3.

2 Some Good Practices in Lighting

Installation of energy efficient fluorescent lamps in place of "Conventional" fluorescent lamps.

Energy efficient lamps are based on the highly sophisticated tri-phosphor fluorescent powder
technology. They offer excellent colour rendering properties in addition to the very high luminous
efficacy

3.2.1 Installation of Compact Fluorescent Lamps (CFL's) in place of incandescent lamps.

Compact fluorescent lamps are generally considered best for replacement of lower wattage
incandescent lamps. These lamps have efficacy ranging from 55 to 65 lumens/Watt. The average rated
lamp life is 10,000 hours, which is 10 times longer than that of a normal incandescent lamps. CFL's are
highly suitable for places such as Living rooms, Hotel lounges, Bars, Restaurants, Pathways, Building
entrances, Corridors, etc.

3,2,2 Installation of metal halide lamps in place of mercury / sodium vapour lamps.

Metal halide lamps provide high color rendering index when compared with mercury & sodium
vapour lamps. These lamps offer efficient white light. Hence, metal halide is the choice for colour critical
applications where, higher illumination levels are required. These lamps are highly suitable for
applications such as assembly line, inspection areas, painting shops, etc. It is recommended to install
metal halide lamps where colour rendering is more critical.

3.2.3 Installation of High Pressure Sodium Vapour (HPSV) lamps for applications where colour
rendering is not critical.

High pressure sodium vapour (HPSV) lamps offer more efficacy. But the colour rendering
property of HPSV is very low. Hence, it is recommended to install HPSV lamps for applications such
street lighting, yard lighting, etc.

3.2.4 Installation of LED panel indicator lamps in place of filament lamps.

 Panel indicator lamps are used widely in industries for monitoring, fault indication, signaling, etc.
Conventionally filament lamps are used for the purpose, which has got the following disadvantages:

• High energy consumption (15 W/lamp)

• Failure of lamps is high (Operating life less than 1,000 hours)

• Very sensitive to the voltage fluctuations Recently, the conventional filament lamps are being
replaced with Light Emitting Diodes (LEDs). The LEDs have the following merits over the filament
lamps.

• Lesser power consumption (Less than 1 W/lamp)

• Withstand high voltage fluctuation in the power supply.

• Longer operating life (more than 1,00,000 hours)

It is recommended to install LEDs for panel indicator lamps at the design stage.

3.3 Light distribution

Energy efficiency cannot be obtained by mere selection of more efficient lamps alone. Efficient
luminaires along with the lamp of high efficacy achieve the optimum efficiency. Mirror- optic luminaires
with a high output ratio and bat-wing light distribution can save energy.

For achieving better efficiency, luminaires that are having light distribution characteristics
appropriate for the task interior should be selected. The luminaires fitted with a lamp should ensure that
discomfort glare and veiling reflections are minimised. Installation of suitable luminaires, depends upon
the height - Low, Medium & High Bay. Luminaires for high intensity discharge lamp are classified as
follows:

• Low bay, for heights less than 5 metres.

• Medium bay, for heights between 5 – 7 metres.

• High bay, for heights greater than 7 metres.

System layout and fixing of the luminaires play a major role in achieving energy efficiency. This also
varies from application to application. Hence, fixing the luminaires at optimum height and usage of
mirror optic luminaries leads to energy efficiency.

Light Control

The simplest and the most widely used form of controlling a lighting installation is "On-Off"
switch. The initial investment for this set up is extremely low, but the resulting operational costs may be
high. This does not provide the flexibility to control the lighting, where it is not required.

Hence, a flexible lighting system has to be provided, which will offer switch-off or reduction in lighting
level, when not needed. The following light control systems can be adopted at design stage:

Grouping of lighting system, to provide greater flexibility in lighting control

Grouping of lighting system, which can be controlled manually or by timer control.

Installation of microprocessor based controllers

Another modern method is usage of microprocessor / infrared controlled dimming or switching

circuits. The lighting control can be obtained by using logic units located in the ceiling, which can take
pre-programme commands and activate specified lighting circuits. Advanced lighting control system uses
movement detectors or lighting sensors, to feed signals to the controllers.

Optimum usage of day lighting

Whenever the orientation of a building permits, day lighting can be used in

combination with electric lighting. This should not introduce glare or a severe imbalance of
brightness in visual environment. Usage of day lighting (in offices/air conditioned halls) will
have to be very limited, because the air conditioning load will increase on account of the
increased solar heat dissipation into the area. In many cases, a switching method, to enable
reduction of electric light in the window zones during certain hours, has to be designed.

