rather
the group for it to react to and observing
than intervening in its activities under
the reaction
natural conditions
 Recording Observations
• researcher records a description of the
1. Narrative
interaction in his/her own words by making brief
Recording
notes
Advantage • it provides a deeper insight into the interaction
Disadvantage • observer may be biased in his/her observation

• At times some observers may prefer to develop

a scale in order to rate various aspects of the
2. Using interaction
scales
• A scale may be one-, two- or three-directional,
depending upon the purpose of the observation
Advantage: do not need to spend time on
taking detailed notes
Disadvantage: does not provide specific
and in-depth information
 Recording Observations
3. Recording on electronic devices
Observation can also be recorded on videotape or other electronic
devices and then analysed

Recording interactions allows for multiple viewings and can involve

other professionals for more objective conclusions

One disadvantage of using a camera is that some people may feel

uncomfortable or behave differently, leading to an interaction that
doesn't reflect the true situation
Errors of Recording Observations

Error of Central Elevation Effect Halo Effect

Tendency When observers have Error that may be
Unless the observer is a tendency to use a introduced is when the
extremely confident of particular part of the way an observer rates
his/her ability to assess scale in recording an an individual on one
an interaction, he may aspect of the
interaction interaction influences
tend to avoid the
extreme positions on the way s/he rates that
the scale, using mostly individual on another
the central part aspect of the
interaction
 Interview
Interviewing is a method of collecting information from people
 Questionnaire
A questionnaire is a
written list of
questions, the
answers to which are
recorded by
respondents.

Type of questions
❖Close-ended questions provide options to
the respondents and require them to choose one or
more items from the list (options are limited)

❖Open-ended questions allow the respondent

to express their opinions freely and they are not
restricted by the options (answer options are
multiple and unknown)
Ways of Administering a Questionnaire
▪ Mailed questionnaire: most common approach to collecting
information is to send the questionnaire to prospective respondents by
mail
❖Must be accompanied by a covering letter
❖low response rate
❖Findings have very limited applicability

▪ Collective administration: One of the best ways of administering a

questionnaire is to obtain a captive audience such as students in a
classroom
❖High response rate

▪ Administration in a public place: Researcher can administer a

questionnaire in a public place such as a shopping centre, hospital etc.
 Formulating Effective Questions
▪ Always use simple language
▪ Do not use ambiguous questions
Be as specific as possible when asking a question. For
example, terms such as “frequent”, “always” and “often”
may mean different things to different people
▪ Order of question
• The order of the questions should flow in a logical sequence
• Start with simple questions before moving to complex questions
▪ Filtering In a questionnaire which has many parts, answer only the
relevant questions
 Formulating Effective Questions
▪ Do not ask double-barrelled questions (question within a
question)
▪ Do not ask leading questions (by its contents, structure
or wording, leads a respondent to answer in a certain
direction)

▪ Pictorial Questions: Respondents are asked a question, and the

answer choices are images
▪ Dichotomous Questions: The dichotomous question is generally a
“yes/no” close-ended question
▪ Scaling Questions: These questions are based on the principles of
the four measurement scales
Advantages of a Well Designed Online
Questionaire
 What Is A Good Questionnaire?
Valid
• A valid questionnaire should ask what it intends to ask
Reliable
• A reliable questionnaire should yield the same answer if the same question is
posed to the respondent repeatedly in a short span of time
Interesting
• An interesting questionnaire is more likely to be completed by the
respondent and hence yields a better response rate
Format
• The final “touch-up” of the questionnaire is important because the “look”
of the questionnaire may decide whether the respondent is going to fill it
up or not
• The title should be highlighted and it should reflect the main objective of
the research
• If your respondents involve older persons, bigger font size should be used
 What Is A Good Questionnaire?
Pilot test
• First, ask you colleagues, family or friends to comment on the
questionnaire (To pick up any mistakes)
• It will help to detect flaws in the questionnaire in terms of content,
grammar and format
Collecting Data Using Secondary Sources

▪ Both qualitative and quantitative research use secondary sources as

a method of data collection

▪ The following are secondary data sources grouped into categories:

❖Government or semi-government publications

❖Earlier research

❖Personal records – Some people write historical and personal records

(e.g. diaries) that may provide the information you need.

❖Mass media reports published in newspapers, in magazines, on the

Internet etc.
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