Installation of "exclusive" transformer for lighting

 In most of the industries, lighting load varies between 2 to 10%. Most of the problems faced by
the lighting equipment and the "gears" is due to the "voltage" fluctuations. Hence, the lighting equipment
has to be isolated from the power feeders. This provides a better voltage regulation for the lighting. This
will reduce the voltage related problems, which in turn increases the efficiency of the lighting system.

Installation of servo stabilizer for lighting feeder

Wherever, installation of exclusive transformer for lighting is not economically attractive, servo
stabilizer can be installed for the lighting feeders. This will provide stabilized voltage for the lighting
equipment. The performance of "gears" such as chokes, ballasts, will also improved due to the stabilized
voltage. This set up also provides, the option to optimise the voltage level fed to the lighting feeder. In
many plants, during the non-peaking hours, the voltage levels are on the higher side. During this period,
voltage can be optimised, without any significant drop in the illumination level.

Installation of high frequency (HF) electronic ballasts in place of conventional ballasts

New high frequency (28–32 kHz) electronic ballasts have the following advantages over the
traditional magnetic ballasts:

Energy savings up to 35%

Less heat dissipation, which reduces the air conditioning load

• Lights instantly
• Improved power factor
• Operates in low voltage load
• Less in weight
• Increases the life of lamp
3.4 WATTMETERS

The wattmeter is an instrument for measuring the electric power (or the supply rate of electrical
energy) in watts of any given circuit. Electromagnetic wattmeters are used for measurement of utility
frequency and audio frequency power; other types are required for radio frequency measurements.

3.4.1 Construction of a Wattmeter

The internal construction of a wattmeter is such that it consists of two cols. One of the coil is in
series and the other is connected in parallel. The coil that is connected in series with the circuit is known
as the current coil and the one that is connected in parallel with the circuit is known as the voltage coil.
These coils are named according to the convention because the current of the circuit passes through the
current coil and the voltage is dropped across the potential coil, also named as the voltage coil. The needle
that is supposed to move on the marked scale to indicate the amount of power is also attached to the
potential coil. The reason for this is that the potential coil is allowed to move whereas the current coil is
kept fixed. The mechanical construction of a wattmeter is shown in the Fig. 3.1 below.

Fig. 3.1: Construction of a Wattmeter

3.4.2 Working of a Wattmeter

When the current passes through the current coil, it creates an electromagnetic field around the
coil. The strength of this electromagnetic field is directly proportional to the amount of current passing
through it. In case of DC current, the current is also in phase with its generated electromagnetic field. The
voltage is dropped across the potential coil and as a result of this complete process, the needle moves
across the scale. The needle deflection is such that it is according to the product of the current passing and
the voltage dropped, that is, P = VI.

This was the case of DC power. We know that the AC power is given by the formula P = VIcosθ,
and we know that this cosθ factor is because of the fact that the current and voltage are not in phase. The
measurement principle of wattmeter is shown in the Fig. 3.2 below:
Fig. 3.2 Principle of Wattmeter

3.4.3 Applications of Wattmeter

1. As other measuring instruments, watt meters are also used extensively in electrical circuit measurement
and debugging.

2. They are also used in industries to check the power rating and consumption of electrical appliances.

3. Electromagnetic watt meters are used to measure utility frequencies.

4. They are used with refrigerators, electric heaters and other equipment to measure their power ratings

3.5 Data loggers

A data logger (also data logger or data recorder) is an electronic device that records data over
time or in relation to location either with a built in instrument or sensor or via external instruments and
sensors. Increasingly, but not entirely, they are based on a digital processor (or computer). They generally
are small, battery powered, portable, and equipped with a microprocessor, internal memory for data
storage, and sensors. Some data loggers interface with a personal computer, and use software to activate
the data logger and view and analyze the collected data, while others have a local interface device
(keypad, LCD) and can be used as a stand-alone device.

Data loggers vary between general purpose types for a range of measurement applications to very specific
devices for measuring in one environment or application type only. It is common for general purpose
types to be programmable; however, many remain as static machines with only a limited number or no
changeable parameters. Electronic data loggers have replaced chart recorders in many applications

Applications of data logging include:

 Unattended weather station recording (such as wind speed / direction, temperature,

relative humidity, solar radiation).
 Unattended hydrographic recording (such as water level, water depth, water flow,
 water pH, water conductivity).
 Unattended soil moisture level recording.
 Unattended gas pressure recording.
 Offshore buoys for recording a variety of environmental conditions.
 Road traffic counting.
 Measure variations in light intensity.
 Process monitoring for maintenance and troubleshooting applications.

3.6 Thermocouple

A thermocouple is an electrical device consisting of two dissimilar electrical conductors forming

electrical junctions at differing temperatures. A thermocouple produces a temperature- dependent voltage
as a result of the thermoelectric effect, and this voltage can be interpreted to measure temperature.
Thermocouples are a widely used type of temperature sensor.

Thermocouples are widely used in science and industry. Applications include temperature
measurement for kilns, gas turbine exhaust, diesel engines, and other industrial processes. Thermocouples
are also used in homes, offices and businesses as the temperature sensors in thermostats, and also as flame
sensors in safety devices for gas-powered appliances.

The standard configuration for thermocouple usage is shown in the figure. Briefly, the desired
temperature Tsense is obtained using three inputs—the characteristic function E(T) of the thermocouple,
the measured voltage V, and the reference junctions' temperature Tref. The solution to the equation
E(Tsense) = V + E(Tref) yields Tsense. These details are often hidden from the user since the reference
junction block (with Tref thermometer), voltmeter, and equation solver are combined into a single
product.

A thermocouple produces small signals, often microvolts in magnitude. Precise measurements of

this signal require an amplifier with low input offset voltage and with care taken to avoid thermal emfs
from self-heating within the voltmeter itself. If the thermocouple wire has a high resistance for some
reason (poor contact at junctions, or very thin wires used for fast thermal response), the measuring
instrument should have high input impedance to prevent an offset in the measured voltage. A useful
feature in thermocouple instrumentation will simultaneously measure resistance and detect faulty
connections in the wiring or at thermocouple junctions.

Applications

Thermocouples are suitable for measuring over a large temperature range, from −270 up to 3000
°C (for a short time, in inert atmosphere). Applications include temperature measurement for kilns, gas
turbine exhaust, diesel engines, other industrial processes and fog machines. They are less suitable for
applications where smaller temperature differences need to be measured with high accuracy, for example
the range 0–100 °C with 0.1 °C accuracy. For such applications thermistors, silicon bandgap temperature
sensors and resistance thermometers are more suitable.

 Steel industry
 Gas appliance safety
 Thermopile radiation sensors
 Power production

3.7 Pyrometers
A pyrometer is a type of remote-sensing thermometer used to measure the temperature of a
surface. Various forms of pyrometers have historically existed. In the modern usage, it is a device that
from a distance determines the temperature of a surface from the spectrum of the thermal radiation it
emits, a process known as pyrometry and sometimes radiometry.

Design

A modern pyrometer has an optical system and a detector. The optical system focuses the thermal
radiation onto the detector. The output signal of the detector (temperature T) is related to the thermal
radiation or irradiance j* of the target object through the Stefan– Boltzmann law, the constant of
proportionality σ, called the Stefan-Boltzmann constant and the emissivity ε of the object.

J=εσT4

This output is used to infer the object's temperature from a distance, with no need for the pyrometer to be
in thermal contact with the object; most other thermometers (e.g. thermocouples and resistance
temperature detectors (RTDs)) are placed in thermal contact with the object, and allowed to reach thermal
equilibrium. Pyrometry of gases presents difficulties. These are most commonly overcome by using thin
filament pyrometry or soot pyrometry. Both techniques involve small solids in contact with hot gases

Applications

Pyrometers are suited especially to the measurement of moving objects or any surfaces that can
not be reached or cannot be touched. Thermocouples were the traditional devices used for this purpose,
but they are unsuitable for continuous measurement because they melt and degrade.

 Salt bath
 steam boiler
 hot air balloon
 gas turbine
3.8 Lux meter

The lux (symbol: lx) is the SI derived unit of illuminance and luminous emittance, measuring
luminous flux per unit area. It is equal to one lumen per square metre. In photometry, this is used as a
measure of the intensity, as perceived by the human eye, of light that hits or passes through a surface. It is
analogous to the radiometric unit watt per square metre, but with the power at each wavelength weighted
according to the luminosity function, a standardized model of human visual brightness perception. In
English, "lux" is used as both the singular and plural form.

A candela is a fixed amount, roughly equivalent to the brightness of one candle. While the
candela is a unit of energy, it has an equivalent unit known as the lumen, which measures the same light
in terms of its perception by the human eye. One lumen is equivalent to the light produced in one
direction from a light source rated at one candela. The lux takes into account the surface area over which
this light is spread, which affects how bright it appears. One lux equals one lumen of light spread across a
surface one square meter.A lux meter works by using a photo cell to capture light. The meter then
converts this light to an electrical current. Measuring this current allows the device to calculate the lux
value of the light it captured.

3.9 Tong Tester(clamp Meter)

In electrical and electronic engineering, a current clamp or current probe is an electrical device
with jaws which open to allow clamping around an electrical conductor. This allows measurement of the
current in a conductor without the need to make physical contact with it, or to disconnect it for insertion
through the probe. Current clamps are typically used to read the magnitude of alternating current (AC)
and, with additional instrumentation, the phase and waveform can also be measured. Some clamps meters
can measure currents of 1000 A and more. Hall effect and vane type clamps can also measure direct
current (DC).

An electrical meter with integral AC current clamp is known as a clamp meter, clamp-on
ammeter or tong tester. A clamp meter measures the vector sum of the currents flowing in all the
conductors passing through the probe, which depends on the phase relationship of the currents. Only one
conductor is normally passed through the probe. In particular if the clamp is closed around a two-
conductor cable carrying power to equipment, the same current flows down one conductor and up the
other; the meter correctly reads a net current of zero. As electrical cables for equipment have both
insulated conductors (and possibly an earth wire) bonded together, clamp meters are often used with what
is essentially a short extension cord with the two conductors separated, so that the clamp can be placed
around only one conductor of this extension.

A relatively recent development was a multi-conductor clamp meter with several sensor coils
around the jaws of the clamp. This could be clamped around standard two- or three- conductor single-
phase cables to provide a readout of the current flowing through the load, with no need to separate the
conductors. The reading produced by a conductor carrying a very low current can be increased by
winding the conductor around the clamp several times; the meter reading divided by the number of turns
is the current, with some loss of accuracy due to inductive effects. Clamp meters are used by electricians,
sometimes with the clamp incorporated into a general purpose multimeter.

` It is simple to measure very high currents (hundreds of amperes) with the appropriate current
transformer. Accurate measurement of low currents (a few milliamperes) with a current transformer
clamp is more difficult. The range of any given meter can be extended by passing the conductor through
the jaw multiple times. For example a 0–200 A meter can be turned into a 0–20 A meter by winding the
conductor 10 times around the jaw's core

3.10 Applications of PLC

Principle of Programmable Logic Controller:

Programmable Logic Controllers are used for continuously monitoring the input values
from sensors and produces the outputs for the operation of actuators based on the program.
Every PLC system comprises these three modules as shown in Fig. 3.3.
 CPU module
  Power supply module
 One or more I/O module

Fig. 3.3: PLC system

Applications of Programmable Logic Controller (PLC)

The PLC can be used in industrial departments of all the developed countries in industries like
chemical industry, automobile industry, steel industry and electricity industry. Based on the development
of all these technologies, functionality and application, the scope of the PLC increases dramatically.

3.10.1 Application of PLC in Glass Industry

From the year 1980 the Programmable-logic controllers are in use in the glass industry, and they
are assembled bit by bit. PLCs are used mainly in every procedure and workshop for controlling the
material ratio, processing of flat glasses, etc.

With the development of PLC and increasing demand in the real world, the control mode of the
programmable-logic controller with an intelligent device is applied in the glass industry. In making of a
float glass, PLC itself cannot finish some controlling tasks because of the complexity of the control
system and processing of huge data. For the production of glass, we make use of bus technology to
construct the control mode of a PLC with a distributed-control system. This control system deals with
analog controlling and data recording; the PLC is also used for digital quality control and position control.
This type of control mode is a big advantage for PLC and DCS for improving reliability and flexibility of
the control system.
3.10.2Applications of PLC in Cement Industry

Along with the best-quality raw materials, the accurate data regarding process variables,
especially during mixing processes within the kiln, ensures that the output provided should be of the best
possible quality. Nowadays a DCS with bus technology is used in the production and management
industry. By using this existing DCS control system, the PLC is in user mode of SCADA. This mode
comprises PLC and configuration software. This SCADA mode comprises the PLC and host computer.
The host computer consists of slave and master station. The PLC is used for controlling the ball milling,
shaft kiln and Kiln of coal.

IMPORTANT QUESTIONS

1. Write a short notes on the Tong testers & Data loggers

2. Write short notes on the a) Pyrometers b) wattmeter c) Thermocouples

3. Explain in brief about Lighting Energy Audit.

4. Discuss about Applications of PLC’s.

5.Write a short notes on Energy Instruments & lux meters.

6.Enumerate the following : Lighting control

7.Illustrate important points that to be considered for good lighting design and practice